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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Measuring intensity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measuring_intensity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_the_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_the_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History of the theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_the_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Occurrences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions_with_planetary_processes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_with_planetary_processes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Interactions with planetary processes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interactions_with_planetary_processes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instruments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instruments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Instruments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instruments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomagnetic_storm_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomagnetic_storm_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Geomagnetic storm effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geomagnetic_storm_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Geomagnetic storm effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Geomagnetic_storm_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disruption_of_electrical_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disruption_of_electrical_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Disruption of electrical systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disruption_of_electrical_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Main_electrical_grid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_electrical_grid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Main electrical grid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_electrical_grid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Communications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navigation_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navigation_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.3</span> <span>Navigation systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navigation_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Satellite_hardware_damage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Satellite_hardware_damage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Satellite hardware damage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Satellite_hardware_damage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pipelines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pipelines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Pipelines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pipelines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_hazards_to_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_hazards_to_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Radiation hazards to humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_hazards_to_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effect_on_animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effect_on_animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Effect on animals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effect_on_animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomagnetic storm</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%81%D8%A9_%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A3%D8%B1%D8%B6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="عاصفة مغناطيسية أرضية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عاصفة مغناطيسية أرضية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tormenta_xeomagn%C3%A9tica" title="Tormenta xeomagnética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tormenta xeomagnética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Геомагнитна буря – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Геомагнитна буря" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempesta_geomagn%C3%A8tica" title="Tempesta geomagnètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tempesta geomagnètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetick%C3%A1_bou%C5%99e" title="Magnetická bouře – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Magnetická bouře" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solstorm" title="Solstorm – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Solstorm" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetischer_Sturm" title="Magnetischer Sturm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Magnetischer Sturm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetiline_torm" title="Geomagnetiline torm – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Geomagnetiline torm" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%B9%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1" title="Ηλιακή καταιγίδα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηλιακή καταιγίδα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tormenta_geomagn%C3%A9tica" title="Tormenta geomagnética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tormenta geomagnética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaitz_geomagnetiko" title="Ekaitz geomagnetiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ekaitz geomagnetiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%98%D8%A6%D9%88%D9%85%D8%BA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B7%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="طوفان ژئومغناطیسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="طوفان ژئومغناطیسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orage_magn%C3%A9tique" title="Orage magnétique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Orage magnétique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoirm_mhaighn%C3%A9adach" title="Stoirm mhaighnéadach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Stoirm mhaighnéadach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A7%80%EC%9E%90%EA%B8%B0_%ED%8F%AD%ED%92%8D" title="지자기 폭풍 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="지자기 폭풍" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%83%D5%B8%D5%A9%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Մագնիսական փոթորիկներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մագնիսական փոթորիկներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BE" title="भूचुम्बकीय झंझा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूचुम्बकीय झंझा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetska_oluja" title="Geomagnetska oluja – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Geomagnetska oluja" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badai_geomagnetik" title="Badai geomagnetik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Badai geomagnetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempesta_solare" title="Tempesta solare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tempesta solare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%94_%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="סערה גאומגנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="סערה גאומגנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA_%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B%D0%BB" title="Геомагниттік дауыл – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Геомагниттік дауыл" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahoza_jeomanyet%C3%AEk" title="Bahoza jeomanyetîk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bahoza jeomanyetîk" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82_%D0%B1%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Магнит бороону – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Магнит бороону" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geom%C3%A1gneses_vihar" title="Geomágneses vihar – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Geomágneses vihar" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="გეომაგნიტური წალიკონი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="გეომაგნიტური წალიკონი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribut_geomagnetik" title="Ribut geomagnetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ribut geomagnetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetische_storm" title="Magnetische storm – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Magnetische storm" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A3%81%E6%B0%97%E5%B5%90" title="磁気嵐 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="磁気嵐" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geomagnetisk_storm" title="Geomagnetisk storm – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Geomagnetisk storm" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetisk_storm" title="Magnetisk storm – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Magnetisk storm" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burza_magnetyczna" title="Burza magnetyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Burza magnetyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempestade_geomagn%C3%A9tica" title="Tempestade geomagnética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tempestade geomagnética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Furtun%C4%83_geomagnetic%C4%83" title="Furtună geomagnetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Furtună geomagnetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%80%D1%8F" title="Геомагнитная буря – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Геомагнитная буря" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_magnetic_storms" title="Solar magnetic storms – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Solar magnetic storms" data-language-autonym="Simple English" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Disturbance of the Earth's magnetosphere</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Magnetic storm" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storm_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Magnetic storm (disambiguation)">Magnetic storm (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/390px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg" decoding="async" width="390" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/585px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg/780px-Magnetosphere_rendition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Artist's depiction of solar wind particles interacting with Earth's <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a>. Sizes are not to scale.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>geomagnetic storm</b>, also known as a <b>magnetic storm</b>, is a temporary disturbance of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">magnetosphere</a> caused by a <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a> shock wave. </p><p>The disturbance that drives the magnetic storm may be a solar <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejection</a> (CME) or (much less severely) a <a href="/wiki/Corotating_interaction_region" title="Corotating interaction region">corotating interaction region</a> (CIR), a high-speed stream of solar wind originating from a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">coronal hole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frequency of geomagnetic storms increases and decreases with the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Wolf number">sunspot</a> cycle. During <a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">solar maxima</a>, geomagnetic storms occur more often, with the majority driven by CMEs. </p><p>The increase in the solar wind pressure initially compresses the magnetosphere. The solar wind's magnetic field interacts with the Earth's magnetic field and transfers an increased energy into the magnetosphere. Both interactions cause an increase in plasma movement through the magnetosphere (driven by increased electric fields inside the magnetosphere) and an increase in electric current in the magnetosphere and <a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">ionosphere</a>. During the main phase of a geomagnetic storm, electric current in the magnetosphere creates a magnetic force that pushes out the boundary between the magnetosphere and the solar wind. </p><p>Several space weather phenomena tend to be associated with geomagnetic storms. These include <a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">solar energetic particle (SEP) events</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced currents</a> (GIC), <a href="/wiki/Ionospheric_storm" title="Ionospheric storm">ionospheric storms</a> and disturbances that cause radio and radar <a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_scintillation" title="Interplanetary scintillation">scintillation</a>, disruption of navigation by magnetic compass and auroral displays at much lower <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_latitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic latitude">magnetic latitudes</a> than normal. </p><p>The largest recorded geomagnetic storm, <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">the Carrington Event</a> in September 1859, took down parts of the recently created US telegraph network, starting fires and electrically shocking telegraph operators.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">1989, a geomagnetic storm</a> energized <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">ground induced currents</a> that disrupted electric power distribution throughout most of <a href="/wiki/Quebec" title="Quebec">Quebec</a><sup id="cite_ref-cbc.ca_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc.ca-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and caused <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">aurorae</a> as far south as <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span 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.sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series of articles about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Heliospheric current sheet"><img alt="Heliospheric current sheet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/190px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif" decoding="async" width="190" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/285px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif/380px-Heliospheric-current-sheet.gif 2x" data-file-width="866" data-file-height="676" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption" style="font-size:90%;padding-top:0.4em;font-style;"><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Heliospheric current sheet</a></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above hlist" style="display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Fundamentals</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flux_tube" title="Flux tube">Flux tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">Magnetic reconnection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_acceleration" title="Particle acceleration">Particle acceleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">Nuclear physics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_medium" title="Interplanetary medium">Interplanetary medium</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">IMF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parker_spiral" class="mw-redirect" title="Parker spiral">Parker spiral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_ray" title="Cosmic ray">Cosmic ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">ICME</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetospherics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_chronology" title="Magnetosphere chronology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_particle_motion" title="Magnetosphere particle motion">Particle motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">Magnetosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmasphere" title="Plasmasphere">Plasmasphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkeland_current" title="Birkeland current">Birkeland current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic storm">Magnetic storm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">GIC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Dst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substorm" title="Substorm">Substorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_hurricane" title="Space hurricane">Space hurricane</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_wind" title="Polar wind">Polar wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flux_transfer_event" title="Flux transfer event">Flux transfer event</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Solar_phenomena" title="Solar phenomena">Solar phenomena</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_maximum" title="Solar maximum">max</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_minimum" title="Solar minimum">min</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_storm" title="Solar storm">Solar storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">CME</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Radio emission</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Heliophysics" title="Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Heliophysics" title="Template talk:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Heliophysics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A geomagnetic storm is defined<sup id="cite_ref-gonzalez_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gonzalez-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by changes in the <a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Dst</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (disturbance – storm time) index. The Dst index estimates the globally averaged change of the horizontal component of the Earth's magnetic field at the magnetic equator based on measurements from a few magnetometer stations. Dst is computed once per hour and reported in near-real-time.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During quiet times, Dst is between +20 and −20 nano-<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">Tesla</a> (nT).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A geomagnetic storm has three phases: initial, main and recovery. The initial phase is characterized by Dst (or its one-minute component SYM-H) increasing by 20 to 50 nT in tens of minutes. The initial phase is also referred to as a storm sudden commencement (SSC). However, not all geomagnetic storms have an initial phase and not all sudden increases in Dst or SYM-H are followed by a geomagnetic storm. The main phase of a geomagnetic storm is defined by Dst decreasing to less than −50 nT. The selection of −50 nT to define a storm is somewhat arbitrary. The minimum value during a storm will be between −50 and approximately −600 nT. The duration of the main phase is typically 2–8 hours. The recovery phase is when Dst changes from its minimum value to its quiet time value. The recovery phase may last as short as 8 hours or as long as 7 days.<sup id="cite_ref-gonzalez_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gonzalez-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora_borealis2,_Churchill,_MB.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG/220px-Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG/330px-Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG/440px-Aurora_borealis2%2C_Churchill%2C_MB.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Aurora borealis</figcaption></figure> <p>The size of a geomagnetic storm is classified as moderate (−50 nT > minimum of Dst > −100 nT), intense (−100 nT > minimum Dst > −250 nT) or super-storm (minimum of Dst < −250 nT).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Measuring_intensity">Measuring intensity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Measuring intensity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geomagnetic storm intensity is reported in several different ways, including: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/K-index" title="K-index">K-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-index" class="mw-redirect" title="A-index">A-index</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/K-index#G-scale" title="K-index">G-scale</a> used by the U.S. <a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a>, which rates the storm from G1 to G5 (i.e. G1, G2, G3, G4, G5 in order), where G1 is the weakest storm classification (corresponding to a <a href="/wiki/K-index" title="K-index">Kp</a> value of 5), and G5 is the strongest (corresponding to a Kp value of 9).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_the_theory">History of the theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History of the theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1930, <a href="/wiki/Sydney_Chapman_(mathematician)" title="Sydney Chapman (mathematician)">Sydney Chapman</a> and Vincenzo C. A. Ferraro wrote an article, <i>A New Theory of Magnetic Storms</i>, that sought to explain the phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They argued that whenever the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> emits a <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flare</a> it also emits a plasma cloud, now known as a <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejection</a>. They postulated that this <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> travels at a velocity such that it reaches Earth within 113 days, though we now know this journey takes 1 to 5 days. They wrote that the cloud then compresses the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> and thus increases this field at the Earth's surface.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chapman and Ferraro's work drew on that of, among others, <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland" title="Kristian Birkeland">Kristian Birkeland</a>, who had used recently-discovered <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_tube" title="Cathode-ray tube">cathode-ray tubes</a> to show that the rays were deflected towards the <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_polarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic polarity">poles</a> of a magnetic sphere. He theorised that a similar phenomenon was responsible for <a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">auroras</a>, explaining why they are more frequent in polar regions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrences">Occurrences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Occurrences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></div> <p>The first scientific observation of the effects of a geomagnetic storm occurred early in the 19th century: from May 1806 until June 1807, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> recorded the bearing of a <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic compass">magnetic compass</a> in Berlin. On 21 December 1806, he noticed that his compass had become erratic during a bright <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">auroral event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 1–2, 1859, the largest recorded geomagnetic storm occurred. From August 28 until September 2, 1859, numerous <a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">sunspots</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">solar flares</a> were observed on the Sun, with the largest flare on September 1. This is referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">solar storm of 1859</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a>. It can be assumed that a massive <a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">coronal mass ejection</a> was launched from the Sun and reached the Earth within eighteen hours—a trip that normally takes three to four days. The horizontal field was reduced by 1600 nT as recorded by the <a href="/wiki/Colaba_Observatory" title="Colaba Observatory">Colaba Observatory</a>. It is estimated that Dst would have been approximately −1760 nT.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)#Historically_significant_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">Telegraph wires</a> in both the United States and Europe experienced induced voltage increases (<a href="/wiki/Electromotive_force" title="Electromotive force">emf</a>), in some cases even delivering shocks to telegraph operators and igniting fires. Aurorae were seen as far south as Hawaii, Mexico, Cuba and Italy—phenomena that are usually only visible in polar regions. <a href="/wiki/Ice_cores" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice cores">Ice cores</a> show evidence that events of similar intensity recur at an average rate of approximately once per 500 years. </p><p>Since 1859, less severe storms have occurred, notably the <a href="/wiki/Aurora_of_November_17,_1882" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora of November 17, 1882">aurora of November 17, 1882</a> and the <a href="/wiki/May_1921_geomagnetic_storm" title="May 1921 geomagnetic storm">May 1921 geomagnetic storm</a>, both with disruption of telegraph service and initiation of fires, and 1960, when widespread radio disruption was reported.<sup id="cite_ref-Odenwald_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Odenwald-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg/410px-ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg" decoding="async" width="410" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg/615px-ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg/820px-ExtremeEvent_19890310-00h_19890315-24h.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2144" data-file-height="1658" /></a><figcaption>GOES-7 monitors space weather conditions during the Great Geomagnetic storm of March 1989. The Moscow neutron monitor recorded the passage of a CME as a drop in levels known as a <a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_August_1972" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of August 1972">early August 1972</a>, a series of flares and solar storms peaks with a flare estimated around X20 producing the fastest CME transit ever recorded and a severe geomagnetic and proton storm that disrupted terrestrial electrical and communications networks, as well as satellites (at least one made permanently inoperative), and spontaneously detonated numerous U.S. Navy magnetic-influence sea mines in North Vietnam.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">March 1989 geomagnetic storm</a> caused the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec" title="Hydro-Québec">Hydro-Québec</a> power grid in seconds as equipment protection relays tripped in a cascading sequence.<sup id="cite_ref-cbc.ca_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc.ca-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Six million people were <a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">left without power</a> for nine hours. The storm caused auroras as far south as <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Earth_dodges_magnetic_storm-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The storm causing this event was the result of a coronal mass ejected from the Sun on March 9, 1989.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The minimum Dst was −589 nT. </p><p>On July 14, 2000, an X5 class flare erupted (known as the <a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastille Day event">Bastille Day event</a>) and a coronal mass was launched directly at the Earth. A geomagnetic super storm occurred on July 15–17; the minimum of the Dst index was −301 nT. Despite the storm's strength, no power distribution failures were reported.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bastille Day event was observed by <i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_1" title="Voyager 1">Voyager 1</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Voyager_2" title="Voyager 2">Voyager 2</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus it is the farthest out in the Solar System that a solar storm has been observed. </p><p>Seventeen major flares erupted on the Sun between 19 October and 5 November 2003, including perhaps the most intense flare ever measured on the <a href="/wiki/Geostationary_Operational_Environmental_Satellite" title="Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite">GOES</a> XRS sensor—a huge X28 flare,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> resulting in an extreme radio blackout, on 4 November. These flares were associated with CME events that caused three geomagnetic storms between 29 October and 2 November, during which the second and third storms were initiated before the previous storm period had fully recovered. The minimum Dst values were −151, −353 and −383 nT. Another storm in this sequence occurred on 4–5 November with a minimum Dst of −69 nT. The last geomagnetic storm was weaker than the preceding storms, because the <a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">active region</a> on the Sun had rotated beyond the meridian where the central portion CME created during the flare event passed to the side of the Earth. The whole sequence became known as the <a href="/wiki/Halloween_Solar_Storm" class="mw-redirect" title="Halloween Solar Storm">Halloween Solar Storm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Wide_Area_Augmentation_System" title="Wide Area Augmentation System">Wide Area Augmentation System</a> (WAAS) operated by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> (FAA) was offline for approximately 30 hours due to the storm.<sup id="cite_ref-nas2008_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nas2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese ADEOS-2 satellite was severely damaged and the operation of many other satellites were interrupted due to the storm.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions_with_planetary_processes">Interactions with planetary processes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interactions with planetary processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Magnetopause.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Magnetopause.svg/390px-Magnetopause.svg.png" decoding="async" width="390" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Magnetopause.svg/585px-Magnetopause.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Magnetopause.svg/780px-Magnetopause.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="520" data-file-height="287" /></a><figcaption>Magnetosphere in the near-Earth space environment.</figcaption></figure> <p>The solar wind also carries with it the Sun's magnetic field. This field will have either a North or South orientation. If the solar wind has energetic bursts, contracting and expanding the magnetosphere, or if the solar wind takes a southward <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarization</a>, geomagnetic storms can be expected. The southward field causes <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_reconnection" title="Magnetic reconnection">magnetic reconnection</a> of the dayside magnetopause, rapidly injecting magnetic and particle energy into the Earth's magnetosphere. </p><p>During a geomagnetic storm, the ionosphere's <a href="/wiki/F_region" title="F region">F<sub>2</sub> layer</a> becomes unstable, fragments, and may even disappear. In the northern and southern pole regions of the Earth, <a href="/wiki/Aurora_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurora (astronomy)">auroras</a> are observable. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Instruments">Instruments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Instruments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Magnetometer" title="Magnetometer">Magnetometers</a> monitor the auroral zone as well as the equatorial region. Two types of <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, coherent scatter and incoherent scatter, are used to probe the auroral ionosphere. By bouncing signals off ionospheric irregularities, which move with the field lines, one can trace their motion and infer magnetospheric convection. </p><p>Spacecraft instruments include: </p> <ul><li>Magnetometers, usually of the flux gate type. Usually these are at the end of booms, to keep them away from magnetic interference by the spacecraft and its electric circuits.<sup id="cite_ref-Magnetometry_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Magnetometry-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Electric sensors at the ends of opposing booms are used to measure potential differences between separated points, to derive electric fields associated with convection. The method works best at high plasma densities in low Earth orbit; far from Earth long booms are needed, to avoid shielding-out of electric forces.</li> <li>Radio sounders from the ground can <a href="/wiki/Ionospheric_sounding" title="Ionospheric sounding">bounce radio waves</a> of varying frequency off the ionosphere, and by timing their return determine the electron density profile—up to its peak, past which radio waves no longer return. Radio sounders in low Earth orbit aboard the Canadian <a href="/wiki/Alouette_1" title="Alouette 1">Alouette 1</a> (1962) and <a href="/wiki/Alouette_2" title="Alouette 2">Alouette 2</a> (1965), beamed radio waves earthward and observed the electron density profile of the "topside ionosphere". Other radio sounding methods were also tried in the ionosphere (e.g. on <a href="/wiki/IMAGE_(spacecraft)" title="IMAGE (spacecraft)">IMAGE</a>).</li> <li>Particle detectors include a <a href="/wiki/Geiger_counter" title="Geiger counter">Geiger counter</a>, as was used for the original observations of the <a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scintillator_detectors" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintillator detectors">Scintillator detectors</a> came later, and still later "channeltron" <a href="/wiki/Electron_multiplier" title="Electron multiplier">electron multipliers</a> found particularly wide use. To derive charge and mass composition, as well as energies, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrograph</a> designs were used. For energies up to about 50 keV (which constitute most of the magnetospheric plasma) <a href="/wiki/Time-of-flight_spectrometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Time-of-flight spectrometer">time-of-flight spectrometers</a> (e.g. "top-hat" design) are widely used.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>Computers have made it possible to bring together decades of isolated magnetic observations and extract average patterns of electrical currents and average responses to interplanetary variations. They also run simulations of the global magnetosphere and its responses, by solving the equations of <a href="/wiki/Magnetohydrodynamics" title="Magnetohydrodynamics">magnetohydrodynamics</a> (MHD) on a numerical grid. Appropriate extensions must be added to cover the inner magnetosphere, where magnetic drifts and ionospheric conduction need to be taken into account. At polar regions, directly linked to the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>, large-scale ionospheric anomalies can be successfully modeled, even during geomagnetic super-storms. <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At smaller scales (comparable to a degree of latitude/longitude) the results are difficult to interpret, and certain assumptions about the high-latitude forcing uncertainty are needed. <sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geomagnetic_storm_effects">Geomagnetic storm effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geomagnetic storm effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disruption_of_electrical_systems">Disruption of electrical systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Disruption of electrical systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been suggested that a geomagnetic storm on the scale of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_storm_of_1859" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar storm of 1859">solar storm of 1859</a> today would cause billions or even trillions of dollars of damage to satellites, power grids and radio communications, and could cause electrical blackouts on a massive scale that might not be repaired for weeks, months, or even years.<sup id="cite_ref-nas2008_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nas2008-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such sudden electrical blackouts may threaten food production.<sup id="cite_ref-food_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-food-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Main_electrical_grid">Main electrical grid</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Main electrical grid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> move about in the vicinity of a conductor such as a wire, a <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced current</a> is produced in the conductor. This happens on a grand scale during geomagnetic storms (the same mechanism also influenced telephone and telegraph lines before fiber optics, see above) on all long transmission lines. Long transmission lines (many kilometers in length) are thus subject to damage by this effect. Notably, this chiefly includes operators in China, North America, and Australia, especially in modern high-voltage, low-resistance lines. The European grid consists mainly of shorter transmission circuits, which are less vulnerable to damage.<sup id="cite_ref-kappenman_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kappenman-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The (nearly direct) currents induced in these lines from geomagnetic storms are harmful to electrical transmission equipment, especially <a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">transformers</a>—inducing core <a href="/wiki/Saturation_(magnetic)" title="Saturation (magnetic)">saturation</a>, constraining their performance (as well as tripping various safety devices), and causing coils and cores to heat up. In extreme cases, this heat can disable or destroy them, even inducing a chain reaction that can overload transformers.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most generators are connected to the grid via transformers, isolating them from the induced currents on the grid, making them much less susceptible to damage due to <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced current</a>. However, a transformer that is subjected to this will act as an unbalanced load to the generator, causing negative sequence current in the stator and consequently rotor heating. </p><p>A 2008 study by Metatech corporation concluded that a storm with a strength comparable to that of 1921 would destroy more than 300 transformers and leave over 130 million people without power in the United States, costing several trillion dollars.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extent of the disruption is debated, with some congressional testimony indicating a potentially indefinite outage until transformers can be replaced or repaired.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These predictions are contradicted by a <a href="/wiki/North_American_Electric_Reliability_Corporation" title="North American Electric Reliability Corporation">North American Electric Reliability Corporation</a> report that concludes that a geomagnetic storm would cause temporary grid instability but no widespread destruction of high-voltage transformers. The report points out that the widely quoted Quebec grid collapse was not caused by overheating transformers but by the near-simultaneous tripping of seven relays.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2016, the United States <a href="/wiki/Federal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission" title="Federal Energy Regulatory Commission">Federal Energy Regulatory Commission</a> adopted NEARC rules for equipment testing for electric utilities. Implementation of any upgrades needed to protect against the effects of geomagnetic storms was required within four years, and the regulations also directed further research.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides the transformers being vulnerable to the effects of a geomagnetic storm, electricity companies can also be affected indirectly by the geomagnetic storm. For instance, Internet service providers may go down during geomagnetic storms (and/or remain non-operational long after). Electricity companies may have equipment requiring a working Internet connection to function, so during the period the Internet service provider is down, the electricity too may not be distributed.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By receiving geomagnetic storm alerts and warnings (e.g. by the <a href="/wiki/Space_Weather_Prediction_Center" title="Space Weather Prediction Center">Space Weather Prediction Center</a>; via Space Weather satellites as SOHO or ACE), power companies can minimize damage to power transmission equipment, by momentarily disconnecting transformers or by inducing temporary blackouts. Preventive measures also exist, including preventing the inflow of GICs into the grid through the neutral-to-ground connection.<sup id="cite_ref-kappenman_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kappenman-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Communications">Communications</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Communications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/High_frequency" title="High frequency">High frequency</a> (3–30 MHz) communication systems use the ionosphere to reflect radio signals over long distances. Ionospheric storms can affect radio communication at all latitudes. Some frequencies are absorbed and others are reflected, leading to rapidly fluctuating signals and unexpected <a href="/wiki/Radio_propagation" title="Radio propagation">propagation</a> paths. TV and commercial radio stations are little affected by solar activity, but ground-to-air, ship-to-shore, <a href="/wiki/Shortwave" class="mw-redirect" title="Shortwave">shortwave</a> <a href="/wiki/Broadcasting" title="Broadcasting">broadcast</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amateur_radio" title="Amateur radio">amateur radio</a> (mostly the bands below 30 MHz) are frequently disrupted. Radio operators using HF bands rely upon solar and geomagnetic alerts to keep their communication circuits up and running. </p><p>Military detection or early warning systems operating in the high frequency range are also affected by solar activity. The <i><a href="/wiki/Over-the-horizon_radar" title="Over-the-horizon radar">over-the-horizon radar</a></i> bounces signals off the ionosphere to monitor the launch of aircraft and missiles from long distances. During geomagnetic storms, this system can be severely hampered by radio clutter. Also some submarine detection systems use the magnetic signatures of submarines as one input to their locating schemes. Geomagnetic storms can mask and distort these signals. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> routinely receives alerts of solar radio bursts so that they can recognize communication problems and avoid unnecessary maintenance. When an aircraft and a ground station are aligned with the Sun, high levels of noise can occur on air-control radio frequencies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This can also happen on <a href="/wiki/UHF" class="mw-redirect" title="UHF">UHF</a> and <a href="/wiki/Super_high_frequency" title="Super high frequency">SHF</a> satellite communications, when an Earth station, a satellite and the Sun are in <a href="/wiki/Sun_outage" title="Sun outage">alignment</a>. In order to prevent unnecessary maintenance on satellite communications systems aboard aircraft AirSatOne provides a live feed for geophysical events from NOAA's <a href="/wiki/Space_Weather_Prediction_Center" title="Space Weather Prediction Center">Space Weather Prediction Center</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> allows users to view observed and predicted space storms. Geophysical Alerts are important to flight crews and maintenance personnel to determine if any upcoming activity or history has or will have an effect on satellite communications, GPS navigation and HF Communications. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Electrical_telegraph" title="Electrical telegraph">Telegraph</a> lines in the past were affected by geomagnetic storms. Telegraphs used a single long wire for the data line, stretching for many miles, using the ground as the return wire and fed with <a href="/wiki/Direct_current" title="Direct current">DC</a> power from a battery; this made them (together with the power lines mentioned below) susceptible to being influenced by the fluctuations caused by the <a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">ring current</a>. The voltage/current induced by the geomagnetic storm could have diminished the signal, when subtracted from the battery polarity, or to overly strong and spurious signals when added to it; some operators learned to disconnect the battery and rely on the induced current as their power source. In extreme cases the induced current was so high the coils at the receiving side burst in flames, or the operators received electric shocks. Geomagnetic storms affect also long-haul telephone lines, including undersea cables unless they are <a href="/wiki/Fiber_optic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber optic">fiber optic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Damage to communications satellites can disrupt non-terrestrial telephone, television, radio and Internet links.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> reported in 2008 on possible scenarios of widespread disruption in the 2012–2013 solar peak.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A solar superstorm could cause large-scale global months-long <a href="/wiki/Internet_outage" title="Internet outage">Internet outages</a>. A study describes potential mitigation measures and exceptions – such as user-powered <a href="/wiki/Wireless_mesh_network" title="Wireless mesh network">mesh networks</a>, related <a href="/wiki/Peer-to-peer" title="Peer-to-peer">peer-to-peer</a> applications and new protocols – and analyzes the robustness of the current <a href="/wiki/Internet_infrastructure" title="Internet infrastructure">Internet infrastructure</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Navigation_systems">Navigation systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Navigation systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Global navigation satellite systems (GNSS)</a>, and other navigation systems such as <a href="/wiki/LORAN" title="LORAN">LORAN</a> and the now-defunct <a href="/wiki/Omega_Navigation_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega Navigation System">OMEGA</a> are adversely affected when solar activity disrupts their signal propagation. The OMEGA system consisted of eight transmitters located throughout the world. Airplanes and ships used the very low frequency signals from these transmitters to determine their positions. During solar events and geomagnetic storms, the system gave navigators information that was inaccurate by as much as several miles. If navigators had been alerted that a proton event or geomagnetic storm was in progress, they could have switched to a backup system. </p><p>GNSS signals are affected when solar activity causes sudden variations in the density of the ionosphere, causing the satellite signals to <a href="/wiki/Scintillation_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scintillation (astronomy)">scintillate</a> (like a twinkling star). The scintillation of satellite signals during ionospheric disturbances is studied at <a href="/wiki/High_Frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" class="mw-redirect" title="High Frequency Active Auroral Research Program">HAARP</a> during ionospheric modification experiments. It has also been studied at the <a href="/wiki/Jicamarca_Radio_Observatory" title="Jicamarca Radio Observatory">Jicamarca Radio Observatory</a>. </p><p>One technology used to allow GNSS receivers to continue to operate in the presence of some confusing signals is <a href="/wiki/Receiver_Autonomous_Integrity_Monitoring" class="mw-redirect" title="Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring">Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring</a> (RAIM), used by GPS. However, RAIM is predicated on the assumption that a majority of the GPS constellation is operating properly, and so it is much less useful when the entire constellation is perturbed by global influences such as geomagnetic storms. Even if RAIM detects a loss of integrity in these cases, it may not be able to provide a useful, reliable signal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Satellite_hardware_damage">Satellite hardware damage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Satellite hardware damage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Geomagnetic storms and increased solar <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> emission heat Earth's upper atmosphere, causing it to expand. The heated air rises, and the density at the orbit of <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> up to about 1,000 km (600 mi) increases significantly. This results in increased <a href="/wiki/Drag_(physics)" title="Drag (physics)">drag</a>, causing satellites to slow and change <a href="/wiki/Orbit" title="Orbit">orbit</a> slightly. <a href="/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit" title="Low Earth orbit">Low Earth orbit</a> satellites that are not repeatedly boosted to higher orbits slowly fall and eventually burn up. <a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a>'s 1979 destruction is an example of a spacecraft <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_reentry" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric reentry">reentering</a> Earth's atmosphere prematurely as a result of higher-than-expected solar activity.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the great geomagnetic storm of March 1989, four of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Navy">U.S. Navy</a>'s navigational satellites had to be taken out of service for up to a week, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Air_Force_Space_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Air Force Space Command">U.S. Space Command</a> had to post new <a href="/wiki/Orbital_elements" title="Orbital elements">orbital elements</a> for over 1000 objects affected, and the <a href="/wiki/Solar_Maximum_Mission" title="Solar Maximum Mission">Solar Maximum Mission</a> satellite fell out of orbit in December the same year.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vulnerability of the satellites depends on their position as well. The <a href="/wiki/South_Atlantic_Anomaly" title="South Atlantic Anomaly">South Atlantic Anomaly</a> is a perilous place for a satellite to pass through, due to the unusually weak geomagnetic field at low Earth orbit.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pipelines">Pipelines</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Pipelines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rapidly fluctuating geomagnetic fields can produce <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">geomagnetically induced currents</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipeline transport">pipelines</a>. This can cause multiple problems for pipeline engineers. Pipeline flow meters can transmit erroneous flow information and the <a href="/wiki/Corrosion" title="Corrosion">corrosion</a> rate of the pipeline can be dramatically increased.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_hazards_to_humans">Radiation hazards to humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Radiation hazards to humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earth's atmosphere and magnetosphere allow adequate protection at ground level, but <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> are subject to potentially lethal <a href="/wiki/Radiation_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation poisoning">radiation poisoning</a>. The penetration of high-energy particles into living cells can cause <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> damage, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and other health problems. Large doses can be immediately fatal. Solar <a href="/wiki/Proton" title="Proton">protons</a> with energies greater than 30 <a href="/wiki/MeV" class="mw-redirect" title="MeV">MeV</a> are particularly hazardous.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Solar_proton_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar proton event">Solar proton events</a> can also produce elevated radiation aboard <a href="/wiki/Jet_airliner" title="Jet airliner">aircraft</a> flying at high altitudes. Although these risks are small, <a href="/wiki/Flight_crew" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight crew">flight crews</a> may be exposed repeatedly, and monitoring of solar proton events by satellite instrumentation allows exposure to be monitored and evaluated, and eventually flight paths and altitudes to be adjusted to lower the absorbed dose.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ground_level_enhancement" title="Ground level enhancement">Ground level enhancements</a>, also known as ground level events or GLEs, occur when a <a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">solar particle event</a> contains particles with sufficient energy to have effects at ground level, mainly detected as an increase in the number of <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a> measured at ground level. These events have been shown to have an impact on radiation dosage, but they do not significantly increase the risk of cancer.<sup id="cite_ref-BritishGovSpaceWeather_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BritishGovSpaceWeather-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effect_on_animals">Effect on animals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effect on animals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a large but controversial body of scientific literature on connections between geomagnetic storms and human health. This began with Russian papers, and the subject was subsequently studied by Western scientists. Theories for the cause include the involvement of <a href="/wiki/Cryptochrome" title="Cryptochrome">cryptochrome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">pineal gland</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scientists suggest that solar storms induce <a href="/wiki/Cetacean_stranding" title="Cetacean stranding">whales to beach</a> themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have speculated that migrating animals which use <a href="/wiki/Magnetoreception" title="Magnetoreception">magnetoreception</a> to navigate, such as birds and honey bees, might also be affected.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Composition_Explorer" title="Advanced Composition Explorer">Advanced Composition Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_pulse" title="Electromagnetic pulse">Electromagnetic pulse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetar" title="Magnetar">Magnetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_and_Heliospheric_Observatory" title="Solar and Heliospheric Observatory">Solar and Heliospheric Observatory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEREO" title="STEREO">STEREO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes" title="Van Allen Probes">Van Allen Probes</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Corotating Interaction Regions,</i> Corotating Interaction Regions Proceedings of an ISSI Workshop, 6–13 June 1998, Bern, Switzerland, Springer (2000), Hardcover, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6080-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-6080-3">978-0-7923-6080-3</a>, Softcover, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2012+Special+Reliability+Assessment+Interim+Report%3A+Effects+of+Geomagnetic+Disturbances+on+the+Bulk+Power+System&rft.pub=North+American+Electric+Reliability+Corporation&rft.date=2012-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.frcc.com%2FPublic%2520Awareness%2FLists%2FAnnouncements%2FAttachments%2F105%2FGMD%2520Interim%2520Report.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFederal_Energy_Regulatory_Commission2016" class="citation web cs1">Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (30 September 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2016/09/30/2016-23441/reliability-standard-for-transmission-system-planned-performance-for-geomagnetic-disturbance-events">"Rule Reliability Standard for Transmission System Planned Performance for Geomagnetic Disturbance Events"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rule+Reliability+Standard+for+Transmission+System+Planned+Performance+for+Geomagnetic+Disturbance+Events&rft.date=2016-09-30&rft.au=Federal+Energy+Regulatory+Commission&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.federalregister.gov%2Fdocuments%2F2016%2F09%2F30%2F2016-23441%2Freliability-standard-for-transmission-system-planned-performance-for-geomagnetic-disturbance-events&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kijk magazine 6/2017, mentioned by Marcel Spit of Adviescentrum Bescherming Vitale Infrastructuur]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.airsatone.com//gams">"AirSatOne's Live Feed"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=AirSatOne%27s+Live+Feed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.airsatone.com%2F%2Fgams&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050911073432/http://image.gsfc.nasa.gov/poetry/storm/storms.html">"image.gsfc.nasa.gov"</a>. 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Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 2008. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17226%2F12507">10.17226/12507</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-12769-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-12769-1"><bdi>978-0-309-12769-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Severe+Space+Weather+Events%E2%80%94Understanding+Societal+and+Economic+Impacts%3A+Workshop+Report&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17226%2F12507&rft.isbn=978-0-309-12769-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Fcatalog.php%3Frecord_id%3D12507%23toc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://techxplore.com/news/2021-08-scientist-global-internet-large-solar.html">"Computer scientist warns global internet is not prepared for a large solar storm"</a>. <i>techxplore.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=techxplore.com&rft.atitle=Computer+scientist+warns+global+internet+is+not+prepared+for+a+large+solar+storm&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechxplore.com%2Fnews%2F2021-08-scientist-global-internet-large-solar.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/solar-storm-internet-apocalypse-undersea-cables/">"A Bad Solar Storm Could Cause an 'Internet Apocalypse'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Wired</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 September</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=A+Bad+Solar+Storm+Could+Cause+an+%27Internet+Apocalypse%27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fsolar-storm-internet-apocalypse-undersea-cables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJyothi2021" class="citation conference cs1">Jyothi, Sangeetha Abdu (9 August 2021). "Solar superstorms: Planning for an internet apocalypse". <i>Proceedings of the 2021 ACM SIGCOMM 2021 Conference</i>. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. <span class="nowrap">692–</span>704. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3452296.3472916">10.1145/3452296.3472916</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781450383837" title="Special:BookSources/9781450383837"><bdi>9781450383837</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.atitle=Solar+superstorms%3A+Planning+for+an+internet+apocalypse&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+2021+ACM+SIGCOMM+2021+Conference&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E692-%3C%2Fspan%3E704&rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&rft.date=2021-08-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3452296.3472916&rft.isbn=9781450383837&rft.aulast=Jyothi&rft.aufirst=Sangeetha+Abdu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBensonCompton1983" class="citation book cs1">Benson, Charles Dunlap & Compton, William David (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4208/contents.htm"><i>Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Science+News&rft.atitle=The+Effects+of+Space+Weather+on+Aviation&rft.date=2013-10-25&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscience.nasa.gov%2Fscience-news%2Fscience-at-nasa%2F2013%2F25oct_aviationswx%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BritishGovSpaceWeather-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BritishGovSpaceWeather_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gov.uk/guidance/space-weather-and-radiation">"British Government: Space Weather and radiation guidance, Public Health England"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Solar+Storms+May+Ignite+South-Reaching+Auroras+Wednesday&rft.date=2017-09-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.usnews.com%2Fnews%2Fnational-news%2Farticles%2F2017-09-06%2Fsolar-storms-may-ignite-south-reaching-auroras-wednesday&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolduc2002" class="citation journal cs1">Bolduc, L. (2002). "GIC observations and studies in the Hydro-Québec power system". <i>J. Atmos. Sol.-Terr. Phys</i>. <b>64</b> (16): <span class="nowrap">1793–</span>1802. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002JASTP..64.1793B">2002JASTP..64.1793B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1364-6826%2802%2900128-1">10.1016/S1364-6826(02)00128-1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Atmos.+Sol.-Terr.+Phys.&rft.atitle=GIC+observations+and+studies+in+the+Hydro-Qu%C3%A9bec+power+system&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1793-%3C%2Fspan%3E1802&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1364-6826%2802%2900128-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2002JASTP..64.1793B&rft.aulast=Bolduc&rft.aufirst=L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_W.H.2001" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, W.H. (2001). <i>Earth Magnetism: A Guided Tour Through Magnetic Fields</i>. New York: Harcourt Sci. & Tech. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-158164-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-158164-0"><bdi>978-0-12-158164-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth+Magnetism%3A+A+Guided+Tour+Through+Magnetic+Fields&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harcourt+Sci.+%26+Tech.&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-12-158164-0&rft.au=Campbell%2C+W.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Carlowicz, M., and R. Lopez, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stormsfromthesun.net">Storms from the Sun</a>, Joseph Henry Press, 2002, www.stormsfromthesun.net</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies,_K.1990" class="citation book cs1">Davies, K. (1990). <i>Ionospheric Radio</i>. IEE Electromagnetic Waves Series. London, UK: Peter Peregrinus. pp. <span class="nowrap">331–</span>345. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-186-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86341-186-1"><bdi>978-0-86341-186-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ionospheric+Radio&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.series=IEE+Electromagnetic+Waves+Series&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E331-%3C%2Fspan%3E345&rft.pub=Peter+Peregrinus&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-86341-186-1&rft.au=Davies%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEather,_R.H.1980" class="citation book cs1">Eather, R.H. (1980). <i>Majestic Lights</i>. Washington DC: AGU. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87590-215-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87590-215-9"><bdi>978-0-87590-215-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Majestic+Lights&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=AGU&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-87590-215-9&rft.au=Eather%2C+R.H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarrett,_H.B.Pike,_C.P.1980" class="citation book cs1">Garrett, H.B.; Pike, C.P., eds. (1980). <i>Space Systems and Their Interactions with Earth's Space Environment</i>. New York: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-915928-41-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-915928-41-5"><bdi>978-0-915928-41-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space+Systems+and+Their+Interactions+with+Earth%27s+Space+Environment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=American+Institute+of+Aeronautics+and+Astronautics&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-915928-41-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGauthreaux,_S._Jr.1980" class="citation book cs1">Gauthreaux, S. Jr. (1980). "Ch. 5". <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/animalmigrationo0000unse"><i>Animal Migration: Orientation and Navigation</i></a></span>. New York: Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-277750-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-277750-9"><bdi>978-0-12-277750-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ch.+5&rft.btitle=Animal+Migration%3A+Orientation+and+Navigation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-12-277750-9&rft.au=Gauthreaux%2C+S.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanimalmigrationo0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding,_R.1989" class="citation book cs1">Harding, R. (1989). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/survivalinspacem0000hard"><i>Survival in Space</i></a></span>. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00253-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-00253-0"><bdi>978-0-415-00253-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Survival+in+Space&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-415-00253-0&rft.au=Harding%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsurvivalinspacem0000hard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoselyn_J.A.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Joselyn J.A. (1992). "The impact of solar flares and magnetic storms on humans". <i>EOS</i>. <b>73</b> (7): 81, <span class="nowrap">84–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1992EOSTr..73...81J">1992EOSTr..73...81J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F91EO00062">10.1029/91EO00062</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EOS&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+solar+flares+and+magnetic+storms+on+humans&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=81%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E84-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F91EO00062&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1992EOSTr..73...81J&rft.au=Joselyn+J.A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_N.L.McKnight,_D.S.1987" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, N.L.; McKnight, D.S. (1987). <i>Artificial Space Debris</i>. Malabar, Florida: Orbit Book. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89464-012-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89464-012-4"><bdi>978-0-89464-012-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Artificial+Space+Debris&rft.place=Malabar%2C+Florida&rft.pub=Orbit+Book&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-89464-012-4&rft.au=Johnson%2C+N.L.&rft.au=McKnight%2C+D.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanzerotti,_L.J.1979" class="citation book cs1">Lanzerotti, L.J. (1979). "Impacts of ionospheric / magnetospheric process on terrestrial science and technology". In Lanzerotti, L.J.; Kennel, C.F.; Parker, E.N. (eds.). <i>Solar System Plasma Physics, III</i>. New York: North Holland.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Impacts+of+ionospheric+%2F+magnetospheric+process+on+terrestrial+science+and+technology&rft.btitle=Solar+System+Plasma+Physics%2C+III&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=North+Holland&rft.date=1979&rft.au=Lanzerotti%2C+L.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOdenwald,_S.2001" class="citation book cs1">Odenwald, S. (2001). <i>The 23rd Cycle:Learning to live with a stormy star</i>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12079-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-12079-1"><bdi>978-0-231-12079-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+23rd+Cycle%3ALearning+to+live+with+a+stormy+star&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-231-12079-1&rft.au=Odenwald%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGeomagnetic+storm" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Odenwald, S., 2003, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.solarstorms.org">"The Human Impacts of Space Weather"</a>.</li> <li>Stoupel, E., (1999) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.breadandbutterscience.com/SSTA.pdf">Effect of geomagnetic activity on cardiovascular parameters</a>, Journal of Clinical and Basic Cardiology, 2, Issue 1, 1999, pp 34–40. IN James A. Marusek (2007) Solar Storm Threat Analysis, <i>Impact, Bloomfield, Indiana 47424</i></li> <li>Volland, H., (1984), "Atmospheric Electrodynamics", Kluwer Publ., Dordrecht</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spaceweatherlive.com/">Live solar and geomagnetic activity data at Spaceweather</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120806142735/http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/index.html">NOAA Space Weather Prediction Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcmt.fr/data_plot_realtime.php">Real time magnetograms</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aurorawatch.lancs.ac.uk/">Aurora Watch</a> at Lancaster University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geomag.usgs.gov">USGS Geomagnetism program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parliament.uk/globalassets/documents/commons-committees/defence/121220-PM-to-Chair-re-EMP.pdf">Paper on the risk of a repeat of 1859 Carrington Event</a> by <a href="/wiki/John_Beddington" title="John Beddington">John Beddington</a></li></ul> <p>Links related to power grids: </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hireme.geek.nz/solar-storm-hvac-transformer-avoidable-failure.html">Geomagnetic Storm Induced HVAC Transformer Failure is Avoidable</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130517120625/http://hireme.geek.nz/solar-storm-hvac-transformer-avoidable-failure.html">Archived</a> 2013-05-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100325191721/http://www.economics.noaa.gov/?goal=commerce">NOAA Economics – Geomagnetic Storm datasets and Economic Research</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080611174103/http://www.agu.org/sci_soc/eiskappenman.html">Geomagnetic Storms Can Threaten Electric Power Grid</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_storms" title="Template:Solar storms"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Solar_storms" title="Template talk:Solar storms"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Solar_storms" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Solar storms"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Solar_storms55" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Solar_storm" title="Solar storm">Solar storms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Solar_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar atmosphere">Solar atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_prominence" title="Solar prominence">Solar prominence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energetic_particles" title="Solar energetic particles">Solar energetic particles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radio_emission" title="Solar radio emission">Solar radio emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Active_region" title="Active region">Active region</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunspot" title="Sunspot">Sunspot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_hole" title="Coronal hole">Coronal hole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary space">Interplanetary space</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pickup_ion" title="Pickup ion">Pickup ion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_coronal_mass_ejection" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary coronal mass ejection">Interplanetary coronal mass ejection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forbush_decrease" title="Forbush decrease">Forbush decrease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_current_sheet" class="mw-redirect" title="Interplanetary current sheet">Interplanetary current sheet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">Interplanetary magnetic field</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomagnetically_induced_current" title="Geomagnetically induced current">Geomagnetically induced current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_storm_time_index" title="Disturbance storm time index">Disturbance storm time index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index" title="K-index">K-index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substorm" title="Substorm">Substorm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dungey_Cycle" title="Dungey Cycle">Dungey Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_hurricane" title="Space hurricane">Space hurricane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tornado" title="Space tornado">Space tornado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_pulsations" title="Magnetic pulsations">Magnetic pulsations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;"><a href="/wiki/Planetary_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary atmosphere">Planetary atmosphere</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auroral_chorus" title="Auroral chorus">Auroral chorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subauroral_ion_drift" title="Subauroral ion drift">Subauroral ion drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STEVE" title="STEVE">STEVE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudden_ionospheric_disturbance" title="Sudden ionospheric disturbance">Sudden ionospheric disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_level_enhancement" title="Ground level enhancement">Ground level enhancement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_crochet" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic crochet">Magnetic crochet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliophysics" title="Heliophysics">Heliophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cycle" title="Solar cycle">Solar cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_observation" title="Solar observation">Solar observation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div id="List_of_solar_storms55" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_solar_storms" title="List of solar storms">List of solar storms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">Before 1800</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/774%E2%80%93775_carbon-14_spike" title="774–775 carbon-14 spike">774–775 carbon-14 spike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/993%E2%80%93994_carbon-14_spike" title="993–994 carbon-14 spike">993–994 carbon-14 spike</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">1800s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carrington_Event" title="Carrington Event">Carrington Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1882_geomagnetic_storm" title="November 1882 geomagnetic storm">November 1882 geomagnetic storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">1900s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_1921_geomagnetic_storm" title="May 1921 geomagnetic storm">May 1921 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_1938_geomagnetic_storm" title="January 1938 geomagnetic storm">January 1938 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_1972_geomagnetic_storm" class="mw-redirect" title="August 1972 geomagnetic storm">August 1972 geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1989_geomagnetic_storm" title="March 1989 geomagnetic storm">March 1989 geomagnetic storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2000s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bastille_Day_solar_storm" title="Bastille Day solar storm">Bastille Day solar storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2003_Halloween_solar_storms" title="2003 Halloween solar storms">2003 Halloween solar storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2010s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/July_2012_solar_storm" title="July 2012 solar storm">July 2012 solar storm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: right;">2020s</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/May_2024_solar_storms" title="May 2024 solar storms">May 2024 solar storms</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Magnetospherics145" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Magnetospherics" title="Template:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Magnetospherics" title="Template talk:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Magnetospherics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Magnetospherics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Magnetospherics145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetospherics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Submagnetosphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_circulation" title="Atmospheric circulation">Atmospheric circulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora" title="Aurora">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">Geosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_stream" title="Jet stream">Jet stream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_wind" title="Polar wind">Polar wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earth's magnetosphere</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birkeland_current" title="Birkeland current">Birkeland current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bow_shock" title="Bow shock">Bow shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionosphere" title="Ionosphere">Ionosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetopause" title="Magnetopause">Magnetopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosheath" title="Magnetosheath">Magnetosheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_chronology" title="Magnetosphere chronology">Magnetosphere chronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_particle_motion" title="Magnetosphere particle motion">Magnetosphere particle motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmasphere" title="Plasmasphere">Plasmasphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_current" title="Ring current">Ring current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_radiation_belt" title="Van Allen radiation belt">Van Allen radiation belt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">Solar wind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_cloud" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnetic cloud">Magnetic cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronal_mass_ejection" title="Coronal mass ejection">Coronal mass ejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliosphere" title="Heliosphere">Heliosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_magnetic_field" title="Interplanetary magnetic field">Interplanetary magnetic field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliospheric_current_sheet" title="Heliospheric current sheet">Heliospheric current sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopause_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliopause (astronomy)">Heliopause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_particle_event" title="Solar particle event">Solar particle event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Space climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Satellites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Full list</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arase_(satellite)" title="Arase (satellite)">Arase</a> <small>(2016)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluster_II_(spacecraft)" title="Cluster II (spacecraft)">Cluster II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Star_(satellite)" title="Double Star (satellite)">Double Star</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotail" title="Geotail">Geotail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMAGE_(spacecraft)" title="IMAGE (spacecraft)">IMAGE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetospheric_Multiscale_Mission" title="Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission">MMS</a> <small>(2015)</small></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polar_(satellite)" title="Polar (satellite)">Polar</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/THEMIS" title="THEMIS">THEMIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Allen_Probes" title="Van Allen Probes">Van Allen Probes</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wind_(spacecraft)" title="Wind (spacecraft)">Wind</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EISCAT" title="EISCAT">EISCAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-frequency_Active_Auroral_Research_Program" title="High-frequency Active Auroral Research Program">HAARP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere_Auroral_Radar_Experiment" title="Southern Hemisphere Auroral Radar Experiment">SHARE</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unwin_Radar" title="Unwin Radar">Unwin Radar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_Dual_Auroral_Radar_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Super Dual Auroral Radar Network">SuperDARN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sura_Ionospheric_Heating_Facility" title="Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility">Sura Ionospheric Heating Facility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other magnetospheres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mercury%27s_magnetic_field" title="Mercury's magnetic field">Hermian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Venus#Induced_magnetosphere" title="Atmosphere of Venus">Venusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_of_the_Moon" title="Magnetic field of the Moon">Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field_of_Mars" title="Magnetic field of Mars">Martian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_of_Jupiter" title="Magnetosphere of Jupiter">Jovian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganymede_(moon)#Magnetosphere" title="Ganymede (moon)">Ganymedian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere_of_Saturn" title="Magnetosphere of Saturn">Saturnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uranus#Magnetosphere" title="Uranus">Uranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune#Magnetosphere" title="Neptune">Neptunian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flux_tube" title="Flux tube">Flux tube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_torus" title="Gas torus">Gas torus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_swirls" title="Lunar swirls">Lunar swirls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_system" title="Ring system">Ring systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Jupiter" title="Rings of Jupiter">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Uranus" title="Rings of Uranus">Uranus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Neptune" title="Rings of Neptune">Neptune</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll158" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_disasters" title="Template talk:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_disasters" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural disasters"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_disasters_–_list_by_death_toll158" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_disaster" title="Natural disaster">Natural disasters</a> – <a href="/wiki/List_of_natural_disasters_by_death_toll" title="List of natural disasters by death toll">list by death toll</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geological_hazard" title="Geological hazard">Geological</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">Mass wasting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landslide" title="Landslide">Landslide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche" title="Avalanche">Avalanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflow" title="Mudflow">Mudflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debris_flow" title="Debris flow">Debris flow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">Earthquake</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Lists_of_earthquakes" title="Lists of earthquakes">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_hazard" title="Seismic hazard">Seismic hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seismic_risk" title="Seismic risk">Seismic risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_liquefaction" title="Soil liquefaction">Soil liquefaction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Types_of_volcanic_eruptions" title="Types of volcanic eruptions">Volcano eruption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyroclastic_flow" title="Pyroclastic flow">Pyroclastic flow</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahar" title="Lahar">Lahar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_ash" title="Volcanic ash">Volcanic ash</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Natural erosion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">Sinkhole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hydrological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Flood</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_floods" title="List of floods">List</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_flood" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal flood">Coastal flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">Flash flood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">Storm surge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">Tsunami</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megatsunami" title="Megatsunami">Megatsunami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnic_eruption" title="Limnic eruption">Limnic eruption</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Meteorological</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Temperature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blizzard" title="Blizzard">Blizzard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_wave" title="Cold wave">Cold wave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storm" title="Ice storm">Ice storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_wave" title="Heat wave">Heat wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">Drought</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Megadrought" title="Megadrought">Megadrought</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cyclonic storms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bomb_cyclone" class="mw-redirect" title="Bomb cyclone">Bomb cyclone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderstorm" title="Thunderstorm">Thunderstorm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hail" title="Hail">Hail</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tornado" title="Tornado">Tornado</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tornado_outbreak" title="Tornado outbreak">Tornado outbreak</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone" title="Tropical cyclone">Tropical cyclone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Derecho" title="Derecho">Derecho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildfire" title="Wildfire">Wildfire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Firestorm" title="Firestorm">Firestorm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ARkStorm" title="ARkStorm">ARkStorm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Astronomical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object" title="Potentially hazardous object">Potentially hazardous object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_event" title="Impact event">Impact event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meteor_shower" title="Meteor shower">Meteor shower</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Geomagnetic storm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_flare" title="Solar flare">Solar flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">Supernova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypernova" title="Hypernova">Hypernova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style 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.portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer 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Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4130056-7">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Magnetic storms"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85079747">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Orages magnétiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119779908">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Orages magnétiques"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119779908">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00574726">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="magnetické bouře"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph913798&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007543557205171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=60241">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&oldid=1270848986">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Geomagnetic_storm&oldid=1270848986</a>"</div></div> <div 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