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<span>Origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Paganism_and_Christianity_in_the_Renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paganism_and_Christianity_in_the_Renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Paganism_and_Christianity_in_the_Renaissance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Paganism_and_Christianity_in_the_Renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Description" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Description"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Description</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Description-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epicureanism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epicureanism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Epicureanism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epicureanism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-Platonism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-Platonism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Neo-Platonism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-Platonism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_and_reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_and_reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Evolution and reception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_and_reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Evolution and reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_and_reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Individual_freedom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individual_freedom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Individual freedom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individual_freedom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sixteenth_century_and_beyond" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Sixteenth century and beyond</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sixteenth_century_and_beyond-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Historiography subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Baron_Thesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Baron_Thesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>The Baron Thesis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Baron_Thesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Garin_and_Kristeller" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Garin_and_Kristeller"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Garin and Kristeller</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Garin_and_Kristeller-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-I.R._Grigulevich" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#I.R._Grigulevich"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>I.R. Grigulevich</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-I.R._Grigulevich-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humanist" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humanist"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Humanist</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humanist-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Renaissance humanism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B6%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="النهضة الإنسانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="النهضة الإنسانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ntibah_humanizmi" title="İntibah humanizmi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İntibah humanizmi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%81_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="রেনেসাঁ মানবতাবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রেনেসাঁ মানবতাবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Ренесансов хуманизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ренесансов хуманизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismus" title="Humanismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Humanismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyneiddiaeth_y_Dadeni" title="Dyneiddiaeth y Dadeni – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dyneiddiaeth y Dadeni" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A6ssancehumanisme" title="Renæssancehumanisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Renæssancehumanisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance-Humanismus" title="Renaissance-Humanismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Renaissance-Humanismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%BD%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Αναγεννησιακός ουμανισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αναγεννησιακός ουμανισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismo_renacentista" title="Humanismo renacentista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Humanismo renacentista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesanca_Humanismo" title="Renesanca Humanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Renesanca Humanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pizkundeko_humanismo" title="Pizkundeko humanismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pizkundeko humanismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="انسان‌گرایی رنسانس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انسان‌گرایی رنسانس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanisme_de_la_Renaissance" title="Humanisme de la Renaissance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Humanisme de la Renaissance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umanisim" title="Umanisim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Umanisim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismo_renacentista" title="Humanismo renacentista – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Humanismo renacentista" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A5%B4%EB%84%A4%EC%83%81%EC%8A%A4_%EC%9D%B8%EB%AC%B8%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98%EC%9E%90" title="르네상스 인문주의자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="르네상스 인문주의자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8E%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AE%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%AB_%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Վերածննդի հումանիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Վերածննդի հումանիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanisme_Renaisans" title="Humanisme Renaisans – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Humanisme Renaisans" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fornmenntastefna" title="Fornmenntastefna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fornmenntastefna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umanesimo" title="Umanesimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Umanesimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%83_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%8B_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Кайра жаралуу доорундагы гуманизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Кайра жаралуу доорундагы гуманизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umanisme_de_la_Renase" title="Umanisme de la Renase – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Umanisme de la Renase" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Хуманизам и ренесанса – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Хуманизам и ренесанса" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissancehumanisme" title="Renaissancehumanisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Renaissancehumanisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renessansehumanisme" title="Renessansehumanisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Renessansehumanisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesans_yuumanizim" title="Renesans yuumanizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Renesans yuumanizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanizm_renesansowy" title="Humanizm renesansowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Humanizm renesansowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismo_renascentista" title="Humanismo renascentista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Humanismo renascentista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umanism_renascentist" title="Umanism renascentist – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Umanism renascentist" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Ренессансный гуманизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ренессансный гуманизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanizmi_i_Rilindjes" title="Humanizmi i Rilindjes – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Humanizmi i Rilindjes" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renesan%C4%8Dn%C3%BD_humanizmus" title="Renesančný humanizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Renesančný humanizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Ренесансни хуманизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" 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href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanismong_Renasimiyento" title="Humanismong Renasimiyento – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Humanismong Renasimiyento" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2" title="มนุษยนิยมสมัยฟื้นฟูศิลปวิทยา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="มนุษยนิยมสมัยฟื้นฟูศิลปวิทยา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance Humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Revival in the study of Classical antiquity</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the study of the humanities during the Renaissance. Not to be confused with the broader human-centered philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> or the specifically religious approach, <a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/250px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/374px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/499px-Giorgio_Vasari_-_Six_Tuscan_Poets_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4706" data-file-height="4751" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Medieval</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Italian writers portrayed by <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/Six_Tuscan_Poets" title="Six Tuscan Poets">Six Tuscan Poets</a></i> (1544). From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Cristoforo_Landino" title="Cristoforo Landino">Cristoforo Landino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Petrarca" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco Petrarca">Francesco Petrarca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guido_Cavalcanti" title="Guido Cavalcanti">Guido Cavalcanti</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Humanism" title="Category:Humanism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Vitruvianischer_Mann.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vitruvianischer_Mann.png/75px-Vitruvianischer_Mann.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vitruvianischer_Mann.png/113px-Vitruvianischer_Mann.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Vitruvianischer_Mann.png/150px-Vitruvianischer_Mann.png 2x" data-file-width="2468" data-file-height="2493" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">History</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renaissance humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">in Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism_in_France" title="Humanism in France">in France</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Manifesto" title="Humanist Manifesto">Humanist Manifesto</a></i></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Forms</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existential_humanism" title="Existential humanism">Existential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_humanism_(India)" title="Integral humanism (India)">Integral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_humanism" title="Marxist humanism">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neohumanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neohumanism">Neo-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panhumanism" title="Panhumanism">Pan-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personism" title="Personism">Personism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalist_humanism" title="Rationalist humanism">Rationalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_humanism" title="Religious humanism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-humanism">Super-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_humanism" title="Theistic humanism">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Trans-</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_humanism" title="Transcendental humanism">Transcendental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Movement" title="Humanist Movement">Universal</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Organizations</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humanist_International" title="Humanist International">Humanist International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanists_International" title="Humanists International">Humanists International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Humanist_Association" title="American Humanist Association">American Humanist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanists_UK" title="Humanists UK">Humanists UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistischer_Verband_Deutschlands" title="Humanistischer Verband Deutschlands">Humanistischer Verband Deutschlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanist_Society_Scotland" title="Humanist Society Scotland">Humanist Society Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_Humanist_Association" title="Norwegian Humanist Association">Norwegian Humanist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Ethical_Humanist_Association" title="Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association">Icelandic Ethical Humanist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanists_Sweden" title="Humanists Sweden">Humanists Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Inquiry" title="Center for Inquiry">Center for Inquiry</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">See also</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Humanity" title="Religion of Humanity">Religion of Humanity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_movement" title="Ethical movement">Ethical movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_psychology" title="Humanistic psychology">Humanistic psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_economics" title="Humanistic economics">Humanistic economics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="font-weight:normal;"> <div class="hlist" style="font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of humanism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Humanism" title="Category:Humanism">Category</a></li></ul> </div> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanism" title="Template:Humanism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanism" title="Template talk:Humanism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Renaissance humanism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">worldview</a> centered on the nature and importance of humanity that emerged from the study of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a>. </p><p>Renaissance humanists sought to create a <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizenry</a> able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity, and thus capable of engaging in the <a href="/wiki/Civic_engagement" title="Civic engagement">civic life</a> of their communities and persuading others to <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtuous</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">prudent</a> actions. Humanism, while set up by a small elite who had access to books and education, was intended as a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">cultural movement</a> to influence all of society. It was a program to revive the cultural heritage, literary legacy, and moral philosophy of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Greco-Roman civilization">Greco-Roman civilization</a>. </p><p>It first began <a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">in Italy</a> and then spread across <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. During the period, the term <i>humanist</i> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: <i lang="it">umanista</i>) referred to teachers and students of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, known as the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Studia_humanitatis" class="mw-redirect" title="Studia humanitatis">studia humanitatis</a></i></span>, which included the study of <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> literatures, <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">poetry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral philosophy</a>. It was not until the 19th century that this began to be called <i>humanism</i> instead of the original <i>humanities</i>, and later by the <a href="/wiki/Retronym" title="Retronym">retronym</a> <i>Renaissance humanism</i> to distinguish it from later humanist developments.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Renaissance period">Renaissance period</a> most humanists were <a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christians</a>, so their concern was to "purify and renew <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>", not to do away with it. Their vision was to return <i><a href="/wiki/Ad_fontes" title="Ad fontes">ad fontes</a></i> ("to the pure sources") to <a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">the Gospels</a>, the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>, bypassing the complexities of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">medieval Christian theology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Very broadly, the project of the Italian Renaissance humanists of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was the <i>studia humanitatis</i>: the study of the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, "a curriculum focusing on language skills."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This project sought to recover the culture of ancient Greece and Rome through its literature and philosophy and to use this classical revival to imbue the ruling classes with the moral attitudes of said ancients—a project <a href="/wiki/James_Hankins" title="James Hankins">James Hankins</a> calls one of "virtue politics."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But what this <i>studia humanitatis</i> actually constituted is a subject of much debate. According to one scholar of the movement, </p> <blockquote><p>Early Italian humanism, which in many respects continued the grammatical and rhetorical traditions of the Middle Ages, not merely provided the old <a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a> with a new and more ambitious name (<i>Studia humanitatis</i>), but also increased its actual scope, content and significance in the curriculum of the schools and universities and in its own extensive literary production. The <i>studia humanitatis</i> excluded logic, but they added to the traditional grammar and rhetoric not only history, <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and moral philosophy, but also made poetry, once a sequel of grammar and rhetoric, the most important member of the whole group.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>However, in investigating this definition in his article "The changing concept of the <i>studia humanitatis</i> in the early Renaissance," Benjamin G. Kohl provides an account of the various meanings the term took on over the course of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><ul><li>Around the middle of the fourteenth century, when the term first came into use among Italian <i><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">literati</a></i>, it was used in reference to a very specific text: as praise of the cultural and moral attitudes expressed in <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>'s <i>Pro Archia poeta</i> (62 BCE).</li> <li>Tuscan humanist <a href="/wiki/Coluccio_Salutati" title="Coluccio Salutati">Coluccio Salutati</a> popularized the term in the 1370s, using the phrase to refer to culture and learning as a guide to moral life, with a focus on rhetoric and oration. Over the years, he came to use it specifically in literary praise of his contemporaries, but later viewed the <i>studia humanitatis</i> as a means of editing and restoring ancient texts and even understanding scripture and other divine literature.</li> <li>But it was not until the beginning of the <a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">quattrocento</a> (15th century) that the <i>studia humanitatis</i> began to be associated with particular academic disciplines, when <a href="/wiki/Pier_Paolo_Vergerio" title="Pier Paolo Vergerio">Pier Paolo Vergerio</a>, in his <i>De ingenuis moribus</i>, stressed the importance of rhetoric, history, and moral philosophy as a means of moral improvement.</li> <li>By the middle of the century, the term was adopted more formally, as it started to be used in Bologna and Padua in reference to university courses that taught these disciplines as well as Latin poetry, before then spreading northward throughout Italy.</li> <li>But the first instance of it as encompassing grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy all together only came when <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Tommaso Parentucelli</a> wrote to <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_de%27_Medici" title="Cosimo de' Medici">Cosimo de' Medici</a> with recommendations regarding his library collection, saying, <i>"de studiis autem humanitatis quantum ad grammaticam, rhetoricam, historicam et poeticam spectat ac moralem"</i> ("concerning studies of the humanities, insofar as they [consist of] grammar, rhetoric, history and poetry, and also ethics").<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>And so, the term <i>studia humanitatis</i> took on a variety of meanings over the centuries, being used differently by humanists across the various Italian city-states as one definition got adopted and spread across the country. Still, it has referred consistently to a mode of learning—formal or not—that results in one's moral edification.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the influence and inspiration of the <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classics</a>, Renaissance humanists developed a new rhetoric and new learning. Some scholars also argue that humanism articulated new <a href="/wiki/Moral_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral philosophy">moral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civic_engagement" title="Civic engagement">civic</a> perspectives, and <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a> offering guidance in life to all <a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">citizens</a>. Renaissance humanism was a response to what came to be depicted by later <a href="/wiki/Whig_historians" class="mw-redirect" title="Whig historians">whig historians</a> as the "narrow pedantry" associated with medieval <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/250px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/375px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg/500px-%22The_School_of_Athens%22_by_Raffaello_Sanzio_da_Urbino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3820" data-file-height="2964" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i> (1509–1511) by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_architecture" title="Renaissance architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_dance" title="Renaissance dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_art" title="Renaissance art">Fine arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_literature" title="Renaissance literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_music" title="Renaissance music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Warfare</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> Regions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance" title="English Renaissance">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Renaissance" title="French Renaissance">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Renaissance" title="German Renaissance">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Poland" title="Renaissance in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Renaissance" title="Portuguese Renaissance">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Renaissance" title="Spanish Renaissance">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_Scotland" title="Renaissance in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Renaissance" title="Northern Renaissance">Northern Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_in_the_Low_Countries" title="Renaissance in the Low Countries">Low Countries</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background-color:lavender;"> History and study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continuity_thesis" title="Continuity thesis">Continuity thesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px #aaa solid;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Renaissance" title="Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Renaissance" title="Template talk:Renaissance"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Renaissance"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg/250px-Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg/375px-Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg/500px-Fiorenza_Frontispiece.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2497" data-file-height="3379" /></a><figcaption>Frontispiece depicting <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Petrarca" class="mw-redirect" title="Francesco Petrarca">Francesco Petrarca</a> with the coat of arms of the <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_I_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany">Medici</a>–<a href="/wiki/Eleanor_of_Toledo" title="Eleanor of Toledo">Toledo</a> family on top.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the last years of the <a href="/wiki/13th_century" title="13th century">13th century</a> and in the first decades of the <a href="/wiki/14th_century" title="14th century">14th century</a>, the cultural climate was changing in some European regions. The rediscovery, study, and renewed interest in authors who had been forgotten, and in the classical world that they represented, inspired a flourishing return to linguistic, stylistic and literary models of antiquity. There emerged a consciousness of the need for a cultural renewal, which sometimes also meant a detachment from contemporary culture. Manuscripts and inscriptions were in high demand and graphic models were also imitated. This "return to the ancients" was the main component of so-called "pre-humanism", which developed particularly in <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> region, and at the papal court of <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a>, through the activity of figures such as <a href="/wiki/Lovato_Lovati" title="Lovato Lovati">Lovato Lovati</a> and <a href="/wiki/Albertino_Mussato" title="Albertino Mussato">Albertino Mussato</a> in Padua, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Landolfo_Colonna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landolfo Colonna (page does not exist)">Landolfo Colonna</a> in Avignon, <a href="/wiki/Ferreto_de%27_Ferreti" title="Ferreto de' Ferreti">Ferreto de' Ferreti</a> in Vicenza, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Convenevole_from_Prato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Convenevole from Prato (page does not exist)">Convenevole from Prato</a> in Tuscany and then in <a href="/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a>, and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 14th century some of the first humanists were great collectors of antique <a href="/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">manuscripts</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Boccaccio" title="Giovanni Boccaccio">Giovanni Boccaccio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coluccio_Salutati" title="Coluccio Salutati">Coluccio Salutati</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Poggio_Bracciolini" title="Poggio Bracciolini">Poggio Bracciolini</a>. Of the four, Petrarch was dubbed the "Father of Humanism," as he was the one who first encouraged the study of pagan civilizations and the teaching of classical virtues as a means of preserving Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also had a <a href="/wiki/Petrarch%27s_library" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrarch's library">library</a>, of which many manuscripts did not survive.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Many worked for the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> and were in <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">holy orders</a>, like Petrarch, while others were <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chancellor" title="Chancellor">chancellors</a> of Italian cities, and thus had access to book copying workshops, such as Petrarch's disciple <a href="/wiki/Salutati" class="mw-redirect" title="Salutati">Salutati</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Florence" title="Chancellor of Florence">Chancellor of Florence</a>. </p><p>In Italy, the humanist educational program won rapid acceptance and, by the mid-15th century, many of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">upper classes</a> had received humanist educations, possibly in addition to traditional <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> ones. Some of the highest officials of the Catholic Church were humanists with the resources to amass important libraries. Such was Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Basilios_Bessarion" class="mw-redirect" title="Basilios Bessarion">Basilios Bessarion</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">convert</a> to the Catholic Church from <a href="/wiki/Greek_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek Orthodoxy">Greek Orthodoxy</a>, who was considered for the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a>, and was one of the most learned scholars of his time. There were several 15th-century and early 16th-century humanist Popes<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> one of whom, <a href="/wiki/Aeneas_Silvius_Piccolomini" class="mw-redirect" title="Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini">Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini</a> (Pope Pius II), was a prolific author and wrote a treatise on <i>The Education of Boys</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These subjects came to be known as the humanities, and the movement which they inspired is shown as humanism. </p><p>The migration waves of <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Byzantine Greek scholars</a> and émigrés in the period following the Crusader <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople_(1204)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Constantinople (1204)">sacking of Constantinople</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">end of the Byzantine Empire</a> in 1453 was a very welcome addition to the Latin texts scholars like Petrarch had found in monastic libraries<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the revival of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> literature and science via their greater familiarity with ancient Greek works.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They included <a href="/wiki/Gemistus_Pletho" class="mw-redirect" title="Gemistus Pletho">Gemistus Pletho</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_of_Trebizond" title="George of Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theodorus_Gaza" title="Theodorus Gaza">Theodorus Gaza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Argyropoulos" title="John Argyropoulos">John Argyropoulos</a>. </p><p>There were important centres of Renaissance humanism in <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ferrara" title="Ferrara">Ferrara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livorno" title="Livorno">Livorno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantua" title="Mantua">Mantua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vicenza" title="Vicenza">Vicenza</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Urbino" title="Urbino">Urbino</a>. </p><p>Italian humanism spread northward to <a href="/wiki/Humanism_in_France" title="Humanism in France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a>, Poland-Lithuania, Hungary and <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> with the adoption of large-scale printing after 1500, and it became associated with the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>. In France, pre-eminent humanist <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Bud%C3%A9" title="Guillaume Budé">Guillaume Budé</a> (1467–1540) applied the <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philological</a> methods of Italian humanism to the study of antique <a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coinage</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a>, composing a detailed commentary on <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Justinian's Code</a>. Budé was a <a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">royal absolutist</a> (and not a <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republican</a> like the early Italian <i>umanisti</i>) who was active in civic life, serving as a <a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">diplomat</a> for <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_I" class="mw-redirect" title="François I">François I</a> and helping to found the <a href="/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_France" title="Collège de France">Collège des Lecteurs Royaux</a> (later the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;">Collège de France</span></span>). Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Marguerite_de_Navarre" title="Marguerite de Navarre">Marguerite de Navarre</a>, the sister of François I, was a <a href="/wiki/Poet" title="Poet">poet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novelist" title="Novelist">novelist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Religious_mystic" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious mystic">religious mystic</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who gathered around her and protected a circle of vernacular poets and writers, including <a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A9ment_Marot" title="Clément Marot">Clément Marot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Ronsard" title="Pierre de Ronsard">Pierre de Ronsard</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Rabelais" title="François Rabelais">François Rabelais</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Paganism_and_Christianity_in_the_Renaissance">Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Paganism and Christianity in the Renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many humanists were churchmen, most notably Pope Pius II, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_IV" title="Pope Sixtus IV">Sixtus IV</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and there was often patronage of humanists by senior church figures.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much humanist effort went into improving the understanding and translations of Biblical and early Christian texts, both before and after the Reformation, which was greatly influenced by the work of non-Italian, Northern European figures such as <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lef%C3%A8vre_d%27%C3%89taples" title="Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples">Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Grocyn" title="William Grocyn">William Grocyn</a>, and Swedish Catholic Archbishop in exile <a href="/wiki/Olaus_Magnus" title="Olaus Magnus">Olaus Magnus</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Description">Description</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Description"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> describes the <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> of ancient writings as having tremendous impact on <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> scholars: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Here, one felt no weight of the supernatural pressing on the human mind, demanding homage and allegiance. Humanity—with all its distinct capabilities, talents, worries, problems, possibilities—was the center of interest. It has been said that medieval thinkers philosophised on their knees, but, bolstered by the new studies, they dared to stand up and to rise to full stature.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 1417, for example, <a href="/wiki/Poggio_Bracciolini" title="Poggio Bracciolini">Poggio Bracciolini</a> discovered the manuscript of <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i>, which had been lost for centuries and which contained an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean doctrine</a>, though at the time this was not commented on much by Renaissance scholars, who confined themselves to remarks about Lucretius's grammar and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. </p><p>Only in 1564 did French commentator Denys Lambin (1519–72) announce in the preface to the work that "he regarded Lucretius's Epicurean ideas as 'fanciful, absurd, and opposed to Christianity'." Lambin's preface remained standard until the nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Epicurus's unacceptable doctrine that pleasure was the highest good "ensured the unpopularity of his philosophy".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Valla" title="Lorenzo Valla">Lorenzo Valla</a>, however, puts a defense of epicureanism in the mouth of one of the interlocutors of one of his dialogues. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Epicureanism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Charles Trinkhaus regards Valla's "epicureanism" as a ploy, not seriously meant by Valla, but designed to refute Stoicism, which he regarded together with epicureanism as equally inferior to Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Valla's defense, or adaptation, of Epicureanism was later taken up in <i>The Epicurean</i> by <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, the "Prince of humanists:" </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>If people who live agreeably are <a href="/wiki/Epicureans" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicureans">Epicureans</a>, none are more truly <a href="/wiki/Epicurean" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicurean">Epicurean</a> than the righteous and godly. And if it is names that bother us, no one better deserves the name of Epicurean than the revered founder and head of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> philosophy <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, for in Greek <i>epikouros</i> means "helper". He alone, when the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Nature">law of Nature</a> was all but blotted out by sins, when the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Moses" title="Law of Moses">law of Moses</a> incited to lists rather than cured them, when <a href="/wiki/Satan" title="Satan">Satan</a> ruled in the world unchallenged, brought timely aid to perishing humanity. Completely mistaken, therefore, are those who talk in their foolish fashion about Christ's having been sad and gloomy in character and calling upon us to follow a dismal mode of life. On the contrary, he alone shows the most enjoyable life of all and the one most full of true pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-Lepage2012_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lepage2012-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This passage exemplifies the way in which the humanists saw pagan <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">classical works</a>, such as the philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>, as being in harmony with their interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-Platonism">Neo-Platonism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Neo-Platonism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Platonism_in_the_Renaissance" title="Platonism in the Renaissance">Renaissance Neo-Platonists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Marsilio_Ficino" title="Marsilio Ficino">Marsilio Ficino</a> (whose translations of Plato's works into Latin were still used into the 19th century) attempted to reconcile <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> with Christianity, according to the suggestions of early Church Fathers <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Saint Augustine</a>. In this spirit, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola</a> attempted to construct a <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> of religions and philosophies with Christianity, but his work did not win favor with the church authorities, who rejected it because of his views on magic.<sup id="cite_ref-O'Callaghan2012_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-O'Callaghan2012-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_and_reception">Evolution and reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Evolution and reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The historian of the Renaissance <a href="/wiki/John_Rigby_Hale" title="John Rigby Hale">Sir John Hale</a> cautions against too direct a linkage between Renaissance humanism and modern uses of the term humanism: "Renaissance humanism must be kept free from any hint of either 'humanitarianism' or 'humanism' in its modern sense of rational, non-religious approach to life ... the word 'humanism' will mislead ... if it is seen in opposition to a Christianity its students in the main wished to supplement, not contradict, through their patient excavation of the sources of ancient God-inspired wisdom."<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Individual_freedom">Individual freedom</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Individual freedom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Historian Steven Kreis expresses a widespread view (derived from the 19th-century Swiss historian <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Burckhardt" title="Jacob Burckhardt">Jacob Burckhardt</a>), when he writes that: </p><blockquote><p>The period from the fourteenth century to the seventeenth worked in favor of the general emancipation of the individual. The city-states of northern Italy had come into contact with the diverse customs of the East, and gradually permitted expression in matters of taste and dress. The writings of Dante, and particularly the doctrines of Petrarch and humanists like Machiavelli, emphasized the virtues of intellectual freedom and individual expression. In the essays of Montaigne the individualistic view of life received perhaps the most persuasive and eloquent statement in the history of literature and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Two noteworthy trends in some Renaissance humanists were Renaissance Neo-Platonism and <a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a>, which through the works of figures like <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Kues" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas of Kues">Nicholas of Kues</a>, <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Agrippa" class="mw-redirect" title="Cornelius Agrippa">Cornelius Agrippa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tommaso_Campanella" title="Tommaso Campanella">Campanella</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a> sometimes came close to constituting a new religion itself.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (September 2024)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> Of these two, Hermeticism has had great continuing influence in Western thought, while the former mostly dissipated as an intellectual trend, leading to movements in <a href="/wiki/Western_esotericism" title="Western esotericism">Western esotericism</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Theosophy_(Blavatskian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theosophy (Blavatskian)">Theosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> thinking.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "Yates thesis" of <a href="/wiki/Frances_Yates" title="Frances Yates">Frances Yates</a> holds that before falling out of favour, esoteric Renaissance thought introduced several concepts that were useful for the development of scientific method, though this remains a matter of controversy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sixteenth_century_and_beyond">Sixteenth century and beyond</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Sixteenth century and beyond"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>-era literature</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Overview</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Sixteenth_century_and_beyond">16th-century Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_Reformation" title="Propaganda during the Reformation">Reformation-era propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_poetry" title="16th century in poetry">16th century in poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_century_in_literature" title="16th century in literature">16th century in literature</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">British</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_literature" title="Elizabethan literature">Elizabethan</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature#Early_modern_era" title="Scottish literature">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature#The_manuscript_tradition" title="Irish literature">Anglo-Irish</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_poets" title="Metaphysical poets">Metaphysical poets</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_Renaissance_theatre" title="English Renaissance theatre">English Renaissance theatre</a></li></ul></div><div class="hlist"> <li><a href="/wiki/Pastoral#Pastoral_plays" title="Pastoral">Pastoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_play" title="Morality play">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_(theatrical_genre)#Early_Modern_Origins" title="History (theatrical genre)">History</a></li></div><div class="hlist"> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy#Britain" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenge_play" title="Revenge play">Revenge</a></li> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Continental</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Czech_literature#Reformation" title="Czech literature">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_literature#German_Renaissance_and_Reformation" title="German literature">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_literature#Emergence_of_vernacular_literature" title="Swiss literature">Swiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_literature#1500–1650" title="Slovak literature">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorbian_literature" title="Sorbian literature">Sorbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_literature#Beginnings" title="Romanian literature">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohori%C4%8D_alphabet" title="Bohorič alphabet">Bohorič alphabet</a></li></ul> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Renaissance_and_Golden_Age_literature" title="Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age literature">Dutch Renaissance and Golden Age</a> </p> <a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_Low_Countries#In_folk_tales" title="Folklore of the Low Countries">Folklore of the Low Countries</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#89CFF0;;background:#89CFF0;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)">Scandinavian</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danish_literature#16th_and_17th_centuries" title="Danish literature">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_literature#Reformation_era" title="Faroese literature">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_literature#"Four_Hundred_Years_of_Darkness"" title="Norwegian literature">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_literature#Reformation_literature" title="Swedish literature">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_literature#Pre-nineteenth_century" title="Finnish literature">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_literature#Middle_Icelandic_literature" title="Icelandic literature">Icelandic</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Reformation_literature" title="Template talk:Reformation literature"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Reformation literature"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Though humanists continued to use their scholarship in the service of the church into the middle of the sixteenth century and beyond, the sharply confrontational religious atmosphere following the Reformation resulted in the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> that sought to silence challenges to <a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">Catholic theology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with similar efforts among the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_denominations" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant denominations">Protestant denominations</a>. Some humanists, even moderate Catholics such as <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a>, risked being declared heretics for their perceived criticism of the institutional church.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A number of humanists joined the Reformation movement and took over leadership functions, for example, <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulrich_Zwingli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulrich Zwingli">Ulrich Zwingli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/William_Tyndale" title="William Tyndale">William Tyndale</a>. </p><p>With the Counter-Reformation initiated by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> (1545–1563), positions hardened and a strict Catholic orthodoxy based on scholastic philosophy was imposed. However the education systems developed by Jesuits ran on humanist lines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historiography">Historiography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Baron_Thesis">The Baron Thesis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: The Baron Thesis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hans_Baron" title="Hans Baron">Hans Baron</a> (1900–1988) was the inventor of the now ubiquitous term "civic humanism." First coined in the 1920s and based largely on his studies of Leonardo Bruni, Baron's "thesis" proposed the existence of a central strain of humanism, particularly in Florence and Venice, dedicated to republicanism. </p><p>As argued in his <i><a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">chef-d'œuvre</a></i>, <i>The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance: Civic Humanism and Republican Liberty in an Age of Classicism and Tyranny</i>, the German historian thought that civic humanism originated in around 1402, after the great struggles between Florence and Visconti-led Milan in the 1390s. He considered Petrarch's humanism to be a rhetorical, superficial project, and viewed this new strand to be one that abandoned the feudal and supposedly "otherworldly" (i.e., divine) ideology of the Middle Ages in favour of putting the republican state and its freedom at the forefront of the "civic humanist" project.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Already controversial at the time of <i>The Crisis</i>' publication, the "Baron Thesis" has been met with even more criticism over the years. </p><p>Even in the 1960s, historians <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philip_James_Jones&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philip James Jones (page does not exist)">Philip Jones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Herde" title="Peter Herde">Peter Herde</a><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> found Baron's praise of "republican" humanists naive, arguing that republics were far less liberty-driven than Baron had believed, and were practically as undemocratic as monarchies. James Hankins adds that the disparity in political values between the humanists employed by oligarchies and those employed by princes was not particularly notable, as all of Baron's civic ideals were exemplified by humanists serving various types of government. In so arguing, he asserts that a "political reform program is central to the humanist movement founded by Petrarch. But it is not a 'republican' project in Baron's sense of republic; it is not an ideological product associated with a particular regime type."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Garin_and_Kristeller">Garin and Kristeller</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Garin and Kristeller"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two renowned Renaissance scholars, <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Garin" title="Eugenio Garin">Eugenio Garin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Oskar_Kristeller" title="Paul Oskar Kristeller">Paul Oskar Kristeller</a> collaborated with one another throughout their careers. But while the two historians were on good terms, they fundamentally disagreed on the nature of Renaissance humanism. </p> <ul><li>Kristeller affirmed that Renaissance humanism used to be viewed just as a project of Classical revival, one that led to great increase in Classical scholarship. But he argued that this theory "fails to explain the ideal of eloquence persistently set forth in the writings of the humanists," asserting that "their classical learning was incidental to" their being "professional rhetoricians."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, he considered their influence on philosophy and particular figures' philosophical output to be incidental to their humanism, viewing grammar, rhetoric, poetry, history, and ethics to be the humanists' main concerns.</li> <li>Garin, on the other hand, viewed philosophy itself as being ever-evolving, each form of philosophy being inextricable from the practices of the thinkers of its period. He thus considered the Italian humanists' break from Scholasticism and newfound freedom to be perfectly in line with this broader sense of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>During the period in which they argued over these differing views, there was a broader cultural conversation happening regarding Humanism: one revolving around <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a>. </p> <ul><li>In 1946, Sartre published a work called <i>"L'existentialisme est un humanisme</i>," in which he outlined his conception of existentialism as revolving around the belief that "<i>existence</i> comes before <i>essence</i>"; that man "first of all exists, encounters himself, surges up in the world – and defines himself afterwards," making himself and giving himself purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Heidegger, in a response to this work of Sartre's, declared: "For this is humanism: meditating and caring, that human beings be human and not inhumane, "inhuman", that is, outside their essence."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also discussed a decline in the concept of humanism, pronouncing that it had been dominated by metaphysics and essentially discounting it as philosophy. He also explicitly criticized Italian Renaissance humanism in the letter.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>While this discourse was taking place outside the realm of Renaissance Studies (for more on the evolution of the term "humanism," see <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a>), this background debate was not irrelevant to Kristeller and Garin's ongoing disagreement. Kristeller—who had at one point studied under Heidegger<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—also discounted (Renaissance) humanism as philosophy, and Garin's <i>Der italienische Humanismus</i> was published alongside Heidegger's response to Sartre—a move that Rubini describes as an attempt "to stage a pre-emptive confrontation between historical humanism and philosophical neo-humanisms."<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Garin also conceived of the Renaissance humanists as occupying the same kind of "characteristic angst the existentialists attributed to men who had suddenly become conscious of their radical freedom," further weaving philosophy with Renaissance humanism.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hankins summarizes the Kristeller v. Garin debate as: </p> <ul><li>Kristeller conceives of professional philosophers as being very formal and method-focused.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renaissance humanists, on the other hand, he viewed to be professional rhetoricians who, using their classically-inspired <i><a href="/wiki/Paideia" title="Paideia">paideia</a></i> or <i>institutio</i>, did improve fields such as philosophy, but without the practice of philosophy being their main goal or function.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Garin, instead, wanted his "humanist-philosophers to be organic intellectuals," not constituting a rigid school of thought, but having a shared outlook on life and education that broke with the medieval traditions that came before them.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_35-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="I.R._Grigulevich">I.R. Grigulevich</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: I.R. Grigulevich"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to Russian historian and Stalinist assassin <a href="/wiki/Iosif_Grigulevich" title="Iosif Grigulevich">Iosif Grigulevich</a> two characteristic traits of late Renaissance humanism were "its revolt against abstract, Aristotelian modes of thought and its concern with the problems of war, poverty, and social injustice."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Humanist">Humanist</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Humanist"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Renaissance_humanists" title="List of Renaissance humanists">List of Renaissance humanists</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Greek scholars in the Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_humanists" title="Legal humanists">Legal humanists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Learning" title="New Learning">New Learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism_in_Northern_Europe" title="Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe">Renaissance humanism in Northern Europe</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://collections.artsmia.org/art/1850/six-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari">"Six Tuscan Poets, Giorgio Vasari"</a>. <i>collections.artsmia.org</i>. <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis,_Minnesota" class="mw-redirect" title="Minneapolis, Minnesota">Minneapolis, Minnesota</a>: <a href="/wiki/Minneapolis_Institute_of_Art" title="Minneapolis Institute of Art">Minneapolis Institute of Art</a>. 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230617020304/https://collections.artsmia.org/art/1850/six-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=collections.artsmia.org&rft.atitle=Six+Tuscan+Poets%2C+Giorgio+Vasari&rft.date=2023&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcollections.artsmia.org%2Fart%2F1850%2Fsix-tuscan-poets-giorgio-vasari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i>la rinascita</i> (rebirth) first appeared, however, in its broad sense in <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Vite_de%27_pi%C3%B9_eccellenti_architetti,_pittori,_et_scultori_Italiani" class="mw-redirect" title="Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani">Vite de' più eccellenti architetti, pittori, et scultori Italiani</a></i> (The Lives of the Artists, 1550, revised 1568) <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Panofsky" title="Erwin Panofsky">Panofsky, Erwin</a>. <i>Renaissance and Renascences in Western Art</i>, New York: Harper and Row, 1960. "The term <i>umanista</i> was used in fifteenth-century Italian academic slang to describe a teacher or student of classical literature and the arts associated with it, including that of rhetoric. The English equivalent 'humanist' makes its appearance in the late sixteenth century with a similar meaning. Only in the nineteenth century, however, and probably for the first time in <a href="/wiki/Humanism_in_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanism in Germany">Germany</a> in 1809, is the attribute transformed into a substantive: <i>humanism</i>, standing for devotion to the literature of ancient Greece and Rome, and the humane values that may be derived from them" Nicholas Mann "The Origins of Humanism", <i>Cambridge Companion to Humanism</i>, Jill Kraye, editor [Cambridge University Press, 1996], p. 1–2). The term "<a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>" for the preceding period separating classical antiquity from its "rebirth" first appears in Latin in 1469 as <i>media tempestas</i>. For <i>humanities</i> as the original term for Renaissance humanism, see James Fieser, Samuel Enoch Stumpf "Philosophy during the Renaissance", <i>Philosophy: A Historical Survey with Essential Readings</i> (9th ed.) [McGraw-Hill Education, 2014]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alister_McGrath" title="Alister McGrath">McGrath, Alister</a> (2011). <i>Christian Theology: An Introduction</i> (5th ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3514-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3514-9"><bdi>978-1-4443-3514-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Theology%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=30&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3514-9&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel1992" class="citation journal cs1">Rummel, Erika (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2541729">"Et cum theologo bella poeta gerit: The Conflict between Humanists and Scholastics Revisited"</a>. <i>The Sixteenth Century Journal</i>. <b>23</b> (4): 713–726. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2541729">10.2307/2541729</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0361-0160">0361-0160</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2541729">2541729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Sixteenth+Century+Journal&rft.atitle=Et+cum+theologo+bella+poeta+gerit%3A+The+Conflict+between+Humanists+and+Scholastics+Revisited&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=713-726&rft.date=1992&rft.issn=0361-0160&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2541729%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2541729&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Erika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2541729&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hankins, James (2019). <i>Virtue Politics: Soulcraft and Statecraft in Renaissance Italy.</i> The Belknap Press of Harvard University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Oskar Kristeller, <i>Renaissance Thought II: Papers on Humanism and the Arts</i> (New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1965), p. 178. See also Kristeller's <i>Renaissance Thought I</i>, "Humanism and Scholasticism In the Italian Renaissance", <i>Byzantion 17</i> (1944–45), pp. 346–74. Reprinted in <i>Renaissance Thought</i> (New York: Harper Torchbooks), 1961.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohl1992" class="citation journal cs1">Kohl, Benjamin G. (1992). "The Changing Concept of the "Studia Humanitatis" in the Early Renaissance". <i>Renaissance Studies</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 185–209. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1477-4658.t01-1-00116">10.1111/1477-4658.t01-1-00116</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0269-1213">0269-1213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Renaissance+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Concept+of+the+%22Studia+Humanitatis%22+in+the+Early+Renaissance&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=185-209&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1477-4658.t01-1-00116&rft.issn=0269-1213&rft.aulast=Kohl&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sforza, Giovanni (1884). "La patria, la famiglia e la giovinezza di papa Niccolò V". <i>Atti della Reale Accademia Lucchese di Scienze, Lettere ed Arti</i>. <b>XXIII</b>: 380.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Craig W. Kallendorf, introduction to <i>Humanist Educational Treatises</i>, edited and translated by Craig W. Kallendorf (Cambridge, Massachusetts and London England: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, 2002) p. vii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spotlight.vatlib.it/latin-paleography/feature/18-return-to-the-style-of-the-ancients-and-the-anti-gothic-reaction">"Return to the style of the ancients and the anti-gothic reaction"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Www.vatlib.it&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Www.vatlib.it (page does not exist)">www.vatlib.it</a></i>. Latin Paleography.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vatlib.it&rft.atitle=Return+to+the+style+of+the+ancients+and+the+anti-gothic+reaction&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspotlight.vatlib.it%2Flatin-paleography%2Ffeature%2F18-return-to-the-style-of-the-ancients-and-the-anti-gothic-reaction&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFredi_Chiappelli1981" class="citation journal cs1">Fredi Chiappelli (January 1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2906433">"Petrarch and Innovation: A Note on a Manuscript"</a>. <i>MLN</i>. <b>96</b> (1): 138–143. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2906433">10.2307/2906433</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2906433">2906433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MLN&rft.atitle=Petrarch+and+Innovation%3A+A+Note+on+a+Manuscript&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=138-143&rft.date=1981-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2906433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2906433%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Fredi+Chiappelli&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2906433&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="reference-accessdate">Retrieved 2023-02-14<span style="font-size: 90%; color: #555"></span>.</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">They include <a href="/wiki/Innocent_VII" class="mw-redirect" title="Innocent VII">Innocent VII</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_V" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas V">Nicholas V</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Pius II">Pius II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sixtus_IV" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixtus IV">Sixtus IV</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander VI">Alexander VI</a>, <a href="/wiki/Julius_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius II">Julius II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leo_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Leo X">Leo X</a>. Innocent VII, patron of Leonardo Bruni, is considered the first humanist Pope. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BLgfAAAAIAAJ&dq=renaissance+Humanist+popes&pg=PA49">James Hankins, <i>Plato in the Italian Renaissance</i> (New York: Columbia Studies in the Classical Tradition, 1990), p. 49</a>; for the others, see their respective entries in Sir John Hale's <i>Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance</i> (Oxford University Press, 1981).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>Humanist Educational Treatises</i>, (2001) pp. 126–259. This volume (pp. 92–125) contains an essay by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Leonardo Bruni</a>, entitled "The Study of Literature", on the education of girls.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartwright" class="citation web cs1">Cartwright, Mark. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Renaissance_Humanism/#:~:text=Renaissance%20Humanism%20was%20a%20movement,it%20is%20to%20be%20human">"Renaissance Humanism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia" title="World History Encyclopedia">World History Encyclopedia</a></i>. The Classical Ideal<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 23,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+History+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Renaissance+Humanism&rft.aulast=Cartwright&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FRenaissance_Humanism%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DRenaissance%2520Humanism%2520was%2520a%2520movement%2Cit%2520is%2520to%2520be%2520human&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180831071900/https://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/late/laterbyz/harris-ren.html">"Byzantines in Renaissance Italy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-orb.net/encyclop/late/laterbyz/harris-ren.html">the original</a> on 2018-08-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2016-03-28</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Byzantines+in+Renaissance+Italy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-orb.net%2Fencyclop%2Flate%2Flaterbyz%2Fharris-ren.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://how-to-learn-any-language.com/e/polyglots/greeks-in-italy.html">Greeks in Italy</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">She was the author of <i>Miroir de l'ame pecheresse</i> (<i>The Mirror of a Sinful Soul</i>), published after her death, among other devotional poetry. See also "Marguerite de Navarre: Religious Reformist" in Jonathan A. Reid, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/print.aspx?partid=210&pid=18212"><i>King's sister--queen of dissent: Marguerite of Navarre (1492–1549) and her evangelical network</i></a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged June 2018">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup> (<i>Studies in medieval and Reformation traditions, 1573–4188</i>; v. 139). Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2009. (2 v.: (xxii, 795 p.) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17760-4">978-90-04-17760-4</a> (v. 1), 9789004177611 (v. 2)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLöffler1910" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Löffler, Klemens (1910). "Humanism". <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>. Vol. VII. New York: Robert Appleton Company. pp. 538–542.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humanism&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=538-542&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=L%C3%B6ffler&rft.aufirst=Klemens&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See note two, above.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davies, 477</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Humanism". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Dictionary_of_Philosophy" title="The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy">The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</a>, Second Edition</i>. Cambridge University Press. 1999.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humanism&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Dictionary+of+Philosophy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span> p.397 quotation: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The unashamedly humanistic flavor of classical writings had a tremendous impact on Renaissance scholar.</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Jill Kraye's essay, "Philologists and Philosophers" in the <i>Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism</i> [1996], p. 153.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(Kraye [1996] p. 154.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Trinkaus, <i>In Our Image and Likeness</i> Vol. 1 (University of Chicago Press, 1970), pp. 103–170</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lepage2012-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lepage2012_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Lepage2012" class="citation book cs1">John L. Lepage (5 December 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xb2uw2LQjPQC&pg=PA111"><i>The Revival of Antique Philosophy in the Renaissance</i></a>. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-137-28181-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-137-28181-4"><bdi>978-1-137-28181-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revival+of+Antique+Philosophy+in+the+Renaissance&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2012-12-05&rft.isbn=978-1-137-28181-4&rft.au=John+L.+Lepage&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXb2uw2LQjPQC%26pg%3DPA111&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2024">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-O'Callaghan2012-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Callaghan2012_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_O'Callaghan2012" class="citation book cs1">Daniel O'Callaghan (9 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xt6b2Wi8kCQC&pg=PA43"><i>The Preservation of Jewish Religious Books in Sixteenth-Century Germany: Johannes Reuchlin's Augenspiegel</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 43–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24185-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-24185-5"><bdi>978-90-04-24185-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Preservation+of+Jewish+Religious+Books+in+Sixteenth-Century+Germany%3A+Johannes+Reuchlin%27s+Augenspiegel&rft.pages=43-&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2012-11-09&rft.isbn=978-90-04-24185-5&rft.au=Daniel+O%27Callaghan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXt6b2Wi8kCQC%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dJc3cOUVIYMC&q=contradict">Hale, 171.</a> See also Davies, 479–480 for similar caution.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreis2008" class="citation web cs1">Kreis, Steven (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/humanism.html">"Renaissance Humanism"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Humanism&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Kreis&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.historyguide.org%2Fintellect%2Fhumanism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Plumb, 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/humanism.html">"Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture: Humanism"</a>. The Library of Congress. 2002-07-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rome+Reborn%3A+The+Vatican+Library+%26+Renaissance+Culture%3A+Humanism&rft.pub=The+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=2002-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fexhibits%2Fvatican%2Fhumanism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopedicdict0000meag/page/1733">"Humanism"</a>. <i>Encyclopedic Dictionary of Religion</i>. Vol. F–N. Corpus Publications. 1979. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopedicdict0000meag/page/1733">1733</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9602572-1-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9602572-1-8"><bdi>978-0-9602572-1-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Humanism&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Religion&rft.pages=1733&rft.pub=Corpus+Publications&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-0-9602572-1-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopedicdict0000meag%2Fpage%2F1733&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHankins1995" class="citation journal cs1">Hankins, James (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2709840">"The "Baron Thesis" after Forty Years and Some Recent Studies of Leonardo Bruni"</a>. <i>Journal of the History of Ideas</i>. <b>56</b> (2): 309–338. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2709840">10.2307/2709840</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-5037">0022-5037</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709840">2709840</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.atitle=The+%22Baron+Thesis%22+after+Forty+Years+and+Some+Recent+Studies+of+Leonardo+Bruni&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=309-338&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0022-5037&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2709840%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2709840&rft.aulast=Hankins&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F2709840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Philip Jones, "Communes and Despots: The City-State in Late-Medieval Italy," <i>Transactions of the Royal Historical Society</i>, 5th ser., 15 (1965), 71–96, and review of Baron's <i>Crisis</i> (2nd ed.), in <i>History</i>, 53 (1968), 410–13; Peter Herde, "Politik und Rhetorik in Florenz am Vorabend der Renaissance," <i>Archiv far Kulturgeschichte</i>, 50 (1965), 141–220; <i>idem</i>, "Politische Verhaltensweise der Florentiner Oligarchie,1382–1402," in <i>Geschichte und Verfassungsgefüge: Frankfurter Festgabe für</i> <i>Walter Schlesinger</i> (Wiesbaden, 1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKristeller1944" class="citation journal cs1">Kristeller, Paul Oskar (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44168603">"Humanism and Scholasticism in the Italian Renaissance"</a>. <i>Byzantion</i>. <b>17</b>: 346–374. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0378-2506">0378-2506</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/44168603">44168603</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantion&rft.atitle=Humanism+and+Scholasticism+in+the+Italian+Renaissance&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=346-374&rft.date=1944&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44168603%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0378-2506&rft.aulast=Kristeller&rft.aufirst=Paul+Oskar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F44168603&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_35-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hankins, James. 2011. "Garin and Paul Oskar Kristeller: Existentialism, Neo-Kantianism, and the Post-war Interpretation of Renaissance Humanism". In <i>Eugenio Garin: Dal Rinascimento all'Illuminismo</i>, ed. Michele Ciliberto, 481–505. Rome: Edizioni di Storia e Letteratura.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sartre, Jean-Paul. "Existentialism Is a Humanism". In <i>Existentialism from Dostoevsky to Sartre</i>, tr. Walter Kaufmann, 287–311. New York: Meridian Books, 1956.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heidegger, Martin. "Letter on 'Humanism<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>". In <i>Pathmarks</i>, ed. William McNeill, 239–276. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKakkoriHuttunen2012" class="citation journal cs1">Kakkori, Leena; Huttunen, Rauno (June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00680.x">"The Sartre-Heidegger Controversy on Humanism and the Concept of Man in Education"</a>. <i>Educational Philosophy and Theory</i>. <b>44</b> (4): 351–365. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-5812.2010.00680.x">10.1111/j.1469-5812.2010.00680.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0013-1857">0013-1857</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145476769">145476769</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Educational+Philosophy+and+Theory&rft.atitle=The+Sartre-Heidegger+Controversy+on+Humanism+and+the+Concept+of+Man+in+Education&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=351-365&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145476769%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0013-1857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-5812.2010.00680.x&rft.aulast=Kakkori&rft.aufirst=Leena&rft.au=Huttunen%2C+Rauno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-5812.2010.00680.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Popkin, <i>The History of Scepticism: From Savonarola to Bayle</i> rev. ed. (Oxford University Press, 2003), p. viii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rubini, Rocco (2011). "The Last Italian Philosopher: Eugenio Garin (with an Appendix of Documents)." <i>Intellectual History Review</i>. <b>21</b> (2): 209–230. DOI: 10.1080/17496977.2011.574348</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeen1977" class="citation journal cs1">Keen, Benjamin (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/sites/liberalarts.oregonstate.edu/files/history/ideas/the_legacy_of_bartolome_de_las_casas.pdf">"The Legacy of Bartolomé de las Casas"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Ibero-Americana Pragensia</i>. <b>11</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ibero-Americana+Pragensia&rft.atitle=The+Legacy+of+Bartolom%C3%A9+de+las+Casas&rft.volume=11&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Keen&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fliberalarts.oregonstate.edu%2Fsites%2Fliberalarts.oregonstate.edu%2Ffiles%2Fhistory%2Fideas%2Fthe_legacy_of_bartolome_de_las_casas.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bolgar, R. R. <i>The Classical Heritage and Its Beneficiaries: from the Carolingian Age to the End of the Renaissance</i>. Cambridge, 1954.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Cassirer" title="Ernst Cassirer">Cassirer, Ernst</a>. <i>Individual and Cosmos in Renaissance Philosophy</i>. Harper and Row, 1963.</li> <li>Cassirer, Ernst (Editor), Paul Oskar Kristeller (Editor), John Herman Randall (Editor). <i>The Renaissance Philosophy of Man</i>. University of Chicago Press, 1969.</li> <li>Cassirer, Ernst. <i>Platonic Renaissance in England</i>. Gordian, 1970.</li> <li>Celenza, Christopher S. <i>The Lost Italian Renaissance: Humanism, Historians, and Latin's Legacy</i>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8384-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8384-2">978-0-8018-8384-2</a></li> <li>Celenza, Christopher S. <i>Petrarch: Everywhere a Wanderer</i>. London: Reaktion. 2017</li> <li>Celenza, Christopher S. <i>The Intellectual World of the Italian Renaissance: Language, Philosophy, and the Search for Meaning</i>. New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2018</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desiderius_Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="Desiderius Erasmus">Erasmus, Desiderius</a>. "The Epicurean". In <i>Colloquies</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Garin" title="Eugenio Garin">Garin, Eugenio</a>. <i>Science and Civic Life in the Italian Renaissance</i>. New York: Doubleday, 1969.</li> <li>Garin, Eugenio. <i>Italian Humanism: Philosophy and Civic Life in the Renaissance.</i> Basil Blackwell, 1965.</li> <li>Garin, Eugenio. <i>History of Italian Philosophy.</i> (2 vols.) Amsterdam/New York: Rodopi, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2321-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-2321-5">978-90-420-2321-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Grafton" title="Anthony Grafton">Grafton, Anthony</a>. <i>Bring Out Your Dead: The Past as Revelation</i>. Harvard University Press, 2004 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01597-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01597-5">0-674-01597-5</a></li> <li>Grafton, Anthony. <i>Worlds Made By Words: Scholarship and Community in the Modern West</i>. Harvard University Press, 2009 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-03257-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-03257-8">0-674-03257-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rigby_Hale" title="John Rigby Hale">Hale, John</a>. <i>A Concise Encyclopaedia of the Italian Renaissance</i>. Oxford University Press, 1981, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-23333-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-23333-0">0-500-23333-0</a>.</li> <li>Kallendorf, Craig W, editor. <i>Humanist Educational Treatises</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The I Tatti Renaissance Library, 2002.</li> <li>Kraye, Jill (Editor). <i>The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism</i>. Cambridge University Press, 1996.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Oskar_Kristeller" title="Paul Oskar Kristeller">Kristeller, Paul Oskar</a>. <i>Renaissance Thought and Its Sources</i>. Columbia University Press, 1979 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-04513-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-04513-1">978-0-231-04513-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola">Pico della Mirandola, Giovanni</a>. <i>Oration on the Dignity of Man</i>. In Cassirer, Kristeller, and Randall, eds. <i>Renaissance Philosophy of Man</i>. University of Chicago Press, 1969.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quentin_Skinner" title="Quentin Skinner">Skinner, Quentin</a>. <i>Renaissance Virtues: Visions of Politics: Volume II</i>. Cambridge University Press, [2002] 2007.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Makdisi" title="George Makdisi">Makdisi, George</a>. <i>The Rise of Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West: With Special Reference to Scholasticism</i>, 1990: <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_University_Press" title="Edinburgh University Press">Edinburgh University Press</a></li> <li>McManus, Stuart M. "Byzantines in the Florentine Polis: Ideology, Statecraft and Ritual during the Council of Florence". <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_the_Oxford_University_History_Society&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of the Oxford University History Society (page does not exist)">Journal of the Oxford University History Society</a></i>, 6 (Michaelmas 2008/Hilary 2009).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMelchert,_Norman2002" class="citation book cs1">Melchert, Norman (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/greatconversatio00norm"><i>The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy</i></a></span>. McGraw Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517510-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517510-3"><bdi>978-0-19-517510-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Conversation%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+to+Philosophy&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517510-3&rft.au=Melchert%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgreatconversatio00norm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Nauert, Charles Garfield. <i>Humanism and the Culture of Renaissance Europe (New Approaches to European History).</i> Cambridge University Press, 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Plumb" title="John H. Plumb">Plumb, J. H.</a> ed.: <i>The Italian Renaissance</i> 1961, American Heritage, New York, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-618-12738-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-618-12738-0">0-618-12738-0</a> (page refs from 1978 UK Penguin edn).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Rossellini" title="Roberto Rossellini">Rossellini, Roberto</a>. <i>The Age of the Medici</i>: Part 1, <i>Cosimo de' Medici</i>; Part 2, <i>Alberti</i> 1973. (Film Series). Criterion Collection.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Addington_Symonds" title="John Addington Symonds">Symonds, John Addington</a>.<i>The Renaissance in Italy</i>. Seven Volumes. 1875–1886.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrinkaus1973" class="citation book cs1">Trinkaus, Charles (1973). "Renaissance Idea of the Dignity of Man". In Wiener, Philip P (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaGenText/tei/DicHist4.xml;chunk.id=dv4-20"><i>Dictionary of the History of Ideas</i></a>. Scribner. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-13293-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-684-13293-8"><bdi>978-0-684-13293-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-12-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Renaissance+Idea+of+the+Dignity+of+Man&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas&rft.pub=Scribner&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-684-13293-8&rft.aulast=Trinkaus&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fxtf.lib.virginia.edu%2Fxtf%2Fview%3FdocId%3DDicHist%2FuvaGenText%2Ftei%2FDicHist4.xml%3Bchunk.id%3Ddv4-20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARenaissance+humanism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Trinkaus, Charles. <i>The Scope of Renaissance Humanism</i>. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1983.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Wind" title="Edgar Wind">Wind, Edgar</a>. <i>Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance</i>. New York: W.W. Norton, 1969.</li> <li>Witt, Ronald. "In the footsteps of the ancients: the origins of humanism from Lovato to Bruni." Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2000</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_humanism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Renaissance_Humanism/">Renaissance Humanism – World History Encyclopedia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101102042052/http://globaled.org/nyworld/materials/humanism/H1.html">Humanism 1: An Outline by Albert Rabil, Jr.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/vatican/humanism.html">"Rome Reborn: The Vatican Library & Renaissance Culture: Humanism". The Library of Congress. 2002-07-01</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9ct">Paganism in the Renaissance</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Tom Healy, Charles Hope & Evelyn Welch (<i>In Our Time</i>, June 16, 2005)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> 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title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">European Middle Ages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">Decline of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbarian_kingdoms" title="Barbarian kingdoms">Barbarian kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Decline of Hellenistic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Rise of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Conquest" title="Norman Conquest">Norman Conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second Bulgarian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom of Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Rise of the Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capet%E2%80%93Plantagenet_feud" class="mw-redirect" title="Capet–Plantagenet feud">Capet–Plantagenet feud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_commune" title="Medieval commune">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Warm_Period" title="Medieval Warm Period">Medieval Warm Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" 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