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ethical theories subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Normative_ethical_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Virtue_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Virtue ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deontological_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deontological_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Deontological ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deontological_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Consequentialism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Other theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morality_as_a_binding_force" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morality_as_a_binding_force"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Morality as a binding force</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morality_as_a_binding_force-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morality as a binding force subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morality_as_a_binding_force-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Motivating_morality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motivating_morality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Motivating morality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motivating_morality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Normative ethics</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="أخلاق معيارية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخلاق معيارية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_normativa" title="Ética normativa – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ética normativa" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativ_etika" title="Normativ etika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Normativ etika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="আদর্শগত নীতিশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আদর্শগত নীতিশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2_%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Норматив этика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Норматив этика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica_normativa" title="Ètica normativa – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ètica normativa" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativn%C3%AD_etika" title="Normativní etika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Normativní etika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_Ethik" title="Normative Ethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Normative Ethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_normativa" title="Ética normativa – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ética normativa" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normiga_etiko" title="Normiga etiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Normiga etiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_normatibo" title="Etika normatibo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Etika normatibo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%87%D9%86%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="اخلاق هنجاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اخلاق هنجاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89thique_normative" title="Éthique normative – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éthique normative" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B7%9C%EB%B2%94%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="규범윤리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="규범윤리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%86%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%BE_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Նորմատիվ բարոյագիտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Նորմատիվ բարոյագիտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="मानदण्डक नीतिशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मानदण्डक नीतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativna_etika" title="Normativna etika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Normativna etika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%AA%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94_%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אתיקה נורמטיבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אתיקה נורמטיבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethica_normativa" title="Ethica normativa – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ethica normativa" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normatyvin%C4%97_etika" title="Normatyvinė etika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Normatyvinė etika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_normatif" title="Etika normatif – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Etika normatif" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="規範倫理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="規範倫理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativ_etikk" title="Normativ etikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Normativ etikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyka_normatywna" title="Etyka normatywna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etyka normatywna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica_normativa" title="Ética normativa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ética normativa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нормативная этика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нормативная этика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Normative ethics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normat%C3%ADvna_etika" title="Normatívna etika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Normatívna etika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativna_etika" title="Normativna etika – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Normativna etika" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normatiivinen_etiikka" title="Normatiivinen etiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Normatiivinen etiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normativ_etik" title="Normativ etik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Normativ etik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normatibong_etika" title="Normatibong etika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Normatibong etika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normatif_etik" title="Normatif etik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Normatif etik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Нормативна етика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нормативна етика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A6%8F%E7%AF%84%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="規範倫理學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="規範倫理學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1321845#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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searchaux" style="display:none">Branch of philosophical ethics that examines standards for morality</div> <p><b>Normative ethics</b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethical</a> behaviour and is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> ethics that investigates questions regarding how one ought to act, in a <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> sense. </p><p>Normative ethics is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a> in that the former examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, whereas the latter studies the meaning of moral language and the <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> of moral facts. Likewise, normative ethics is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a> in that the former is more concerned with 'who ought one be' rather than the ethics of a specific issue (e.g. if, or when, <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> is acceptable). Normative ethics is also distinct from <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a>, as the latter is an <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> investigation of people's moral beliefs. In this context normative ethics is sometimes called <i>prescriptive</i>, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics"><i>descriptive</i> ethics</a>. However, on certain versions of the view of <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>, moral facts are both descriptive and prescriptive at the same time. </p><p>Most traditional moral theories rest on principles that determine whether an action is right or wrong. Classical theories in this vein include <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>, and some forms of <a href="/wiki/Contractarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Contractarianism">contractarianism</a>. These theories mainly offered the use of overarching moral principles to resolve difficult moral decisions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Normative_ethical_theories">Normative ethical theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Normative ethical theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are disagreements about what precisely gives an action, rule, or disposition its ethical force. There are three competing views on how <a href="/wiki/Moral_questions" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral questions">moral questions</a> should be answered, along with hybrid positions that combine some elements of each: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">deontological ethics</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>. The former focuses on the character of those who are acting. In contrast, both deontological ethics and consequentialism focus on the status of the action, rule, or disposition itself, and come in various forms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_ethics">Virtue ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></div> <p>Virtue ethics, advocated by <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> with some aspects being supported by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Saint Thomas Aquinas</a>, focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on specific actions.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There has been a significant revival of virtue ethics since the 1950s,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> through the work of such philosophers as <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rosalind_Hursthouse" title="Rosalind Hursthouse">Rosalind Hursthouse</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deontological_ethics">Deontological ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deontological ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontological ethics</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a> argues that decisions should be made considering the factors of one's duties and one's rights. Some deontological theories include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>, which roots morality in humanity's rational capacity and asserts certain inviolable moral laws.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">contractualism</a> of <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>, which holds that the moral acts are those that we would all agree to if we were unbiased, behind a "<a href="/wiki/Veil_of_ignorance" class="mw-redirect" title="Veil of ignorance">veil of ignorance</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural rights">Natural rights</a> theories, such that of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> or <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a>, which hold that human beings have absolute, natural rights.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Consequentialism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></div> <p>Consequentialism argues that the morality of an action is contingent on the action's outcome or result. Consequentialist theories, varying in what they consider to be valuable (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">axiology</a>), include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a> holds that an action is right if it leads to the most <i><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a></i> for the greatest number of people. Prior to the coining of the term "consequentialism" by <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> in 1958<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the adoption of that term in the literature that followed, <i>utilitarianism</i> was the generic term for <i>consequentialism</i>, referring to all theories that promoted maximizing <i>any</i> form of utility, not just those that promoted maximizing happiness.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohist</a> consequentialism, holds that an action is right if it leads to <i>state welfare</i>, through <i><a href="/wiki/Social_order" title="Social order">order</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Material_wealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Material wealth">material wealth</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situational_ethics" title="Situational ethics">Situational ethics</a> emphasizes the particular context of an act when evaluating it ethically. Specifically, <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian forms</a> of situational ethics hold that the correct action is the one that creates the most loving result, and that <i>love</i> should always be people's goal.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a> dictates that the best action is the one that best fosters and promotes <i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfarism" title="Welfarism">Welfarism</a>, which argues that the best action is the one that most increases <i>economic well-being or welfare</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preference_utilitarianism" title="Preference utilitarianism">Preference utilitarianism</a>, which holds that the best action is the one that leads to the most overall <i>preference satisfaction</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_theories">Other theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract theories</a> are a wide range of postulates concerning the voluntary and consensual pacts between two or more individuals or collectives, whose actions related to the following of the clauses of said contract posited while it was in force should be respected and obeyed.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Ethics of care</a>, or relational ethics, founded by <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theorists</a>, notably <a href="/wiki/Carol_Gilligan" title="Carol Gilligan">Carol Gilligan</a>, argues that morality arises out of the experiences of <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a> and compassion. It emphasizes the importance of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">interdependence</a> and relationships in achieving ethical goals.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a> is difficult to classify fully within any of the four preceding conceptions. This view argues that moral correctness evolves similarly to other kinds of knowledge—socially over the course of many lifetimes—and that norms, principles, and moral criteria are likely to be improved as a result of inquiry. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> are known as the founders of pragmatism; a more recent proponent of pragmatic ethics was <a href="/wiki/James_D._Wallace" title="James D. Wallace">James D. Wallace</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a> is based on the concept of family roles.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morality_as_a_binding_force">Morality as a binding force</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Morality as a binding force"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It can be unclear what it means to say that a person "ought to do X because it is moral, whether they like it or not." <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> is sometimes presumed to have some kind of special binding force on behaviour, though some philosophers believe that, used this way, the word "ought" seems to wrongly attribute magic powers to morality. For instance, <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a> worries that "ought" has become "a word of mere mesmeric force."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:40em; ;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p>If he is an amoral man he may deny that he has any reason to trouble his head over this or any other moral demand. Of course, he may be mistaken, and his life as well as others' lives may be most sadly spoiled by his selfishness. But this is not what is urged by those who think they can close the matter by an emphatic use of 'ought'. My argument is that they are relying on an illusion, as if trying to give the moral 'ought' a magic force. </p> </blockquote> <p style="padding-bottom: 0;"><cite class="right-aligned" style="">—Philippa Foot<sup id="cite_ref-FootHypo_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FootHypo-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></p> </div><p> The British <a href="/wiki/Ethicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethicist">ethicist</a> <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> elaborates that morality does not seem to have any special binding force, and she clarifies that people only behave morally when motivated by other factors. Foot says "People talk, for instance, about the 'binding force' of morality, but it is not clear what this means if not that we feel ourselves unable to escape."<sup id="cite_ref-FootHypo_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FootHypo-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea is that, faced with an opportunity to steal a book because we can get away with it, moral obligation itself has no power to stop us unless we <i>feel</i> an obligation. Morality may therefore have no binding force beyond regular human motivations, and people must be motivated to behave morally. The question then arises: what role does reason play in motivating moral behaviour? </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motivating_morality">Motivating morality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Motivating morality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Science_of_morality" title="Science of morality">Science of morality</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a> perspective suggests that proper reason always leads to particular moral behaviour. As mentioned above, Foot instead believes that humans are actually motivated by desires. Proper reason, on this view, allows humans to discover actions that get them what they want (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">hypothetical imperatives</a>)—not necessarily actions that are moral. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a> and motivation can make morality binding in a sense, but only because it makes moral norms feel inescapable, according to Foot.<sup id="cite_ref-FootHypo_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FootHypo-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Shame.jpg/200px-Shame.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Shame.jpg/300px-Shame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Shame.jpg/400px-Shame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="622" /></a><figcaption>Feelings like shame and love are sometimes considered the only meaningful sense in which morality is binding. Absent those feelings, a person could behave "immorally" without remorse.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> adds that external pressures, to please others for instance, also influence this felt binding force, which he calls human "<a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">conscience</a>". Mill says that humans must first reason about what is moral, then try to bring the feelings of our conscience in line with our reason.<sup id="cite_ref-MillChap3_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MillChap3-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, Mill says that a good moral system (in his case, <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>) ultimately appeals to aspects of human nature—which, must themselves be nurtured during upbringing. Mill explains: </p> <blockquote><p>This firm foundation is that of the social feelings of mankind; the desire to be in unity with our fellow creatures, which is already a powerful principle in human nature, and happily one of those which tend to become stronger, even without express inculcation, from the influences of advancing civilisation.</p></blockquote> <p>Mill thus believes that it is important to appreciate that it is feelings that drive moral behavior, but also that they may not be present in some people (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Psychopaths" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychopaths">psychopaths</a>). Mill goes on to describe factors that help ensure people develop a conscience and behave morally. </p><p>Popular texts such as Joseph Daleiden's <i>The Science of Morality: The Individual, Community, and Future Generations</i> (1998) describe how societies can use science to figure out how to make people more likely to be good. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiological ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">Normative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D. 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E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe, Elizabeth</a>. 1958. "Modern Moral Philosophy." <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_(journal)" title="Philosophy (journal)"><i>Philosophy</i></a> 33(24).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/soc-cont/">"Social Contract Theory | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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(1995). <i>Moral voices, moral selves: Carol Gilligan and feminist moral theory</i>. University Park, Pa: Pennsylvania State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01483-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-01483-8"><bdi>978-0-271-01483-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+voices%2C+moral+selves%3A+Carol+Gilligan+and+feminist+moral+theory&rft.place=University+Park%2C+Pa&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-271-01483-8&rft.aulast=Hekman&rft.aufirst=Susan+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormative+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FootHypo-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FootHypo_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FootHypo_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FootHypo_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Foot, Philippa. (2009). Morality as a System of Hypothetical Imperatives. In S. M. Cahn, & P. Markie,Ethics: History, Theory, and Contemporary Issues (pp. 556-561). New York: Oxford University Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MillChap3-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MillChap3_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://utilitarianism.org/mill3.htm">"John Stuart Mill (1863). Utilitarianism. Chapter 3: Of the Ultimate Sanction of the Principle of Utility"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=John+Stuart+Mill+%281863%29.+Utilitarianism.+Chapter+3%3A+Of+the+Ultimate+Sanction+of+the+Principle+of+Utility.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Futilitarianism.org%2Fmill3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormative+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Normative_ethics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><b>Consequentialism and utilitarianism:</b> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/">"Consequentialism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Consequentialism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Sinnott-Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsequentialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormative+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.utilitarianism.net/">Introduction to Utilitarianism</a>, an introductory online textbook on utilitarianism coauthored by <a href="/wiki/William_MacAskill" title="William MacAskill">William MacAskill</a>.</li></ul></li> <li><b>Deontology:</b> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexander" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Alexander, Larry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">"Deontological Ethics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Deontological+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-deontological%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormative+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><b>Virtue ethics:</b> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHursthouse" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hursthouse, Rosalind. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/">"Virtue Ethics"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Virtue+Ethics&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Hursthouse&rft.aufirst=Rosalind&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-virtue%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANormative+ethics" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists<br /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 322 BC)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1726)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1740)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1759)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1780)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1785)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1788)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1820)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1843)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1861)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1874)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1887)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1903)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1971)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1984)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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