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id="toc-Definitions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forms_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forms_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Forms of research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forms_of_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forms of research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forms_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Original_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Original research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Scientific research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_in_the_humanities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_in_the_humanities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Research in the humanities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_in_the_humanities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artistic_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artistic_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Artistic research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artistic_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Historical research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Documentary_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Documentary_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Documentary research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Documentary_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Steps_in_conducting_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Steps_in_conducting_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Steps in conducting research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Steps_in_conducting_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Research methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Research ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Problems_in_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Problems_in_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Problems in research</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Problems_in_research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Problems in research subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Problems_in_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meta-research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meta-research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Meta-research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meta-research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods_of_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods_of_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Methods of research</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods_of_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bias" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bias"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Bias</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bias-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Generalizability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Generalizability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Generalizability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Generalizability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publication_peer_review" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publication_peer_review"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Publication peer review</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publication_peer_review-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence_of_the_open-access_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence_of_the_open-access_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Influence of the open-access movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence_of_the_open-access_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Future perspectives</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neo-colonial_approaches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neo-colonial_approaches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Neo-colonial approaches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neo-colonial_approaches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professionalisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professionalisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Professionalisation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Professionalisation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Professionalisation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Professionalisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>In Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publishing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publishing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Publishing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publishing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research_statistics_and_funding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research_statistics_and_funding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Research statistics and funding</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Research_statistics_and_funding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Research</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 107 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-107" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">107 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navorsing" title="Navorsing – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Navorsing" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AD%D8%AB_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A" title="بحث علمي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بحث علمي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n" title="Investigación – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Investigación" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%B1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE" title="গৱেষণা – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="গৱেষণা" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n" title="Investigación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Investigación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kundaha" title="Kundaha – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kundaha" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99dqiq" title="Tədqiq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Tədqiq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7" title="آراشدیرما – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آراشدیرما" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm mw-list-item"><a href="https://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%9Dinini" title="Ɲinini – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm" data-title="Ɲinini" data-language-autonym="Bamanankan" data-language-local-name="Bambara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bamanankan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B7%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE" title="গবেষণা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="গবেষণা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paitihan" title="Paitihan – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Paitihan" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Banjar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Даследаванне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Даследаванне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Дасьледаваньне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Дасьледаваньне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A" title="रिसर्च – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="रिसर्च" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagsaligsig" title="Pagsaligsig – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagsaligsig" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Изследване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Изследване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%9E%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%96%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%87%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8D" title="ཞིབ་འཇུག། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཞིབ་འཇུག།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istra%C5%BEivanje" title="Istraživanje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Istraživanje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3" title="Investigació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Investigació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDzkum" title="Výzkum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Výzkum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricerca" title="Ricerca – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Ricerca" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ymchwil" title="Ymchwil – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ymchwil" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forskning" title="Forskning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Forskning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forschung" title="Forschung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Forschung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaduslik_uurimist%C3%B6%C3%B6" title="Teaduslik uurimistöö – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teaduslik uurimistöö" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%80%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%AD%CF%81%CE%B5%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B1" title="Επιστημονική έρευνα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Επιστημονική έρευνα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n" title="Investigación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Investigación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scienca_esplorado" title="Scienca esplorado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Scienca esplorado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikerkuntza" title="Ikerkuntza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ikerkuntza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DA%98%D9%88%D9%87%D8%B4" title="پژوهش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پژوهش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recherche_scientifique" title="Recherche scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Recherche scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigazion" title="Investigazion – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Investigazion" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taighde" title="Taighde – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Taighde" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investigaci%C3%B3n" title="Investigación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Investigación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngi%C3%AAn-kiu" title="Ngiên-kiu – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Ngiên-kiu" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC" title="연구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bincike" title="Bincike – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Bincike" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अनुसंधान – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अनुसंधान" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istra%C5%BEivanje" title="Istraživanje – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Istraživanje" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciencala_explorado" title="Ciencala explorado – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ciencala explorado" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penelitian" title="Penelitian – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penelitian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucwaningo" title="Ucwaningo – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ucwaningo" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ranns%C3%B3kn" title="Rannsókn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rannsókn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricerca_scientifica" title="Ricerca scientifica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ricerca scientifica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%97%D7%A7%D7%A8" title="מחקר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מחקר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panlit%C3%A8n" title="Panlitèn – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Panlitèn" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%A8%E0%B3%86" title="ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಂಶೋಧನೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%94%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%96%D9%82" title="تٔحقیٖق – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="تٔحقیٖق" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utafiti" title="Utafiti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utafiti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rech%C3%A8ch" title="Rechèch – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Rechèch" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AAkol%C3%AEn" title="Lêkolîn – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Lêkolîn" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disquisitio_scientifica" title="Disquisitio scientifica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Disquisitio scientifica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%93tniec%C4%ABba" title="Pētniecība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pētniecība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuerschung" title="Fuerschung – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Fuerschung" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mokslinis_tyrimas" title="Mokslinis tyrimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Mokslinis tyrimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nduka" title="Nduka – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Nduka" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingála</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kutat%C3%A1s" title="Kutatás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kutatás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="ഗവേഷണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഗവേഷണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8" title="संशोधन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संशोधन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penyelidikan" title="Penyelidikan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Penyelidikan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B0" title="Судалгаа – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Судалгаа" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B1%E1%80%9E%E1%80%94" title="သုတေသန – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သုတေသန" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijk_onderzoek" title="Wetenschappelijk onderzoek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijk onderzoek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="अनुसन्धान – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="अनुसन्धान" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="研究 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="研究" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forskning" title="Forskning – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Forskning" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forsking" title="Forsking – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Forsking" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rec%C3%A8rca" title="Recèrca – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Recèrca" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilmiy_tadqiqot" title="Ilmiy tadqiqot – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ilmiy tadqiqot" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%96%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%9C" title="ਖੋਜ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਖੋਜ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%85%DB%90%DA%93%D9%86%D9%87" title="څېړنه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="څېړنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badania_naukowe" title="Badania naukowe – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Badania naukowe" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pesquisa" title="Pesquisa – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pesquisa" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cercetare" title="Cercetare – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cercetare" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%27uskiykuy" title="K'uskiykuy – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="K'uskiykuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Исследование – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Исследование" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF" title="संशोधनस्य प्रयोजनानि – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="संशोधनस्य प्रयोजनानि" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%BD%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%B8%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%BD" title="ᱠᱷᱚᱸᱫᱽᱨᱚᱸᱫᱽ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱠᱷᱚᱸᱫᱽᱨᱚᱸᱫᱽ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resairch" title="Resairch – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Resairch" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hulumtimi" title="Hulumtimi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Hulumtimi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9A%E0%B7%82%E0%B6%AB" title="පර්යේෂණ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="පර්යේෂණ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research" title="Research – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Research" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82" title="تحقيق – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="تحقيق" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%BDskum" title="Výskum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Výskum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raziskovanje" title="Raziskovanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Raziskovanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cilmi_Baaris" title="Cilmi Baaris – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Cilmi Baaris" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%DA%B5%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95" title="کۆڵینەوە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆڵینەوە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Истраживање – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Истраживање" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istra%C5%BEivanje" title="Istraživanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Istraživanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panalungtikan" title="Panalungtikan – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Panalungtikan" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tutkimus" title="Tutkimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tutkimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forskning" title="Forskning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Forskning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pananaliksik" title="Pananaliksik – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pananaliksik" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="ஆய்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆய்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%88%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D2%AF" title="Фәнни тикшеренү – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәнни тикшеренү" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B6%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%A8" title="పరిశోధన – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరిశోధన" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A2" title="การวิจัย – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การวิจัย" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ara%C5%9Ft%C4%B1rma" title="Araştırma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Araştırma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Дослідження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Дослідження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%AD%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%82" title="تحقیق – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تحقیق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ricerca" title="Ricerca – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Ricerca" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nghi%C3%AAn_c%E1%BB%A9u" title="Nghiên cứu – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nghiên cứu" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Research" title="Category:Research">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Research</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A laptop computer next to archival materials" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/220px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/330px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/440px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">Research design</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_proposal" title="Research proposal">Proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_writing" title="Academic writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Referencing</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Research strategy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimethodology" title="Multimethodology">Multimethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art-based_research" title="Art-based research">Art-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of science)"> Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_realism" title="Subtle realism">Subtle realism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_research" title="Action research">Action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_methodology" title="Art methodology">Art methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Grounded theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_inquiry" title="Narrative inquiry">Narrative inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_experiment" title="Field experiment">Field experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Inferential statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Mapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenography" title="Phenomenography">Phenomenography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">Secondary research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg/150px-Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg/225px-Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg/300px-Pioneer_plaque_%28transparent%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="3063" data-file-height="2427" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Portal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">General aspects</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Communication_theory" title="Communication theory">Communication theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Fields</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_communication" title="Mass communication">Mass communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_communication" title="Organizational communication">Organizational communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">Pragmatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociolinguistics</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Disciplines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_speaking" title="Public speaking">Public speaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse" title="Discourse">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">Argumentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_(communication)" title="Media (communication)">Media</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Communication" title="Category:Communication">Categories</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_communication" title="Outline of communication">Outline</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communication" title="Template:Communication"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communication" title="Template talk:Communication"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communication" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communication"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Research</b> is <a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">creative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">systematic</a> work undertaken to increase the stock of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It involves the collection, organization, and <a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">analysis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to controlling sources of <a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">bias</a> and <a href="/wiki/Error" title="Error">error</a>. These activities are characterized by accounting and controlling for biases. A research project may be an expansion of past work in the field. To test the validity of instruments, procedures, or experiments, research may replicate elements of prior projects or the project as a whole. </p><p>The primary purposes of <a href="/wiki/Basic_research" title="Basic research">basic research</a> (as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Applied_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Applied research">applied research</a>) are <a href="/wiki/Documentation" title="Documentation">documentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discovery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interpretation_(philosophy)" title="Interpretation (philosophy)">interpretation</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> (R&D) of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge. Approaches to research depend on <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemologies</a>, which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences. There are several forms of research: <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Artistic">artistic</a>, economic, <a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">social</a>, business, <a href="/wiki/Marketing_research" title="Marketing research">marketing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Practitioner_research" title="Practitioner research">practitioner research</a>, life, <a href="/wiki/Technological" class="mw-redirect" title="Technological">technological</a>, etc. The scientific study of research practices is known as <a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">meta-research</a>. </p><p>A <b>researcher</b> is a person who conducts research, especially in order to discover new information or to reach a new understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to be a social researcher or a <a href="/wiki/Social_scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Social scientist">social scientist</a>, one should have enormous knowledge of subjects related to social science that they are specialized in. Similarly, in order to be a natural science researcher, the person should have knowledge of fields related to natural science (<a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemistry" title="Chemistry">chemistry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a> and so on). <a href="/wiki/Professional_association" title="Professional association">Professional associations</a> provide one pathway to mature in the research profession.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/220px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/330px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/440px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, (384–322 BC), a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosopher</a> and pioneer in developing the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The word <i>research</i> is derived from the <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">Middle French</a> "<i>recherche</i>", which means "to go about seeking", the term itself being derived from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> term "recerchier," a compound word from "re-" + "cerchier", or "sercher", meaning 'search'.<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam_webster_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam_webster-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest recorded use of the term was in 1577.<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam_webster_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam_webster-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2></div> <p>Research has been defined in a number of different ways, and while there are similarities, there does not appear to be a single, all-encompassing definition that is embraced by all who engage in it. </p><p>Research, in its simplest terms, is searching for knowledge and searching for truth. In a formal sense, it is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy, which starts with choosing an approach to preparing a blueprint (design) and acting upon it in terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation, and ending with presenting solution(s) of the problem.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another definition of research is given by <a href="/wiki/John_W._Creswell" title="John W. Creswell">John W. Creswell</a>, who states that "research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question, collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines research more generally to also include studying already existing knowledge: "studious inquiry or examination; <i>especially</i>: investigation or experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts, or practical application of such new or revised theories or laws".<sup id="cite_ref-Merriam_webster_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merriam_webster-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forms_of_research">Forms of research</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_research">Original research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">"Original research" redirects here. For the Wikipedia prohibition against user-generated, unpublished research, see <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research">Wikipedia:No original research</a>.</div> <p><b>Original research</b>, also called <b>primary research</b>, is research that is not exclusively based on a summary, review, or synthesis of earlier publications on the subject of research. This material is of a <a href="/wiki/Primary_source" title="Primary source">primary-source</a> character. The purpose of the original research is to produce new <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a> rather than present the existing knowledge in a new form (e.g., summarized or classified).<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Original research can take various forms, depending on the discipline it pertains to. In experimental work, it typically involves direct or indirect observation of the researched subject(s), e.g., in the laboratory or in the field, documents the <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a>, results, and conclusions of an experiment or set of experiments, or offers a novel interpretation of previous results. In <a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">analytical</a> work, there are typically some new (for example) mathematical results produced or a new way of approaching an existing problem. In some subjects which do not typically carry out experimentation or analysis of this kind, the originality is in the particular way existing understanding is changed or re-interpreted based on the outcome of the work of the <a href="/wiki/Academic_authorship" title="Academic authorship">researcher</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The degree of originality of the research is among the major criteria for articles to be published in <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> and usually established by means of <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Graduate_student" class="mw-redirect" title="Graduate student">Graduate students</a> are commonly required to perform original research as part of a <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scientific_research">Scientific research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Research%22">"Research"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Research%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Research%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Research%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Research%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Research%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>unsourced and vague.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Research" title="Special:EditPage/Research">improve this article</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microscopy_lab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Microscopy_lab.jpg/220px-Microscopy_lab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Microscopy_lab.jpg/330px-Microscopy_lab.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Microscopy_lab.jpg/440px-Microscopy_lab.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Primary scientific research being carried out at the Microscopy Laboratory at the <a href="/wiki/Idaho_National_Laboratory" title="Idaho National Laboratory">Idaho National Laboratory</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alcator_C-Mod.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Alcator_C-Mod.jpg/220px-Alcator_C-Mod.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Alcator_C-Mod.jpg/330px-Alcator_C-Mod.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Alcator_C-Mod.jpg/440px-Alcator_C-Mod.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3570" /></a><figcaption>Scientific research equipment at <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg/220px-RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg/330px-RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg/440px-RV_Sonne_2014_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2751" data-file-height="1517" /></a><figcaption>The German maritime <a href="/wiki/Research_vessel" title="Research vessel">research vessel</a> <a href="/wiki/RV_Sonne_(2014)" title="RV Sonne (2014)"><i>Sonne</i></a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Scientific research</b> is a systematic way of gathering data and harnessing <a href="/wiki/Curiosity" title="Curiosity">curiosity</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> This research provides <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">scientific</a> information and theories for the explanation of <a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">the nature</a> and <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">the properties</a> of the world. It makes practical applications possible. Scientific research may be funded by public authorities, charitable organizations, and private organizations. Scientific research can be subdivided by <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">discipline</a>. </p><p>Generally, research is understood to follow a certain structural <a href="/wiki/Process_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Process (science)">process</a>. Though the order may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following steps are usually part of most formal research, both basic and applied: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Elements_of_the_scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Observations and formation of the topic</a>: Consists of the subject area of one's interest and following that subject area to conduct subject-related research. The subject area should not be randomly chosen since it requires reading a vast amount of literature on the topic to determine the gap in the literature the researcher intends to narrow. A keen interest in the chosen subject area is advisable. The research will have to be justified by linking its importance to already existing knowledge about the topic.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a>: A testable prediction which designates the relationship between two or more variables.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual definition">Conceptual definition</a>: Description of a concept by relating it to other concepts.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_definition" title="Operational definition">Operational definition</a>: Details in regards to defining the variables and how they will be measured/assessed in the study.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_collection" title="Data collection">Gathering of data</a>: Consists of identifying a population and selecting samples, gathering information from or about these samples by using specific research instruments. The instruments used for data collection must be valid and reliable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_analysis" title="Data analysis">Analysis of data</a>: Involves breaking down the individual pieces of data to draw conclusions about it.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Interpretation" class="mw-redirect" title="Data Interpretation">Data Interpretation</a>: This can be represented through tables, figures, and pictures, and then described in words.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Evaluation_and_improvement" title="Scientific method">Test, revising of hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method#Elements_of_the_scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Conclusion, reiteration if necessary</a></li></ol> <p>A common misconception is that a hypothesis will be proven (see, rather, <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a>). Generally, a hypothesis is used to make predictions that can be tested by observing the outcome of an experiment. If the outcome is inconsistent with the hypothesis, then the hypothesis is rejected (see <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a>). However, if the outcome is consistent with the hypothesis, the experiment is said to support the hypothesis. This careful language is used because researchers recognize that alternative hypotheses may also be consistent with the observations. In this sense, a hypothesis can never be proven, but rather only supported by surviving rounds of scientific testing and, eventually, becoming widely thought of as true. </p><p>A useful hypothesis allows prediction and within the accuracy of observation of the time, the prediction will be verified. As the accuracy of observation improves with time, the hypothesis may no longer provide an accurate prediction. In this case, a new hypothesis will arise to challenge the old, and to the extent that the new hypothesis makes more accurate predictions than the old, the new will supplant it. Researchers can also use a null hypothesis, which states no relationship or difference between the independent or dependent variables. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Research_in_the_humanities">Research in the humanities</h3></div> <p><b>Research in the humanities</b> involves different methods such as for example <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>. Humanities scholars usually do not search for the ultimate correct answer to a question, but instead, explore the issues and details that surround it. Context is always important, and context can be social, historical, political, cultural, or ethnic. An example of research in the humanities is historical research, which is embodied in <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical method</a>. Historians use <a href="/wiki/Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary sources">primary sources</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">evidence</a> to systematically investigate a topic, and then to write histories in the form of accounts of the past. Other studies aim to merely examine the occurrence of behaviours in societies and communities, without particularly looking for reasons or motivations to explain these. These studies may be qualitative or quantitative, and can use a variety of approaches, such as queer theory or feminist theory.<sup id="cite_ref-Roffee_4–22_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roffee_4–22-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artistic_research">Artistic research</h3></div> <p><b>Artistic research</b>, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth. </p><p>The controversial trend of artistic teaching becoming more academics-oriented is leading to artistic research being accepted as the primary mode of enquiry in art as in the case of other disciplines.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the characteristics of artistic research is that it must accept <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjectivity</a> as opposed to the classical scientific methods. As such, it is similar to the <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> in using <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intersubjectivity" title="Intersubjectivity">intersubjectivity</a> as tools to apply measurement and critical analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Artistic research has been defined by the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Dance_and_Circus" title="School of Dance and Circus">School of Dance and Circus</a> (Dans och Cirkushögskolan, DOCH), <a href="/wiki/Stockholm" title="Stockholm">Stockholm</a> in the following manner – "Artistic research is to investigate and test with the purpose of gaining knowledge within and for our artistic disciplines. It is based on artistic practices, methods, and criticality. Through presented documentation, the insights gained shall be placed in a context."<sup id="cite_ref-DOCH_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DOCH-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artistic research aims to enhance knowledge and understanding with presentation of the arts.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A simpler understanding by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian_Klein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Julian Klein (page does not exist)">Julian Klein</a> defines artistic research as any kind of research employing the artistic mode of perception.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For a survey of the central problematics of today's artistic research, see <a href="/wiki/Giaco_Schiesser" title="Giaco Schiesser">Giaco Schiesser</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to artist <a href="/wiki/Hakan_Topal" title="Hakan Topal">Hakan Topal</a>, in artistic research, "perhaps more so than other disciplines, intuition is utilized as a method to identify a wide range of new and unexpected productive modalities".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most writers, whether of fiction or non-fiction books, also have to do research to support their creative work. This may be factual, historical, or background research. Background research could include, for example, geographical or procedural research.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Artistic_Research" title="Society for Artistic Research">Society for Artistic Research</a> (SAR) publishes the triannual <i>Journal for Artistic Research</i> (<i>JAR</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an international, online, <a href="/wiki/Open_access" title="Open access">open access</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journal</a> for the identification, publication, and <a href="/wiki/Dissemination" title="Dissemination">dissemination</a> of artistic research and its methodologies, from all arts disciplines and it runs the <i>Research Catalogue</i> (RC),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a searchable, documentary <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> of artistic research, to which anyone can contribute. </p><p>Patricia Leavy addresses eight arts-based research (ABR) genres: narrative inquiry, fiction-based research, poetry, music, dance, theatre, film, and visual art.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016, the <a href="/wiki/European_League_of_Institutes_of_the_Arts" title="European League of Institutes of the Arts">European League of Institutes of the Arts</a> launched <i>The Florence Principles' on the Doctorate in the Arts</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Florence Principles relating to the Salzburg Principles and the Salzburg Recommendations of the <a href="/wiki/European_University_Association" title="European University Association">European University Association</a> name seven points of attention to specify the Doctorate / PhD in the Arts compared to a scientific doctorate / PhD. The Florence Principles have been endorsed and are supported also by <a href="/wiki/European_Association_of_Conservatoires" title="European Association of Conservatoires">AEC</a>, <a href="/wiki/CILECT" title="CILECT">CILECT</a>, CUMULUS and <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Artistic_Research" title="Society for Artistic Research">SAR</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_research">Historical research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jebens,_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_(detail)_-_1875.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/220px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/330px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg/440px-Jebens%2C_Adolf_-_Leopold_von_Ranke_%28detail%29_-_1875.jpg 2x" data-file-width="529" data-file-height="733" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leopold_von_Ranke" title="Leopold von Ranke">Leopold von Ranke</a> (1795–1886), a <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">German</a> historian and a founder of modern source-based history</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">historical method</a> comprises the techniques and guidelines by which historians use historical sources and other evidence to research and then to write history. There are various history guidelines that are commonly used by historians in their work, under the headings of external criticism, internal criticism, and synthesis. This includes <a href="/wiki/Lower_criticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower criticism">lower criticism</a> and sensual criticism. Though items may vary depending on the subject matter and researcher, the following concepts are part of most formal historical research:<sup id="cite_ref-Garraghan_(1946)_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garraghan_(1946)-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identification_(information)" title="Identification (information)">Identification</a> of origin date</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a> of localization</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_(sociology)" title="Recognition (sociology)">Recognition</a> of authorship</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a> of data</li> <li>Identification of <a href="/wiki/Integrity" title="Integrity">integrity</a></li> <li>Attribution of <a href="/wiki/Credibility" title="Credibility">credibility</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Documentary_research">Documentary research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Documentary_research" title="Documentary research">Documentary research</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Steps_in_conducting_research">Steps in conducting research</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Research_design_and_evidence.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Research_design_and_evidence.svg/220px-Research_design_and_evidence.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Research_design_and_evidence.svg/330px-Research_design_and_evidence.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Research_design_and_evidence.svg/440px-Research_design_and_evidence.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="530" /></a><figcaption>Research design and evidence</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Research_cycle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Research_cycle.svg/220px-Research_cycle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Research_cycle.svg/330px-Research_cycle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Research_cycle.svg/440px-Research_cycle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="933" data-file-height="933" /></a><figcaption>Research cycle</figcaption></figure> <p>Research is often conducted using the hourglass model structure of research.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the method of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. The major steps in conducting research are:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Identification of research problem</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature review</a></li> <li>Specifying the purpose of research</li> <li>Determining specific <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research questions</a></li> <li>Specification of a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual framework</a>, sometimes including a set of hypotheses<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Choice of a methodology (for data collection)</li> <li>Data collection</li> <li>Verifying data</li> <li>Analyzing and interpreting the data</li> <li>Reporting and evaluating research</li> <li>Communicating the research findings and, possibly, recommendations</li></ul> <p>The steps generally represent the overall process; however, they should be viewed as an ever-changing iterative process rather than a fixed set of steps.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most research begins with a general statement of the problem, or rather, the purpose for engaging in the study.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The literature review identifies flaws or holes in previous research which provides justification for the study. Often, a <a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">literature review</a> is conducted in a given subject area before a <a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">research question</a> is identified. A gap in the current literature, as identified by a researcher, then engenders a research question. The research question may be parallel to the <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">hypothesis</a>. The hypothesis is the supposition to be tested. The researcher(s) collects data to test the hypothesis. The researcher(s) then analyzes and interprets the data via a variety of statistical methods, engaging in what is known as <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a>. The results of the data analysis in rejecting or failing to reject the <a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null hypothesis</a> are then reported and evaluated. At the end, the researcher may discuss avenues for <a href="/wiki/Further_research_is_needed" title="Further research is needed">further research</a>. However, some researchers advocate for the reverse approach: starting with articulating findings and discussion of them, moving "up" to identification of a research problem that emerges in the findings and literature review. The reverse approach is justified by the transactional nature of the research endeavor where research inquiry, research questions, research method, relevant research literature, and so on are not fully known until the findings have fully emerged and been interpreted. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rudolph_Rummel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolph Rummel">Rudolph Rummel</a> says, "... no researcher should accept any one or two tests as definitive. It is only when a range of tests are consistent over many kinds of data, researchers, and methods can one have confidence in the results."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> in <a href="/wiki/Meno" title="Meno">Meno</a> talks about an inherent difficulty, if not a paradox, of doing research that can be paraphrased in the following way, "If you know what you're searching for, why do you search for it?! [i.e., you have already found it] If you don't know what you're searching for, what are you searching for?!"<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_methods">Research methods</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg/220px-NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg/330px-NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg/440px-NYC_Public_Library_Research_Room_Jan_2006-1-_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="1798" /></a><figcaption>The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">secondary research</a> in progress</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg/220px-Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg/330px-Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg/440px-Hilleman-Walter-Reed.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="642" data-file-height="978" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a>, a 20th century <a href="/wiki/Vaccinologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Vaccinologist">vaccinologist</a> credited with saving more lives than any other scientist of his era<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The goal of the research process is to produce new knowledge or deepen understanding of a topic or issue. This process takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be obscure): </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exploratory_research" title="Exploratory research">Exploratory research</a>, which helps to identify and define a problem or question.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructive research">Constructive research</a>, which tests theories and proposes solutions to a problem or question.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">Empirical research</a>, which tests the feasibility of a solution using <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical evidence</a>.</li></ul> <p>There are two major types of empirical research design: qualitative research and quantitative research. Researchers choose qualitative or quantitative methods according to the nature of the research topic they want to investigate and the research questions they aim to answer: </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></dt></dl> <p>Qualitative research refers to much more subjective non-quantitative, use different methods of collecting data, analyzing data, interpreting data for meanings, definitions, characteristics, symbols metaphors of things. Qualitative research further classified into the following types: <b>Ethnography:</b> This research mainly focus on culture of group of people which includes share attributes, language, practices, structure, value, norms and material things, evaluate human lifestyle. Ethno: people, Grapho: to write, this disciple may include ethnic groups, ethno genesis, composition, resettlement and social welfare characteristics. <b>Phenomenology</b>: It is very powerful strategy for demonstrating methodology to health professions education as well as best suited for exploring challenging problems in health professions educations.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Project_Management_Institute" title="Project Management Institute">PMP</a> researcher Mandy Sha argued that a <a href="/wiki/Project_management" title="Project management">project management</a> approach is necessary to control the scope, schedule, and cost related to <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitative research</a> design, participant recruitment, data collection, reporting, as well as <a href="/wiki/Stakeholder_management" title="Stakeholder management">stakeholder engagement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:5_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative research</a></dt> <dd>This involves systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships, by asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze it utilizing <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistical_technique" class="mw-redirect" title="Descriptive statistical technique">statistical</a> methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlational, and survey (or descriptive).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statistics derived from quantitative research can be used to establish the existence of associative or causal relationships between variables. Quantitative research is linked with the philosophical and theoretical stance of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">positivism</a>.</dd></dl> <p>The quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined response categories. These methods produce results that can be summarized, compared, and generalized to larger populations if the data are collected using proper sampling and data collection strategies.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Quantitative research is concerned with testing hypotheses derived from theory or being able to estimate the size of a phenomenon of interest.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the research question is about people, participants may be randomly assigned to different treatments (this is the only way that a quantitative study can be considered a true experiment).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> If this is not feasible, the researcher may collect data on participant and situational characteristics to statistically control for their influence on the dependent, or outcome, variable. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In either qualitative or quantitative research, the researcher(s) may collect primary or secondary data.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primary data is data collected specifically for the research, such as through interviews or questionnaires. Secondary data is data that already exists, such as census data, which can be re-used for the research. It is good ethical research practice to use secondary data wherever possible.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mixed-method research, i.e. research that includes qualitative and quantitative elements, using both primary and secondary data, is becoming more common.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method has benefits that using one method alone cannot offer. For example, a researcher may choose to conduct a qualitative study and follow it up with a quantitative study to gain additional insights.<sup id="cite_ref-Creswell_Book_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creswell_Book-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Big_data" title="Big data">Big data</a> has brought big impacts on research methods so that now many researchers do not put much effort into data collection; furthermore, methods to analyze easily available huge amounts of data have also been developed. Types of Research Method 1. Observatory Research Method 2. Correlation Research Method <sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dt>Non-empirical research</dt></dl> <p>Non-empirical (<a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">theoretical</a>) research is an approach that involves the development of theory as opposed to using observation and experimentation. As such, non-empirical research seeks solutions to problems using existing knowledge as its source. This, however, does not mean that new ideas and innovations cannot be found within the pool of existing and established knowledge. Non-empirical research is not an absolute alternative to empirical research because they may be used together to strengthen a research approach. Neither one is less effective than the other since they have their particular purpose in science. Typically empirical research produces observations that need to be explained; then theoretical research tries to explain them, and in so doing generates empirically testable hypotheses; these hypotheses are then tested empirically, giving more observations that may need further explanation; and so on. See <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a>. </p><p>A simple example of a non-empirical task is the prototyping of a new drug using a differentiated application of existing knowledge; another is the development of a business process in the form of a flow chart and texts where all the ingredients are from established knowledge. Much of <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmological research</a> is theoretical in nature. <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a> research does not rely on externally available data; rather, it seeks to prove <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a> about <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_object" title="Mathematical object">mathematical objects</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_ethics">Research ethics</h2></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Research_ethics&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a> is a discipline within the study of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">applied ethics</a>. Its scope ranges from general <a href="/wiki/Scientific_integrity" title="Scientific integrity">scientific integrity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a> to the treatment of human and animal subjects. The <a href="/wiki/Social_responsibilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Social responsibilities">social responsibilities</a> of scientists and researchers are not traditionally included and are less well defined. </p><p>The discipline is most developed in <a href="/wiki/Medical_research" title="Medical research">medical research</a>. Beyond the issues of falsification, fabrication, and plagiarism that arise in every scientific field, <a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">research design</a> in <a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">human subject research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animal testing</a> are the areas that raise ethical questions most often. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">list of historic cases</a> includes many large-scale violations and crimes against humanity such as <a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi human experimentation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_syphilis_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuskegee syphilis experiment">Tuskegee syphilis experiment</a> which led to international codes of research ethics. No approach has been universally accepted, but typically cited codes are the 1947 <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a>, the 1964 <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_Helsinki" title="Declaration of Helsinki">Declaration of Helsinki</a>, and the 1978 <a href="/wiki/Belmont_Report" title="Belmont Report">Belmont Report</a>. </p><p>Today, <a href="/wiki/Research_ethics_committees" class="mw-redirect" title="Research ethics committees">research ethics committees</a>, such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Institutional_review_board" title="Institutional review board">US</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Ethics_Service" title="National Research Ethics Service">UK</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethics_committee_(European_Union)" title="Ethics committee (European Union)">EU</a>, govern and oversee the responsible conduct of research. </p> Research in other fields such as <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biotechnology" title="Biotechnology">biotechnology</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> may generate ethical concerns.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Problems_in_research">Problems in research</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meta-research">Meta-research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Meta-research" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-research">Meta-research</a></div> <p>Meta-research is the study of research through the use of research methods. Also known as "research on research", it aims to reduce waste and increase the quality of research in all fields. Meta-research concerns itself with the detection of bias, methodological flaws, and other errors and inefficiencies. Among the finding of meta-research is a low rates of <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducibility</a> across a large number of fields. This widespread difficulty in reproducing research has been termed the "<a href="/wiki/Replication_crisis" title="Replication crisis">replication crisis</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Methods_of_research">Methods of research</h3></div> <p>In many disciplines, Western methods of conducting research are predominant.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers are overwhelmingly taught Western methods of data collection and study. The increasing participation of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> as researchers has brought increased attention to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_lacuna" title="Scientific lacuna">scientific lacuna</a> in <a href="/wiki/Culturally_sensitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Culturally sensitive">culturally sensitive</a> methods of data collection.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Western methods of data collection may not be the most accurate or relevant for research on non-Western societies. For example, "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Hua_Oranga&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hua Oranga (page does not exist)">Hua Oranga</a>" was created as a criterion for psychological evaluation in <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> populations, and is based on dimensions of mental health important to the Māori people – "taha wairua (the spiritual dimension), taha hinengaro (the mental dimension), taha tinana (the physical dimension), and taha whanau (the family dimension)".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bias">Bias</h3></div> <p>Research is often biased in the languages that are preferred (<a href="/wiki/Linguicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguicism">linguicism</a>) and the geographic locations where research occurs. Periphery scholars face the challenges of exclusion and linguicism in research and academic publication. As the great majority of mainstream academic journals are written in English, multilingual periphery scholars often must translate their work to be accepted to elite Western-dominated journals.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multilingual scholars' influences from their native communicative styles can be assumed to be incompetence instead of difference.<sup id="cite_ref-Canagarajah_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canagarajah-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For comparative politics, Western countries are over-represented in single-country studies, with heavy emphasis on Western Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Since 2000, Latin American countries have become more popular in single-country studies. In contrast, countries in <a href="/wiki/Oceania" title="Oceania">Oceania</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> are the focus of very few studies. Patterns of geographic bias also show a relationship with linguicism: countries whose official languages are French or Arabic are far less likely to be the focus of single-country studies than countries with different official languages. Within Africa, English-speaking countries are more represented than other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Pepinsky_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepinsky-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Generalizability">Generalizability</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/External_validity" title="External validity">External validity</a></div> <p>Generalization is the process of more broadly applying the valid results of one study.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studies with a narrow scope can result in a lack of generalizability, meaning that the results may not be applicable to other populations or regions. In comparative politics, this can result from using a single-country study, rather than a study design that uses data from multiple countries. Despite the issue of generalizability, single-country studies have risen in prevalence since the late 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-Pepinsky_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepinsky-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Publication_peer_review">Publication peer review</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Update" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/42px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/63px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Ambox_current_red.svg/84px-Ambox_current_red.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs to be <b>updated</b>. The reason given is: This subsection's claims are potentially outdated in the "digital age" given that near-total penetration of Web access among scholars worldwide enables any scholar[s] to submit papers to any journal anywhere.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2017</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">Peer review</a> is a form of self-regulation by qualified members of a profession within the relevant field. Peer review methods are employed to maintain standards of quality, improve performance, and provide credibility. In academia, <a href="/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review" title="Scholarly peer review">scholarly peer review</a> is often used to determine an academic paper's suitability for publication. Usually, the peer review process involves experts in the same field who are consulted by editors to give a review of the scholarly works produced by a colleague of theirs from an unbiased and impartial point of view, and this is usually done free of charge. The tradition of peer reviews being done for free has however brought many pitfalls which are also indicative of why most peer reviewers decline many invitations to review.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was observed that publications from periphery countries rarely rise to the same elite status as those of North America and Europe, because limitations on the availability of resources including high-quality paper and sophisticated image-rendering software and printing tools render these publications less able to satisfy standards currently carrying formal or informal authority in the publishing industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Canagarajah_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Canagarajah-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These limitations in turn result in the under-representation of scholars from periphery nations among the set of publications holding prestige status relative to the quantity and quality of those scholars' research efforts, and this under-representation in turn results in disproportionately reduced acceptance of the results of their efforts as contributions to the body of knowledge available worldwide. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Influence_of_the_open-access_movement">Influence of the open-access movement</h3></div> <p>The open access movement assumes that all information generally deemed useful should be free and belongs to a "public domain", that of "humanity".<sup id="cite_ref-Christen_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christen-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idea gained prevalence as a result of Western colonial history and ignores alternative conceptions of knowledge circulation. For instance, most indigenous communities consider that access to certain information proper to the group should be determined by relationships.<sup id="cite_ref-Christen_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christen-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is alleged to be a double standard in the Western knowledge system. On the one hand, "digital right management" used to restrict access to personal information on social networking platforms is celebrated as a protection of privacy, while simultaneously when similar functions are used by cultural groups (i.e. indigenous communities) this is denounced as "access control" and reprehended as censorship.<sup id="cite_ref-Christen_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christen-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_perspectives">Future perspectives</h3></div> <p>Even though Western dominance seems to be prominent in research, some scholars, such as <a href="/wiki/Simon_Marginson" title="Simon Marginson">Simon Marginson</a>, argue for "the need [for] a plural university world".<sup id="cite_ref-Marginson_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marginson-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marginson argues that the East Asian Confucian model could take over the Western model. </p><p>This could be due to changes in funding for research both in the East and the West. Focused on emphasizing educational achievement, East Asian cultures, mainly in China and South Korea, have encouraged the increase of funding for research expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-Marginson_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Marginson-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, in the Western academic world, notably in the United Kingdom as well as in some state governments in the United States, funding cuts for university research have occurred, which some <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (February 2017)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> say may lead to the future decline of Western dominance in research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Neo-colonial_approaches">Neo-colonial approaches</h3></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial science</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neo-colonial_science&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p>Neo-colonial research or <a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">neo-colonial science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_budiman_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_budiman-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:1_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> frequently described as helicopter research,<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_budiman_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_budiman-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> parachute science<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_the-scientist.com_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_the-scientist.com-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:0_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or research,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> parasitic research,<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:3_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:3-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or safari study,<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_segen_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_segen-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is when researchers from wealthier countries go to a <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing country</a>, collect information, travel back to their country, analyze the <a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">data</a> and samples, and publish the results with no or little involvement of local researchers. A 2003 study by the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Academy_of_Sciences" title="Hungarian Academy of Sciences">Hungarian Academy of Sciences</a> found that 70% of articles in a random sample of publications about <a href="/wiki/Least-developed_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Least-developed countries">least-developed countries</a> did not include a local research co-author.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:1_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:1-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frequently, during this kind of research, the local colleagues might be used to provide logistics support as <a href="/wiki/Fixer_(person)" title="Fixer (person)">fixers</a> but are not engaged for their expertise or given credit for their participation in the research. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_publication" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific publication">Scientific publications</a> resulting from parachute science frequently only contribute to the career of the scientists from rich countries, thus limiting the development of local science capacity (such as <a href="/wiki/Research_institute" title="Research institute">funded research centers</a>) and the careers of local scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_budiman_59-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_budiman-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of "colonial" science has reverberations of 19th century scientific practices of treating non-Western participants as "others" in order to advance <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>—and critics call for the end of these <a href="/wiki/Extractivism" title="Extractivism">extractivist practices</a> in order to <a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">decolonize knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:2_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:2-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> This kind of research approach reduces the quality of research because international researchers may not ask the right questions or draw connections to local issues.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_Stefanoudis_R184–R185_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_Stefanoudis_R184–R185-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The result of this approach is that local communities are unable to leverage the research to their own advantage.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:0_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately, especially for fields dealing with <a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">global issues</a> like <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">conservation biology</a> which rely on local communities to implement solutions, neo-colonial science prevents <a href="/wiki/Institutionalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutionalization">institutionalization</a> of the findings in local communities in order to address issues being studied by scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:0_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neo-colonial_science_:2_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neo-colonial_science_:2-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professionalisation">Professionalisation <span class="anchor" id="Professionalization"></span></h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-globalize" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Globe icon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/48px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="48" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/73px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/97px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">The examples and perspective in this section <b>may not represent a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Countering_systemic_bias" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Countering systemic bias">worldwide view</a> of the subject</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You may <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Research&action=edit">improve this section</a>, discuss the issue on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Research" title="Talk:Research">talk page</a>, or create a new section, as appropriate.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2014</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Academic_ranks" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic ranks">Academic ranks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academic_staff" title="Academic staff">Academic staff</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientists">Scientists</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Research_fellow" title="Research fellow">Research fellow</a>, <a href="/wiki/Research_associate" title="Research associate">Research associate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Research_assistant" title="Research assistant">Research assistant</a></div> <p>In several national and private academic systems, the <a href="/wiki/Professionalisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Professionalisation">professionalisation</a> of research has resulted in formal job titles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_Russia">In Russia</h3></div> <p>In present-day Russia, and some other countries of the former <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, the term <i>researcher</i> (Russian: <span lang="ru">Научный сотрудник</span>, <i>nauchny sotrudnik</i>) has been used both as a generic term for a person who has been carrying out scientific research, and as a job position within the frameworks of the <a href="/wiki/USSR_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR Academy of Sciences">Academy of Sciences</a>, universities, and in other research-oriented establishments. </p><p>The following ranks are known: </p> <ul><li>Junior Researcher (Junior Research Associate)</li> <li>Researcher (Research Associate)</li> <li>Senior Researcher (Senior Research Associate)</li> <li>Leading Researcher (Leading Research Associate)<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Chief Researcher (Chief Research Associate)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publishing">Publishing</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nature_cover,_November_4,_1869.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/220px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/330px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg/440px-Nature_cover%2C_November_4%2C_1869.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption>The cover of the first issue of <i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>, 4 November 1869</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Academic_publishing" title="Academic publishing">Academic publishing</a> is a system that is necessary for academic scholars to <a href="/wiki/Peer_review" title="Peer review">peer review</a> the work and make it available for a wider audience. The system varies widely by field and is also always changing, if often slowly. Most academic work is published in journal article or book form. There is also a large body of research that exists in either a thesis or dissertation form. These forms of research can be found in databases explicitly for theses and dissertations. In publishing, STM publishing is an abbreviation for academic publications in science, technology, and medicine. Most established <a href="/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplines" class="mw-redirect" title="List of academic disciplines">academic fields</a> have their own scientific journals and other outlets for publication, though many <a href="/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">academic journals</a> are somewhat interdisciplinary, and publish work from several distinct fields or subfields. The kinds of publications that are accepted as contributions of knowledge or research vary greatly between fields, from the print to the electronic format. A study suggests that researchers should not give great consideration to findings that are not replicated frequently.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been suggested that all published studies should be subjected to some measure for assessing the validity or reliability of its procedures to prevent the publication of unproven findings.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Business_model" title="Business model">Business models</a> are different in the electronic environment. Since about the early 1990s, licensing of electronic resources, particularly journals, has been very common. Presently, a major trend, particularly with respect to scholarly journals, is <a href="/wiki/Open_access_(publishing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open access (publishing)">open access</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are two main forms of open access: open access publishing, in which the articles or the whole journal is freely available from the time of publication, and <a href="/wiki/Self-archiving" title="Self-archiving">self-archiving</a>, where the author makes a copy of their own work freely available on the web. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_statistics_and_funding">Research statistics and funding</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Research_funding" class="mw-redirect" title="Research funding">Research funding</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b> with: funding for research in the humanities and other areas. Presently, only scientific research is addressed. You can help by <span class="anonymous-show"><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AResearch&preload=Template%3ASubmit+an+edit+request%2Fpreload&action=edit&section=new&editintro=Template%3AEdit+protected%2Feditintro&preloadtitle=Protected+edit+request+on+25+February+2025&preloadparams%5B%5D=edit+fully-protected&preloadparams%5B%5D=Research">making an edit request</a></span></span><span class="user-show"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Research&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a> </span>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2019</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Most funding for scientific research comes from three major sources: <a href="/wiki/Corporation" title="Corporation">corporate</a> <a href="/wiki/Research_and_development" title="Research and development">research and development</a> departments; <a href="/wiki/Private_foundation" title="Private foundation">private foundations</a>; and government research councils such as the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a> in the US<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Medical_Research_Council_(UK)" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Research Council (UK)">Medical Research Council</a> in the UK. These are managed primarily through universities and in some cases through military contractors. Many senior researchers (such as group leaders) spend a significant amount of their time applying for grants for research funds. These grants are necessary not only for researchers to carry out their research but also as a source of merit. The <a href="/wiki/Social_Psychology_Network" title="Social Psychology Network">Social Psychology Network</a> provides a comprehensive list of U.S. Government and private foundation funding sources. </p><p>The total number of researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants for individual countries is shown in the following table. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th>researchers (full-time equivalents) per million inhabitants 2018<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></td> <td>819 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td> <td>1192 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></td> <td>5733 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>5023 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td>2343 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td>4326 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></td> <td>493 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td>1307 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></td> <td>380 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></td> <td>1921 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></td> <td>1256 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czechia</a></td> <td>3863 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td>8066 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/23px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/35px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Egypt.svg/45px-Flag_of_Egypt.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td> <td>687 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td> <td>3755 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Flag_of_Finland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Finland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1100" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td>6861 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>4715 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Flag_of_Georgia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Georgia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></td> <td>1464 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/23px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/35px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/ba/Flag_of_Germany.svg/46px-Flag_of_Germany.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></td> <td>5212 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> <td>3483 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td> <td>3238 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td>6131 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td>253 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Flag_of_Indonesia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Indonesia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a></td> <td>216 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/23px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/35px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/46px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></td> <td>1475 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td>5243 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></td> <td>2307 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>2307 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>5331 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Flag_of_Jordan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Jordan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></td> <td>596 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></td> <td>667 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></td> <td>514 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a></td> <td>1792 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td> <td>3191 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td> <td>4942 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td> <td>2397 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/45px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></td> <td>1947 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></td> <td>474 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td>315 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/23px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/35px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Flag_of_Moldova.svg/46px-Flag_of_Moldova.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Moldova" title="Moldova">Moldova</a></td> <td>696 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></td> <td>734 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/23px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/35px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Flag_of_Morocco.svg/45px-Flag_of_Morocco.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></td> <td>1074 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>5605 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td> <td>5530 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></td> <td>799 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td>6467 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Pakistan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a></td> <td>336 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></td> <td>3106 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td>4538 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></td> <td>882 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></td> <td>2784 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a></td> <td>2087 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td> <td>6803 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></td> <td>2996 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td> <td>4855 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td> <td>518 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td> <td>7980 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>3001 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/23px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/35px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4c/Flag_of_Sweden.svg/46px-Flag_of_Sweden.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td>7536 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>5450 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td> <td>1350 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Tunisia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Tunisia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></td> <td>1772 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/23px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/35px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Turkey.svg/45px-Flag_of_Turkey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td>1379 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td> <td>988 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></td> <td>2379 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>4603 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a></td> <td>4412 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/23px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/35px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Flag_of_Uruguay.svg/45px-Flag_of_Uruguay.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="341" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Uruguay" title="Uruguay">Uruguay</a></td> <td>696 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td> <td>708 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Research expenditure by type of research as a share of GDP for individual countries is shown in the following table. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Country </th> <th colspan="4">Research expenditure as a share of GDP by type of research (%), 2018<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th data-sort-type="number">Basic </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Applied </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Development </th></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Algeria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Algeria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a></td> <td>0.01</td> <td>0.27</td> <td>0.02 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/23px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/35px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Flag_of_Argentina.svg/46px-Flag_of_Argentina.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Argentina" title="Argentina">Argentina</a></td> <td>0.14</td> <td>0.27</td> <td>0.12 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_Austria.svg/45px-Flag_of_Austria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a></td> <td>0.54</td> <td>1.00</td> <td>1.46 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Belgium_%28civil%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a></td> <td>0.30</td> <td>1.24</td> <td>1.16 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/23px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/35px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg/46px-Flag_of_Bulgaria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></td> <td>0.08</td> <td>0.47</td> <td>0.20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/23px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/35px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Flag_of_Chile.svg/45px-Flag_of_Chile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Chile" title="Chile">Chile</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.14</td> <td>0.08 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td>0.12</td> <td>0.24</td> <td>1.82 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/23px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/35px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg/46px-Flag_of_Costa_Rica.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.07</td> <td>0.02 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Flag_of_Croatia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Croatia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a></td> <td>0.33</td> <td>0.28</td> <td>0.25 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/23px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/35px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Cyprus.svg/45px-Flag_of_Cyprus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a></td> <td>0.08</td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.18 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Czech_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czechia</a></td> <td>0.50</td> <td>0.77</td> <td>0.66 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/20px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/31px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Flag_of_Denmark.svg/40px-Flag_of_Denmark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="387" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Denmark" title="Denmark">Denmark</a></td> <td>0.56</td> <td>0.95</td> <td>1.54 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Flag_of_Estonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Estonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="630" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a></td> <td>0.35</td> <td>0.28</td> <td>0.66 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/23px-Flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/35px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/45px-Flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td> <td>0.50</td> <td>0.92</td> <td>0.78 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/23px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/35px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Greece.svg/45px-Flag_of_Greece.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a></td> <td>0.35</td> <td>0.37</td> <td>0.41 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/23px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/35px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Flag_of_Hungary.svg/46px-Flag_of_Hungary.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a></td> <td>0.26</td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.78 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/21px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/32px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Flag_of_Iceland.svg/42px-Flag_of_Iceland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1250" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Iceland" title="Iceland">Iceland</a></td> <td>0.43</td> <td>0.95</td> <td>0.66 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/23px-Flag_of_India.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/35px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg/45px-Flag_of_India.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.15</td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Flag_of_Ireland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Ireland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ireland" title="Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></td> <td>0.22</td> <td>0.42</td> <td>0.55 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></td> <td>0.31</td> <td>0.58</td> <td>0.49 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/21px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/32px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Flag_of_Israel.svg/41px-Flag_of_Israel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></td> <td>0.52</td> <td>0.51</td> <td>3.93 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg/45px-Flag_of_Japan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td> <td>0.41</td> <td>0.62</td> <td>2.10 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></td> <td>0.02</td> <td>0.07</td> <td>0.03 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/23px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/35px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Flag_of_Kuwait.svg/46px-Flag_of_Kuwait.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></td> <td>0.00</td> <td>0.06</td> <td>0.00 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Flag_of_Latvia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Latvia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Latvia" title="Latvia">Latvia</a></td> <td>0.16</td> <td>0.22</td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Flag_of_Lithuania.svg/46px-Flag_of_Lithuania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a></td> <td>0.24</td> <td>0.38</td> <td>0.28 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/23px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/35px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg/46px-Flag_of_Luxembourg.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="307" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Luxembourg" title="Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></td> <td>0.48</td> <td>0.49</td> <td>0.33 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Malaysia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a></td> <td>0.42</td> <td>0.81</td> <td>0.21 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/23px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/35px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Malta.svg/45px-Flag_of_Malta.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.19</td> <td>0.09 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Mauritius.svg/45px-Flag_of_Mauritius.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mauritius" title="Mauritius">Mauritius</a></td> <td>0.03</td> <td>0.12</td> <td>0.02 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/23px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/35px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Flag_of_Mexico.svg/46px-Flag_of_Mexico.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="560" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.09</td> <td>0.12 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/23px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/35px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Flag_of_Montenegro.svg/46px-Flag_of_Montenegro.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Montenegro" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.21</td> <td>0.04 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Netherlands.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a></td> <td>0.52</td> <td>0.87</td> <td>0.60 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/23px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/35px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg/46px-Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a></td> <td>0.34</td> <td>0.55</td> <td>0.48 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/23px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/35px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg/46px-Flag_of_North_Macedonia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></td> <td>0.09</td> <td>0.23</td> <td>0.05 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/21px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/32px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Norway.svg/41px-Flag_of_Norway.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="372" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td>0.38</td> <td>0.79</td> <td>0.93 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/23px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/35px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/12/Flag_of_Poland.svg/46px-Flag_of_Poland.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a></td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.18</td> <td>0.55 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/23px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/35px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Flag_of_Portugal.svg/45px-Flag_of_Portugal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a></td> <td>0.29</td> <td>0.51</td> <td>0.53 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/23px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/35px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Flag_of_Romania.svg/45px-Flag_of_Romania.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.31</td> <td>0.09 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></td> <td>0.15</td> <td>0.21</td> <td>0.65 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_Serbia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Serbia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="900" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a></td> <td>0.29</td> <td>0.34</td> <td>0.29 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/23px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/35px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Flag_of_Singapore.svg/45px-Flag_of_Singapore.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a></td> <td>0.46</td> <td>0.61</td> <td>0.87 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Flag_of_Slovakia.svg/45px-Flag_of_Slovakia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a></td> <td>0.33</td> <td>0.20</td> <td>0.30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/23px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/35px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Flag_of_Slovenia.svg/46px-Flag_of_Slovenia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Slovenia" title="Slovenia">Slovenia</a></td> <td>0.33</td> <td>0.82</td> <td>0.71 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Flag_of_South_Africa.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Africa.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td> <td>0.22</td> <td>0.44</td> <td>0.17 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/23px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/35px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg/45px-Flag_of_South_Korea.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td> <td>0.68</td> <td>1.06</td> <td>3.07 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a></td> <td>0.26</td> <td>0.50</td> <td>0.45 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Switzerland_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a></td> <td>1.41</td> <td>1.09</td> <td>0.88 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/23px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/35px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg/45px-Flag_of_Thailand.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a></td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.27</td> <td>0.64 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/23px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/35px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Flag_of_Ukraine.svg/45px-Flag_of_Ukraine.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a></td> <td>0.11</td> <td>0.10</td> <td>0.27 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/ae/Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_Kingdom.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.74</td> <td>0.64 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a></td> <td>0.47</td> <td>0.56</td> <td>1.80 </td></tr> <tr> <td><span class="flagicon" style="display:inline-block;width:25px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/23px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/35px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg/45px-Flag_of_Vietnam.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a></td> <td>0.07</td> <td>0.30</td> <td>0.04 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-rules"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advertising_research" title="Advertising research">Advertising research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Charter_for_Researchers" title="European Charter for Researchers">European Charter for Researchers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_research" title="Internet research">Internet research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_research_and_development_spending" class="mw-redirect" title="List of countries by research and development spending">List of countries by research and development spending</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_words_ending_in_ology" class="mw-redirect" title="List of words ending in ology">List of words ending in <i>ology</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology (science)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_research" title="Market research">Market research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marketing_research" title="Marketing research">Marketing research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_research" title="Open research">Open research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_action_research" title="Participatory action research">Participatory action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_research_methods" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological research methods">Psychological research methods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_integrity" class="mw-redirect" title="Research integrity">Research integrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research-intensive_cluster" title="Research-intensive cluster">Research-intensive cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Research organization">Research organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_proposal" title="Research proposal">Research proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_university" title="Research university">Research university</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholarly_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholarly research">Scholarly research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">Secondary research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Social research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Artistic_Research" title="Society for Artistic Research">Society for Artistic Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_the_scientific_method" title="Timeline of the history of the scientific method">Timeline of the history of the scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undergraduate_research" title="Undergraduate research">Undergraduate research</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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(2008). <i>Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research</i> (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (June 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110709085129/http://www.unf.edu/library/guides/originalresearch.html">"What is Original Research? Original research is considered a primary source"</a>. Thomas G. Carpenter Library, University of North Florida. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unf.edu/library/guides/originalresearch.html">the original</a> on 9 July 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 August</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Original+Research%3F+Original+research+is+considered+a+primary+source&rft.pub=Thomas+G.+Carpenter+Library%2C+University+of+North+Florida&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unf.edu%2Flibrary%2Fguides%2Foriginalresearch.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRozakis2007" class="citation book cs1">Rozakis, Laurie (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XlIH4R9Z_k8C&pg=PT75"><i>Schaum's Quick Guide to Writing Great Research Papers</i></a>. McGraw Hill Professional. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0071511223" title="Special:BookSources/978-0071511223"><bdi>978-0071511223</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schaum%27s+Quick+Guide+to+Writing+Great+Research+Papers&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0071511223&rft.aulast=Rozakis&rft.aufirst=Laurie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXlIH4R9Z_k8C%26pg%3DPT75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinghLi,_Bingyi2009" class="citation web cs1">Singh, Michael; Li, Bingyi (6 October 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aare.edu.au/09pap/li091380.pdf">"Early career researcher originality: Engaging Richard Florida's international competition for creative workers"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 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Scott Armstrong (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100620220043/http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/Replications.pdf">"Replication Research in Marketing Revisited: A Note on a Disturbing Trend"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://marketing.wharton.upenn.edu/ideas/pdf/Armstrong/Replications.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 20 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=report.nih.gov&rft.atitle=Home+%26%23124%3B+RePORT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freport.nih.gov%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics,">Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table C2: Total researchers and researchers per million inhabitants, 2015 and 2018</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unesco.org/reports/science/2021/en/statistics,">Research input and output worldwide, various years since 2014, Statistical Annex, by country, Table B1: Research expenditure as a share of GDP and in purchasing power parity dollars (PPP$), 2015–2018, year 2018 </a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroh2018" class="citation book cs1">Groh, Arnold (2018). <i>Research Methods in Indigenous Contexts</i>. New York: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-72774-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-72774-5"><bdi>978-3-319-72774-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Research+Methods+in+Indigenous+Contexts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-72774-5&rft.aulast=Groh&rft.aufirst=Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohenArieli2011" class="citation journal cs1">Cohen, N.; Arieli, T. (2011). "Field research in conflict environments: Methodological challenges and snowball sampling". <i>Journal of Peace Research</i>. <b>48</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">423–</span>436. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0022343311405698">10.1177/0022343311405698</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145328311">145328311</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Peace+Research&rft.atitle=Field+research+in+conflict+environments%3A+Methodological+challenges+and+snowball+sampling&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E423-%3C%2Fspan%3E436&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0022343311405698&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145328311%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Arieli%2C+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResearch" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Soeters, Joseph; Shields, Patricia and Rietjens, Sebastiaan. 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ENDpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT23">Handbook of Research Methods in Military Studies</a> New York: Routledge.</li> <li>Talja, Sanna and Pamela J. Mckenzie (2007). Editor's Introduction: Special Issue on Discursive Approaches to Information Seeking in Context, The University of Chicago Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> Portals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_studies" title="Category:Science and technology studies">Category</a> <ul><li><a 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