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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types of dominance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types_of_dominance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types of dominance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types_of_dominance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complete_dominance_(Mendelian)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complete_dominance_(Mendelian)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Complete dominance (Mendelian)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complete_dominance_(Mendelian)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Incomplete_dominance_(non-Mendelian)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Incomplete_dominance_(non-Mendelian)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Incomplete dominance (non-Mendelian)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Incomplete_dominance_(non-Mendelian)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Co-dominance (non-Mendelian)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relationship_to_other_genetic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_other_genetic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Relationship to other genetic concepts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Relationship_to_other_genetic_concepts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Relationship to other genetic concepts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_other_genetic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Multiple_alleles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Multiple_alleles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Multiple alleles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Multiple_alleles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pleiotropic_genes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pleiotropic_genes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Pleiotropic genes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pleiotropic_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epistasis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epistasis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Epistasis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epistasis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dominance (genetics)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 44 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-44" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">44 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominansie_(genetika)" title="Dominansie (genetika) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Dominansie (genetika)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A9_(%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%A9)" title="سيادة (وراثة) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="سيادة (وراثة)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domin%C3%A0ncia_gen%C3%A8tica" title="Dominància genètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dominància genètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(genetika)" title="Dominance (genetika) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dominance (genetika)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominansforhold" title="Dominansforhold – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Dominansforhold" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominanz_(Genetik)" title="Dominanz (Genetik) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dominanz (Genetik)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominancia_(gen%C3%A9tica)" title="Dominancia (genética) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dominancia (genética)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominanteco_(genetiko)" title="Dominanteco (genetiko) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Dominanteco (genetiko)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominantzia_(genetika)" title="Dominantzia (genetika) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Dominantzia (genetika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="چیرگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="چیرگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(g%C3%A9n%C3%A9tique)" title="Dominance (génétique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dominance (génétique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceannas_(g%C3%A9initic)" title="Ceannas (géinitic) – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ceannas (géinitic)" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominancia_(xen%C3%A9tica)" title="Dominancia (xenética) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dominancia (xenética)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%84%B1" title="우성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Դոմինանտություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դոմինանտություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gen_dominan" title="Gen dominan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gen dominan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominanza_(genetica)" title="Dominanza (genetica) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dominanza (genetica)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%99%D7%97%D7%A1%D7%99_%D7%93%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="יחסי דומיננטיות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יחסי דומיננטיות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zalb%C3%BBn_(bomawezan%C3%AE)" title="Zalbûn (bomawezanî) – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Zalbûn (bomawezanî)" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Доминантен алел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Доминантен алел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedominanan_genetik" title="Kedominanan genetik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kedominanan genetik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominantie_(genetica)" title="Dominantie (genetica) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dominantie (genetica)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%A1%95%E6%80%A7" title="顕性 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="顕性" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D3%80%D1%83%D1%87%D3%80%D0%BE%D0%B3%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="ХӀучӀогӀалла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="ХӀучӀогӀалла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominantlik" title="Dominantlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Dominantlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominanz_(Genetik)" title="Dominanz (Genetik) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Dominanz (Genetik)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allel_dominuj%C4%85cy" title="Allel dominujący – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Allel dominujący" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domin%C3%A2ncia_(gen%C3%A9tica)" title="Dominância (genética) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Dominância (genética)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominan%C8%9B%C4%83_%C8%99i_recesivitate_genetic%C4%83" title="Dominanță și recesivitate genetică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dominanță și recesivitate genetică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Доминантный признак – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Доминантный признак" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominantno_dedovanje" title="Dominantno dedovanje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Dominantno dedovanje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A7%DA%B5%DB%8C_(%D8%A8%DB%86%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%95%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C)" title="زاڵی (بۆماوەزانی) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="زاڵی (بۆماوەزانی)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Доминантан алел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Доминантан алел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominantan_alel" title="Dominantan alel – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Dominantan alel" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominoiva_ominaisuus" title="Dominoiva ominaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Dominoiva ominaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominant_anlag" title="Dominant anlag – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Dominant anlag" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_(%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="ஆட்சியுடையது (மரபியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஆட்சியுடையது (மரபியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%94%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99_(%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C)" title="ความเด่น (พันธุศาสตร์) – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความเด่น (พันธุศาสตร์)" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bask%C4%B1nl%C4%B1k_(genetik)" title="Baskınlık (genetik) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Baskınlık (genetik)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Codominance&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Codominance">Codominance</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">One gene variant masking the effect of another in the other copy of the gene</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Special:EditPage/Dominance (genetics)">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Dominance%22+genetics">"Dominance" genetics</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Dominance%22+genetics+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Dominance%22+genetics&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Dominance%22+genetics+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Dominance%22+genetics">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Dominance%22+genetics&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2018</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg/500px-Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="421" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg/750px-Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg/1000px-Autosomal_dominant_and_recessive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1525" data-file-height="1283" /></a><figcaption>Autosomal dominant and autosomal recessive inheritance, the two most common <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> patterns. An <a href="/wiki/Autosome" title="Autosome">autosome</a> is any chromosome other than a <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome">sex chromosome</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, <b>dominance</b> is the phenomenon of one variant (<a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a>) of a <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> on a <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosome</a> masking or overriding the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">effect</a> of a different variant of the same gene on <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosome" title="Homologous chromosome">the other copy of the chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first variant is termed <b>dominant</b> and the second is called <b>recessive</b>. This state of having <a href="/wiki/Heterozygosity" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygosity">two different variants</a> of the same gene on each chromosome is originally caused by a <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> in one of the genes, either new (<i>de novo</i>) or <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a>. The terms <b>autosomal dominant</b> or <b>autosomal recessive</b> are used to describe gene variants on non-sex chromosomes (<a href="/wiki/Autosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomes">autosomes</a>) and their associated traits, while those on <a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex chromosomes">sex chromosomes</a> (allosomes) are termed <a href="/wiki/X-linked_dominant" class="mw-redirect" title="X-linked dominant">X-linked dominant</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-linked_recessive" class="mw-redirect" title="X-linked recessive">X-linked recessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Y-linked" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-linked">Y-linked</a>; these have an inheritance and presentation pattern that depends on the sex of both the parent and the child (see <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">Sex linkage</a>). Since there is only one copy of the <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>, Y-linked traits cannot be dominant or recessive.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there are other forms of dominance, such as <b>incomplete dominance</b>, in which a gene variant has a partial effect compared to when it is present on both chromosomes, and <b>co-dominance</b>, in which different variants on each chromosome both show their associated traits. </p><p>Dominance is a key concept in <a href="/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance" title="Mendelian inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_genetics" title="Classical genetics">classical genetics</a>. Letters and <a href="/wiki/Punnett_squares" class="mw-redirect" title="Punnett squares">Punnett squares</a> are used to demonstrate the principles of dominance in teaching, and the upper-case letters are used to denote dominant alleles and lower-case letters are used for recessive alleles. An often quoted example of dominance is the inheritance of <a href="/wiki/Seed" title="Seed">seed</a> shape in <a href="/wiki/Pea" title="Pea">peas</a>. Peas may be round, associated with allele <i><b>R</b></i>, or wrinkled, associated with allele <i>r</i>. In this case, three combinations of alleles (genotypes) are possible: <i><b>RR</b></i>, <i><b>Rr</b></i>, and <i><b>rr</b></i>. The <i><b>RR</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Homozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homozygous">homozygous</a>) individuals have round peas, and the <i><b>rr</b></i> (homozygous) individuals have wrinkled peas. In <i><b>Rr</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Heterozygous" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterozygous">heterozygous</a>) individuals, the <i><b>R</b></i> allele masks the presence of the <i>r</i> allele, so these individuals also have round peas. Thus, allele <i><b>R</b></i> is dominant over allele <i><b>r</b></i>, and allele <i><b>r</b></i> is recessive to allele <i><b>R</b></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dominance is not inherent to an allele or its traits (<a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>). It is a strictly relative effect between two alleles of a given gene of any function; one allele can be dominant over a second allele of the same gene, recessive to a third, and <a href="#Co-dominance">co-dominant</a> with a fourth. Additionally, one allele may be dominant for one trait but not others.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dominance differs from <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">epistasis</a>, the phenomenon of an allele of one gene masking the effect of alleles of a <i>different</i> gene.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Introduction_to_genetics" title="Introduction to genetics">Introduction to genetics</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_(1917)_(14582377398).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg/240px-Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg/360px-Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg/480px-Journal_of_Agricultural_Research_%281917%29_%2814582377398%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1724" data-file-height="2854" /></a><figcaption>Inheritance of dwarfing in maize. Demonstrating the heights of plants from the two parent variations and their F1 heterozygous hybrid (centre)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gregor_Johann_Mendel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregor Johann Mendel">Gregor Johann Mendel</a>, "The Father of Genetics", promulgated the idea of dominance in the 1860s. However, it was not widely known until the early twentieth century. Mendel observed that, for a variety of traits of garden peas having to do with the appearance of seeds, seed pods, and plants, there were two discrete phenotypes, such as round versus wrinkled seeds, yellow versus green seeds, red versus white flowers or tall versus short plants. When bred separately, the plants always produced the same phenotypes, generation after generation. However, when lines with different phenotypes were crossed (interbred), one and only one of the parental phenotypes showed up in the offspring (green, round, red, or tall). However, when these <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrid</a> plants were crossed, the offspring plants showed the two original phenotypes, in a characteristic 3:1 ratio, the more common phenotype being that of the parental hybrid plants. Mendel reasoned that each parent in the first cross was a homozygote for different alleles (one parent AA and the other parent aa), that each contributed one allele to the offspring, with the result that all of these hybrids were heterozygotes (Aa), and that one of the two alleles in the hybrid cross dominated expression of the other: A masked a. The final cross between two heterozygotes (Aa X Aa) would produce AA, Aa, and aa offspring in a 1:2:1 genotype ratio with the first two classes showing the (A) phenotype, and the last showing the (a) phenotype, thereby producing the 3:1 phenotype ratio. </p><p>Mendel did not use the terms gene, allele, phenotype, genotype, homozygote, and heterozygote, all of which were introduced later. He did introduce the notation of capital and lowercase letters for dominant and recessive alleles, respectively, still in use today. </p><p>In 1928, British population geneticist <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Fisher" title="Ronald Fisher">Ronald Fisher</a> proposed that dominance acted based on natural selection through the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Modifier_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Modifier genes">modifier genes</a>. In 1929, American geneticist <a href="/wiki/Sewall_Wright" title="Sewall Wright">Sewall Wright</a> responded by stating that dominance is simply a physiological consequence of metabolic pathways and the relative necessity of the gene involved.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_dominance">Types of dominance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Types of dominance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complete_dominance_(Mendelian)"><span id="Complete_dominance_.28Mendelian.29"></span>Complete dominance (Mendelian)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Complete dominance (Mendelian)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In complete dominance, the effect of one allele in a heterozygous genotype completely masks the effect of the other. The allele that masks are considered <i>dominant</i> to the other allele, and the masked allele is considered <i>recessive</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When we only look at one trait determined by one pair of genes, we call it <b><a href="/wiki/Monohybrid_cross" title="Monohybrid cross">monohybrid inheritance</a></b>. If the crossing is done between parents (P-generation, F0-generation) who are homozygote dominant and homozygote recessive, the offspring (F1-generation) will always have the heterozygote genotype and always present the phenotype associated with the dominant gene. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MonohydrideP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MonohydrideP.png/342px-MonohydrideP.png" decoding="async" width="342" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MonohydrideP.png/513px-MonohydrideP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/MonohydrideP.png/684px-MonohydrideP.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Monohybrid cross between homozygote dominant (GG) and homozygote recessive (gg), always resulting in heterozygote genotype (Gg) and the phenotype associated with the dominant allele, in this case capital G. </figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MonohydrideF1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/MonohydrideF1.png/340px-MonohydrideF1.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/MonohydrideF1.png/510px-MonohydrideF1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/MonohydrideF1.png/680px-MonohydrideF1.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Monohybrid cross between heterozygotes (Gg), resulting in genptypical ratio 1:2:1 (GG:Gg:gg) and phenotypical ratio 3:1 (G:g).</figcaption></figure> <p>However, if the F1-generation is further crossed with the F1-generation (heterozygote crossed with heterozygote) the offspring (F2-generation) will present the phenotype associated with the dominant gene ¾ times. Although heterozygote monohybrid crossing can result in two phenotype variants, it can result in three genotype variants -  homozygote dominant, heterozygote and homozygote recessive, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <b><a href="/wiki/Dihybrid_cross" title="Dihybrid cross">dihybrid</a> inheritance</b> we look at the inheritance of two pairs of genes simultaneous. Assuming here that the two pairs of genes are located at non-homologous chromosomes, such that they are not coupled genes (see <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">genetic linkage</a>) but instead inherited independently. Consider now the cross between parents (P-generation) of genotypes homozygote dominant and recessive, respectively. The offspring (F1-generation) will always heterozygous and present the phenotype associated with the dominant allele variant. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DihydrideP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/DihydrideP.png/370px-DihydrideP.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/DihydrideP.png/555px-DihydrideP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/DihydrideP.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Dihybrid cross between homozygote dominant (GGRR) and homozygote recessive (ggrr) always resulting in heterozygotes (GgRr) with phenotype associated with the dominant alleles G and R.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DihydrideF1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/DihydrideF1.png/374px-DihydrideF1.png" decoding="async" width="374" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/DihydrideF1.png/561px-DihydrideF1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/DihydrideF1.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Dihybrid cross between heterozygotes (GgRr), resulting in the phenotypical ratio 9:3:3:1 (G and R: G and r: g and R: g and r)</figcaption></figure> <p>However, when crossing the F1-generation there are four possible phenotypic possibilities and the phenotypical <a href="/wiki/Ratio" title="Ratio">ratio</a> for the F2-generation will always be 9:3:3:1.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Incomplete_dominance_(non-Mendelian)"><span id="Incomplete_dominance_.28non-Mendelian.29"></span>Incomplete dominance (non-Mendelian)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Incomplete dominance (non-Mendelian)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Incomplete_dominance.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Incomplete_dominance.svg/220px-Incomplete_dominance.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Incomplete_dominance.svg/330px-Incomplete_dominance.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Incomplete_dominance.svg/440px-Incomplete_dominance.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>This <a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a> illustrates incomplete dominance. In this example, the red petal trait associated with the R <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">allele</a> recombines with the white petal trait of the r allele. The plant incompletely expresses the dominant trait (R) causing plants with the Rr genotype to express flowers with less red pigment resulting in pink flowers. The colors are not blended together, the dominant trait is just expressed less strongly.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Partial_dominance_hypothesis" title="Partial dominance hypothesis">partial dominance hypothesis</a></div> <p>Incomplete dominance (also called <i>partial dominance</i>, <i>semi-dominance</i>, <i>intermediate inheritance</i>, or occasionally incorrectly <i>co-dominance</i> in reptile genetics<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) occurs when the phenotype of the heterozygous genotype is distinct from and often intermediate to the phenotypes of the homozygous genotypes. The phenotypic result often appears as a blended form of characteristics in the heterozygous state. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Antirrhinum_majus" title="Antirrhinum majus">snapdragon</a> flower color is homozygous for either red or white. When the red homozygous flower is paired with the white homozygous flower, the result yields a pink snapdragon flower. The pink snapdragon is the result of incomplete dominance. A similar type of incomplete dominance is found in the <a href="/wiki/Four_o%27clock_flower" class="mw-redirect" title="Four o'clock flower">four o'clock plant</a> wherein pink color is produced when true-bred parents of white and red flowers are crossed. In <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_genetics" title="Quantitative genetics">quantitative genetics</a>, where phenotypes are measured and treated numerically, if a heterozygote's phenotype is exactly between (numerically) that of the two homozygotes, the phenotype is said to exhibit <i>no dominance</i> at all, i.e. dominance exists only when the heterozygote's phenotype measure lies closer to one homozygote than the other. </p><p>When plants of the F<sub>1</sub> generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F<sub>2</sub> generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Pink:White).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)"><span id="Co-dominance_.28non-Mendelian.29"></span>Co-dominance (non-Mendelian)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Co-dominance (non-Mendelian)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/220px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/330px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg/440px-Co-dominance_Rhododendron.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1251" /></a><figcaption>Co-dominance in a <a href="/wiki/Camellia" title="Camellia">Camellia</a> cultivar</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ABO_system_codominance.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ABO_system_codominance.svg/220px-ABO_system_codominance.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ABO_system_codominance.svg/330px-ABO_system_codominance.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/ABO_system_codominance.svg/440px-ABO_system_codominance.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="938" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system" title="ABO blood group system">A and B blood types</a> in humans show co-dominance, but the O type is recessive to A and B.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg/220px-Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg/330px-Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg/440px-Co-dominance_in_Roan_Cattle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption>This Punnett square shows co-dominance. In this example a white bull (WW) mates with a red cow (RR), and their offspring exhibit co-dominance expressing both white and red hairs.</figcaption></figure> <p>Co-dominance occurs when the contributions of both alleles are visible in the phenotype and neither allele masks another. </p><p>For example, in the <a href="/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system" title="ABO blood group system">ABO blood group system</a>, chemical modifications to a <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoprotein</a> (the H antigen) on the surfaces of blood cells are controlled by three alleles, two of which are co-dominant to each other (<i>I<sup>A</sup></i>, <i>I<sup>B</sup></i>) and dominant over the recessive <i>i</i> at the <a href="/wiki/ABO_(gene)" title="ABO (gene)">ABO locus</a>. The <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> alleles produce different modifications. The enzyme coded for by <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> adds an N-acetylgalactosamine to a membrane-bound H antigen. The <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> enzyme adds a galactose. The <i>i</i> allele produces no modification. Thus the <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> alleles are each dominant to <i>i</i> (<i>I<sup>A</sup>I<sup>A</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>A</sup>i</i> individuals both have type A blood, and <i>I<sup>B</sup>I<sup>B</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>B</sup>i</i> individuals both have type B blood), but <i>I<sup>A</sup>I<sup>B</sup></i> individuals have both modifications on their blood cells and thus have type AB blood, so the <i>I<sup>A</sup></i> and <i>I<sup>B</sup></i> alleles are said to be co-dominant.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example occurs at the locus for the <a href="/wiki/Beta-globin" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-globin">beta-globin</a> component of <a href="/wiki/Hemoglobin" title="Hemoglobin">hemoglobin</a>, where the three molecular phenotypes of <i>Hb<sup>A</sup>/Hb<sup>A</sup></i>, <i>Hb<sup>A</sup>/Hb<sup>S</sup></i>, and <i>Hb<sup>S</sup>/Hb<sup>S</sup></i> are all distinguishable by <a href="/wiki/Protein_electrophoresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein electrophoresis">protein electrophoresis</a>. (The medical condition produced by the heterozygous genotype is called <i><a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell trait">sickle-cell trait</a></i> and is a milder condition distinguishable from <i><a href="/wiki/Sickle-cell_anemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sickle-cell anemia">sickle-cell anemia</a></i>, thus the alleles show <i>incomplete dominance</i> concerning anemia, see above). For most gene loci at the molecular level, both alleles are expressed co-dominantly, because both are <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(genetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcription (genetics)">transcribed</a> into <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Co-dominance, where allelic products co-exist in the phenotype, is different from incomplete dominance, where the quantitative interaction of allele products produces an intermediate phenotype. For example, in co-dominance, a red homozygous flower and a white homozygous flower will produce offspring that have red and white spots. When plants of the F1 generation are self-pollinated, the phenotypic and genotypic ratio of the F2 generation will be 1:2:1 (Red:Spotted:White). These ratios are the same as those for incomplete dominance. Again, this classical terminology is inappropriate – in reality, such cases should not be said to exhibit dominance at all.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_other_genetic_concepts">Relationship to other genetic concepts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Relationship to other genetic concepts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dominance can be influenced by various genetic interactions and it is essential to evaluate them when determining phenotypic outcomes. <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">Multiple alleles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">epistasis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy" title="Pleiotropy">pleiotropic</a> genes are some factors that might influence the phenotypic outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Multiple_alleles">Multiple alleles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Multiple alleles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Allele#Multiple_alleles" title="Allele">Allele § Multiple alleles</a></div><p>Although any individual of a diploid organism has at most two different alleles at a given locus, most genes exist in a large number of allelic versions in the population as a whole. This is called <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphism</a>, and is caused by mutations. Polymorphism can have an effect on the dominance relationship and phenotype, which is observed in the <a href="/wiki/ABO_blood_group_system" title="ABO blood group system">ABO blood group system</a>. The gene responsible for human blood type have three alleles; A, B, and O, and their interactions result in different blood types based on the level of dominance the alleles expresses towards each other.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pleiotropic_genes">Pleiotropic genes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pleiotropic genes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pleiotropy" title="Pleiotropy">Pleiotropy</a></div> <p>Pleiotropic <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> are genes where one single gene affects two or more characters (phenotype). This means that a gene can have a dominant effect on one trait, but a more recessive effect on another trait.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Epistasis">Epistasis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Epistasis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Epistasis" title="Epistasis">Epistasis</a></div> <p>Epistasis is interactions between multiple alleles at different loci. Easily said, several genes for one phenotype. The dominance relationship between alleles involved in epistatic interactions can influence the observed phenotypic ratios in offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambidirectional_dominance" title="Ambidirectional dominance">Ambidirectional dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mendelian_traits_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Mendelian traits in humans">List of Mendelian traits in humans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial DNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punnett_square" title="Punnett square">Punnett square</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetrance" title="Penetrance">Penetrance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summation_theorems_(biochemistry)" title="Summation theorems (biochemistry)">Summation theorems (biochemistry)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)" title="Chimera (genetics)">Chimerism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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Memorial University of Newfoundland.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man</a> (OMIM): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/141900">Hemoglobin—Beta Locus; HBB - 141900</a> — Sickle-Cell Anemia</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man</a> (OMIM): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://omim.org/entry/110300">ABO Glycosyltransferase - 110300</a> — ABO blood groups</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111026062710/http://www.omim.org/">"Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man"</a> (OMIM)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090414125159/http://hopes.stanford.edu/causes/inherit/c0.html">"Autosomal dominance of Huntington's Disease"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Huntington%27s_Disease_Outreach_Project_for_Education_at_Stanford" title="Huntington's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford">Huntington's Disease Outreach Project for Education at Stanford</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&oldid=1256830234#Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dominance_(genetics)&oldid=1256830234#Co-dominance_(non-Mendelian)</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Classical_genetics" title="Category:Classical genetics">Classical genetics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Genetics_concepts" title="Category:Genetics concepts">Genetics concepts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Autosomal_dominant_disorders" title="Category:Autosomal dominant disorders">Autosomal dominant disorders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Quantitative_genetics" title="Category:Quantitative genetics">Quantitative genetics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_needing_additional_references_from_February_2018" title="Category:Articles needing additional references from February 2018">Articles needing additional references from February 2018</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_needing_additional_references" title="Category:All articles needing additional references">All articles needing additional references</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 11 November 2024, at 19:50<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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