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subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_transistor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_transistor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Development of the transistor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_transistor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shockley_Semiconductor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shockley_Semiconductor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Shockley Semiconductor </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shockley_Semiconductor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racist_and_eugenicist_views" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racist_and_eugenicist_views"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Racist and eugenicist views </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Racist_and_eugenicist_views-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Racist and eugenicist views subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Racist_and_eugenicist_views-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foundation_for_Research_and_Education_on_Eugenics_and_Dysgenics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_for_Research_and_Education_on_Eugenics_and_Dysgenics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_for_Research_and_Education_on_Eugenics_and_Dysgenics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Personal life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Personal life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Death </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Honors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Patents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Bibliography </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Bibliography subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Prewar_scientific_articles_by_Shockley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prewar_scientific_articles_by_Shockley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Prewar scientific articles by Shockley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prewar_scientific_articles_by_Shockley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_articles_by_Shockley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_articles_by_Shockley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Postwar articles by Shockley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postwar_articles_by_Shockley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Books_by_Shockley" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_by_Shockley"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Books by Shockley </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_by_Shockley-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interviews" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interviews"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Interviews </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interviews-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Notes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Other notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">William Shockley</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 85 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" > 85 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85_%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A" title="وليم شوكلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وليم شوكلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilyam_%C5%9Eokli" title="Vilyam Şokli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vilyam Şokli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ویلیام شاکلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویلیام شاکلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="উইলিয়াম ব্র্যাডফোর্ড শকলি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উইলিয়াম ব্র্যাডফোর্ড শকলি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Уільям Брэдфард Шоклі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Уільям Брэдфард Шоклі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Уилям Шокли – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Уилям Шокли" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC_%CE%9C%CF%80%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%84%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84_%CE%A3%CF%8C%CE%BA%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%8B" title="Γουίλλιαμ Μπράντφορντ Σόκλεϋ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γουίλλιαμ Μπράντφορντ Σόκλεϋ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ویلیام شاکلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویلیام شاکلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%97%84_%EC%87%BC%ED%81%B4%EB%A6%AC" title="윌리엄 쇼클리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="윌리엄 쇼클리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D5%87%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%AC%D5%AB" title="Ուիլյամ Շոքլի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուիլյամ Շոքլի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="विलियम शोक्ली – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="विलियम शोक्ली" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99" title="ויליאם שוקלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויליאם שוקלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%82_%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%86" title="ವಿಲಿಯಂ ಶಾಕ್ಲೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಲಿಯಂ ಶಾಕ್ಲೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Уильям Брэдфорд Шокли – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Уильям Брэдфорд Шокли" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulielmus_Shockley" title="Gulielmus Shockley – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gulielmus Shockley" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viljams_%C5%A0oklijs" title="Viljams Šoklijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Viljams Šoklijs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Вилијам Шокли – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вилијам Шокли" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82_%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BF" title="വില്യം ഷോക്ലി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വില്യം ഷോക്ലി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="विल्यम शॉकली – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="विल्यम शॉकली" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%93_%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ ბრედფორდ შოკლი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უილიამ ბრედფორდ შოკლი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%83%D9%84%D9%89" title="ويليام شوكلى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ويليام شوكلى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ویلیام شاکلی – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="ویلیام شاکلی" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="विलियम शक्ली – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="विलियम शक्ली" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%B7%E3%83%A7%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AC%E3%83%BC" title="ウィリアム・ショックレー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィリアム・ショックレー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%85%E0%A8%AE_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80" title="ਵਿਲੀਅਮ ਸ਼ੌਕਲੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਵਿਲੀਅਮ ਸ਼ੌਕਲੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B4%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%92" title="ولیم شوکلے – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولیم شوکلے" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%D8%B4%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%84%D9%8A" title="ویلیام شاکلي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ویلیام شاکلي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Шокли, Уильям Брэдфорд – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Шокли, Уильям Брэдфорд" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="विलियम शाक्ली – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="विलियम शाक्ली" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Вилијам Шокли – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вилијам Шокли" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_Shockley" title="William Bradford Shockley – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="William Bradford Shockley" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_B._Shockley" title="William B. Shockley – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="William B. Shockley" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%B7%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%BF" title="வில்லியம் ஷாக்லி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="வில்லியம் ஷாக்லி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Вильям Шокли – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Вильям Шокли" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1_%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B9%8C" title="วิลเลียม ชอกลีย์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิลเลียม ชอกลีย์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Уилям Шокли – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Уилям Шокли" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4_%D0%A8%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BB%D1%96" title="Вільям Бредфорд Шоклі – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вільям Бредфорд Шоклі" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B4%D9%88%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C" title="ولیم شوکلی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ولیم شوکلی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E8%82%96%E5%85%8B%E5%88%A9" title="威廉·肖克利 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="威廉·肖克利" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley" title="William Shockley – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="William Shockley" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%E7%B4%A2%E5%88%A9" title="威廉索利 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="威廉索利" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American physicist, inventor, and eugenicist (1910–1989)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/William_Shockley_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="William Shockley (disambiguation)">William Shockley (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">William Shockley</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shockley,_Stanford_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg/220px-William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg/330px-William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg/440px-William_Shockley%2C_Stanford_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1625" data-file-height="2264" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Shockley in 1975</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline" class="nickname">William Bradford Shockley Jr.</div> (1910-02-13)February 13, 1910 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">August 12, 1989(1989-08-12) (aged 79) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Stanford,_California" title="Stanford, California">Stanford, California</a>, U.S.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">BS</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">Massachusetts Institute of Technology</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">PhD</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Point-contact_transistor" title="Point-contact transistor">Point-contact transistor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grown-junction_transistor" title="Grown-junction transistor">GJT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diffused_junction_transistor#Diffused-base_transistor" title="Diffused junction transistor">Diffused-base transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterojunction_bipolar_transistor" title="Heterojunction bipolar transistor">Heterojunction bipolar transistor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyristor" title="Thyristor">Thyristor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BARITT_diode" title="BARITT diode">BARITT diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shockley_diode" title="Shockley diode">Shockley diode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">Junction</a> theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">BJT</a> theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field-effect_transistor" title="Field-effect transistor">FET</a> theory</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deathnium" title="Deathnium">Deathnium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-level_trap" title="Deep-level trap">Deep-level trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_scattering#Phonon_scattering" title="Carrier scattering">Deformation potential theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empty_lattice_approximation" title="Empty lattice approximation">Empty lattice approximation</a></li> <li>Gradual channel approximation</li> <li>Lucky electron model</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_electron_injection" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot electron injection">Hot electron theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_length_modulation" title="Channel length modulation">Channel length modulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_variation_(semiconductor)" title="Process variation (semiconductor)">Process variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_implantation" title="Ion implantation">Ion implantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low-level_injection" title="Low-level injection">Low-level injection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Through-silicon_via" title="Through-silicon via">Through-silicon via</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_line_measurement" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission line measurement">Transmission line measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shockley_diode_equation" title="Shockley diode equation">Shockley diode equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_generation_and_recombination" title="Carrier generation and recombination">Shockley–Read–Hall recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partial_dislocation" title="Partial dislocation">Shockley partials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shockley%E2%80%93Ramo_theorem" title="Shockley–Ramo theorem">Shockley–Ramo theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_states" title="Surface states">Shockley states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_momentum" title="Hidden momentum">Shockley–James paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shockley%E2%80%93Queisser_limit" title="Shockley–Queisser limit">Shockley–Queisser limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haynes%E2%80%93Shockley_experiment" title="Haynes–Shockley experiment">Haynes–Shockley experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_boundary#Boundary_energy" title="Grain boundary">Read–Shockley equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(optoelectronic)" title="Reciprocity (optoelectronic)">Van Roosbroeck– Shockley equation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Liebmann_Memorial_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris Liebmann Memorial Prize">Morris Liebmann Memorial Prize</a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comstock_Prize_in_Physics" title="Comstock Prize in Physics">Comstock Prize in Physics</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Buckley_Condensed_Matter_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize">Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holley_Medal" title="Holley Medal">Holley Medal</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Exner_Medal" title="Wilhelm Exner Medal">Wilhelm Exner Medal</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Medal_of_Honor" title="IEEE Medal of Honor">IEEE Medal of Honor</a> (1980)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Telephone_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Telephone Laboratories">Bell Labs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Shockley Semiconductor">Shockley Semiconductor</a> <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thesis" title="Thesis">Thesis</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dspace.mit.edu/handle/1721.1/10879">Electronic Bands in Sodium Chloride</a> (1936) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> William Bradford Shockley Jr. (February 13, 1910 – August 12, 1989) was an American inventor, physicist, and <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a>. He was the manager of a research group at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> that included <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>. The three scientists were jointly awarded the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> for "their researches on <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductors</a> and their discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Transistor" title="Transistor">transistor</a> effect".<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a> Partly as a result of Shockley's attempts to commercialize a new transistor design in the 1950s and 1960s, California's <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a> became a hotbed of electronics innovation. He recruited brilliant employees, but quickly alienated them with his autocratic and erratic management; they left and founded major companies in the industry.<a href="#cite_note-:10-2">[2]</a> In his later life, while a professor of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a> at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> and afterward, Shockley became known as a <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenicist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYTimesobit-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-PhysicsTodayobit-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-2"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life_and_education">Early life and education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life and education">edit</a>]</div> Shockley was born to American parents in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> on February 13, 1910, and was raised in his family's hometown of <a href="/wiki/Palo_Alto" class="mw-redirect" title="Palo Alto">Palo Alto</a>, California, from the age of three.<a href="#cite_note-IREProceedings1952-9">[9]</a> His father, William Hillman Shockley, was a <a href="/wiki/Mining_engineer" class="mw-redirect" title="Mining engineer">mining engineer</a> who speculated in mines for a living and spoke eight languages. His mother, May (née Bradford), grew up in the American West, graduated from <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> and became the first female U.S. Deputy mining surveyor.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006p3-10">[10]</a> Shockley was homeschooled up to the age of eight, due to his parents' dislike of public schools as well as Shockley's habit of violent tantrums.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Shockley learned a little physics at a young age from a neighbor who was a Stanford physics professor.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Shockley spent two years at <a href="/wiki/Harker_School" title="Harker School">Palo Alto Military Academy</a>, then briefly enrolled in the Los Angeles Coaching School to study physics and later graduated from <a href="/wiki/Hollywood_High_School" title="Hollywood High School">Hollywood High School</a> in 1927.<a href="#cite_note-:1-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Shockley earned his Bachelor of Science degree from <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">Caltech</a> in 1932 and a PhD from <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> in 1936. The title of his doctoral thesis was Electronic Bands in Sodium Chloride, a topic suggested by his thesis advisor, <a href="/wiki/John_C._Slater" title="John C. Slater">John C. Slater</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006pp38–39-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Career">Career</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Career">edit</a>]</div> Shockley was one of the first recruits to <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> by <a href="/wiki/Mervin_Kelly" title="Mervin Kelly">Mervin Kelly</a>, who became director of research at the company in 1936 and focused on hiring <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_physicist" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state physicist">solid-state physicists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-16">[16]</a> Shockley joined a group headed by <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Clinton Davisson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Murray_Hill,_New_Jersey" title="Murray Hill, New Jersey">Murray Hill, New Jersey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Executives at Bell Labs had theorized that <a href="/wiki/Semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Semiconductors">semiconductors</a> may offer solid-state alternatives to the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> used throughout Bell's nationwide telephone system. Shockley conceived a number of designs based on copper-oxide semiconductor materials, and with <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a> unsuccessfully attempted to create a prototype in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-:5-16">[16]</a> Shockley published a number of fundamental papers on solid state physics in <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. In 1938, he received his first patent, "Electron Discharge Device", on <a href="/wiki/Electron_multiplier" title="Electron multiplier">electron multipliers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006p48-18">[18]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_(Bp463by2692).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg/220px-William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg/330px-William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg/440px-William_Shockley_-_U.S._Army_maps_%28Bp463by2692%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1358" data-file-height="1358" /></a><figcaption>Shockley (left) during his years in military research</figcaption></figure>When <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> broke out, Shockley's prior research was interrupted and he became involved in <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> research in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a> (<a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>). In May 1942, he took leave from Bell Labs to become a research director at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>'s Anti-Submarine Warfare Operations Group.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> This involved devising methods for countering the tactics of submarines with improved <a href="/wiki/Convoy" title="Convoy">convoying</a> techniques, optimizing <a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">depth charge</a> patterns, and so on. Shockley traveled frequently to <a href="/wiki/The_Pentagon" title="The Pentagon">the Pentagon</a> and Washington to meet high-ranking officers and government officials.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In 1944, he organized a training program for <a href="/wiki/B-29" class="mw-redirect" title="B-29">B-29</a> bomber pilots to use new <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> bomb sights. In late 1944, he took a three-month tour to bases around the world to assess the results. For this project, Secretary of War <a href="/wiki/Robert_Porter_Patterson" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Porter Patterson">Robert Patterson</a> awarded Shockley the <a href="/wiki/Medal_for_Merit" title="Medal for Merit">Medal for Merit</a> on October 17, 1946.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006p85-21">[21]</a> In July 1945, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War" title="United States Department of War">War Department</a> asked Shockley to prepare a report on the question of probable casualties from an invasion of the Japanese mainland. Shockley concluded: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">If the study shows that the behavior of nations in all historical cases comparable to Japan's has in fact been invariably consistent with the behavior of the troops in battle, then it means that the Japanese dead and ineffectives at the time of the defeat will exceed the corresponding number for the Germans. In other words, we shall probably have to kill at least 5 to 10 million Japanese. This might cost us between 1.7 and 4 million casualties including 400,000 to 800,000 killed.<a href="#cite_note-Giangreco1997-22">[22]</a></blockquote> This report influenced the decision of the United States to drop <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombs</a> on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, which preceded the surrender of Japan.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Shockley was the first physicist to propose a <a href="/wiki/Log-normal_distribution" title="Log-normal distribution">log-normal</a> distribution to model the creation process for scientific research papers.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Development_of_the_transistor">Development of the transistor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Development of the transistor">edit</a>]</div> Shortly after the war ended in 1945, Bell Labs formed a solid-state physics group, led by Shockley and chemist Stanley Morgan, which included <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>, physicist <a href="/wiki/Gerald_Pearson" title="Gerald Pearson">Gerald Pearson</a>, chemist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Gibney&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Gibney (page does not exist)">Robert Gibney</a>, electronics expert <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hilbert_Moore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hilbert Moore (page does not exist)">Hilbert Moore</a>, and several technicians. Their assignment was to seek a solid-state alternative to fragile glass <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tube</a> amplifiers. First attempts were based on Shockley's ideas about using an external electrical field on a semiconductor to affect its conductivity. These experiments failed every time in all sorts of configurations and materials. The group was at a standstill until Bardeen suggested a theory that invoked <a href="/wiki/Surface_states" title="Surface states">surface states</a> that prevented the field from penetrating the semiconductor. The group changed its focus to study these surface states and they met almost daily to discuss the work. The group had excellent rapport and freely exchanged ideas.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> By the winter of 1946 they had enough results that Bardeen submitted a paper on the surface states to <a href="/wiki/Physical_Review" title="Physical Review">Physical Review</a>. Brattain started experiments to study the surface states through observations made while shining a bright light on the semiconductor's surface. This led to several more papers (one of them co-authored with Shockley), which estimated the density of the surface states to be more than enough to account for their failed experiments. The pace of the work picked up significantly when they started to surround point contacts between the semiconductor and the conducting wires with <a href="/wiki/Electrolyte" title="Electrolyte">electrolytes</a>. Moore built a circuit that allowed them to vary the frequency of the input signal easily. Finally they began to get some evidence of power amplification when Pearson, acting on a suggestion by Shockley, put a voltage on a droplet of glycol borate placed across a <a href="/wiki/P%E2%80%93n_junction" title="P–n junction">p–n junction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Crystal_Fire_p._132-26">[26]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/220px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/330px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG/440px-Bardeen_Shockley_Brattain_1948.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3073" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>John Bardeen (left), William Shockley and Walter Brattain (right) at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a>, 1948</figcaption></figure> Bell Labs' attorneys soon discovered Shockley's field effect principle had been anticipated and devices based on it patented in 1930 by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lilienfeld" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lilienfeld">Julius Lilienfeld</a>, who filed his <a href="/wiki/MESFET" title="MESFET">MESFET</a>-like patent in Canada on October 22, 1925.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> Although the patent appeared "breakable" (it could not work) the patent attorneys based one of its four patent applications only on the Bardeen-Brattain point contact design. Three others (submitted first) covered the electrolyte-based transistors with Bardeen, Gibney and Brattain as the inventors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Shockley's name was not on any of these patent applications. This angered Shockley, who thought his name should also be on the patents because the work was based on his field effect idea. He even made efforts to have the patent written only in his name, and told Bardeen and Brattain of his intentions.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Shockley, angered by not being included on the patent applications, secretly continued his own work to build a different sort of transistor based on junctions instead of point contacts; he expected this kind of design would be more likely to be commercially viable. The point contact transistor, he believed, would prove to be fragile and difficult to manufacture. Shockley was also dissatisfied with certain parts of the explanation for how the point contact transistor worked and conceived of the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Minority_carrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Minority carrier">minority carrier</a> injection. On February 13, 1948, another team member, <a href="/wiki/John_N._Shive" title="John N. Shive">John N. Shive</a>, built a point contact transistor with bronze contacts on the front and back of a thin wedge of <a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">germanium</a>, proving that <a href="/wiki/Electron_hole" title="Electron hole">holes</a> could diffuse through bulk germanium and not just along the surface as previously thought.<a href="#cite_note-crystal-fire-30">[30]</a>: 153 <a href="#cite_note-True_Genius-31">[31]</a>: 145  Shive's invention sparked<a href="#cite_note-Brittain1984p1695-32">[32]</a> Shockley's invention of the junction transistor.<a href="#cite_note-crystal-fire-30">[30]</a>: 143  A few months later he invented an entirely new, considerably more robust, type of transistor with a layer or 'sandwich' structure. This structure went on to be used for the vast majority of all transistors into the 1960s, and evolved into the bipolar junction transistor. Shockley later described the workings of the team as a "mixture of cooperation and competition". He also said that he kept some of his own work secret until his "hand was forced" by Shive's 1948 advance.<a href="#cite_note-:3-33">[33]</a> Shockley worked out a rather complete description of what he called the "sandwich" transistor, and a first <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_concept" title="Proof of concept">proof of principle</a> was obtained on April 7, 1949. Meanwhile, Shockley worked on his <a href="/wiki/Masterpiece" title="Masterpiece">magnum opus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Electrons_and_Holes_in_Semiconductors" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors">Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors</a> which was published as a 558-page treatise in 1950. The tome included Shockley's critical ideas of drift and diffusion and the differential equations that govern the flow of electrons in solid state crystals. <a href="/wiki/Shockley_diode_equation" title="Shockley diode equation">Shockley's diode equation</a> is also described. This seminal work became the reference text for other scientists working to develop and improve new variants of the transistor and other devices based on semiconductors.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> This resulted in his invention of the bipolar "<a href="/wiki/Bipolar_junction_transistor" title="Bipolar junction transistor">junction transistor</a>", which was announced at a press conference on July 4, 1951.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In 1951, he was elected to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> (NAS). He was forty-one years old; this was rather young for such an election. Two years later, he was chosen as the recipient of the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Comstock_Prize_in_Physics" title="Comstock Prize in Physics">Comstock Prize</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> for Physics by the NAS, and was the recipient of many other awards and honors. The ensuing publicity generated by the "invention of the transistor" often thrust Shockley to the fore, much to the chagrin of Bardeen and Brattain. Bell Labs management, however, consistently presented all three inventors as a team. Though Shockley would correct the record where reporters gave him sole credit for the invention,<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> he eventually infuriated and alienated Bardeen and Brattain, and he essentially blocked the two from working on the junction transistor. Bardeen began pursuing a theory for superconductivity and left Bell Labs in 1951. Brattain refused to work with Shockley further and was assigned to another group. Neither Bardeen nor Brattain had much to do with the development of the transistor beyond the first year after its invention.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Shockley left Bell Labs around 1953 and took a job at Caltech.<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> Shockley, Bardeen and Brattain received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956.<a href="#cite_note-:7-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shockley_Semiconductor">Shockley Semiconductor</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Shockley Semiconductor">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor_Laboratory" title="Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory">Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory</a></div> In 1956, Shockley started <a href="/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor_Laboratory" title="Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory">Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mountain_View,_California" title="Mountain View, California">Mountain View, California</a>, which was close to his elderly mother in Palo Alto, California.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The company, a division of <a href="/wiki/Beckman_Instruments" class="mw-redirect" title="Beckman Instruments">Beckman Instruments</a>, Inc., was the first establishment working on silicon semiconductor devices in what came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Silicon_Valley" title="Silicon Valley">Silicon Valley</a>. Shockley recruited brilliant employees to his company, but alienated them by undermining them relentlessly.<a href="#cite_note-:10-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:9-42">[42]</a> "He may have been the worst manager in the history of electronics", according to his biographer Joel Shurkin.<a href="#cite_note-:9-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-:10-2">[2]</a> Shockley was autocratic, domineering, erratic, hard-to-please, and increasingly paranoid.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-:8-44">[44]</a> In one well-known incident, he demanded <a href="/wiki/Lie_detector" class="mw-redirect" title="Lie detector">lie detector</a> tests to find the "culprit" after a company secretary suffered a minor cut.<a href="#cite_note-:8-44">[44]</a> In late 1957, eight of Shockley's best researchers, who would come to be known as the "<a href="/wiki/Traitorous_eight" title="Traitorous eight">traitorous eight</a>", resigned after Shockley decided not to continue research into silicon-based semiconductors.<a href="#cite_note-Goodheart2006-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> They went on to form <a href="/wiki/Fairchild_Semiconductor" title="Fairchild Semiconductor">Fairchild Semiconductor</a>, a loss from which Shockley Semiconductor never recovered and which led to its purchase by another company three years later. Over the course of the next 20 years, more than 65 new enterprises would end up having employee connections back to Fairchild.<a href="#cite_note-NetValley-46">[46]</a> A group of about thirty colleagues have met on and off since 1956 to reminisce about their time with Shockley, "the man who brought silicon to Silicon Valley", as the group's organizer said in 2002.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racist_and_eugenicist_views">Racist and eugenicist views</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Racist and eugenicist views">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_race_and_intelligence_controversy" title="History of the race and intelligence controversy">History of the race and intelligence controversy</a></div> After Shockley left his role as director of Shockley Semiconductor, he joined Stanford University, where he was appointed the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_M._Poniatoff" title="Alexander M. Poniatoff">Alexander M. Poniatoff</a> Professor of Engineering and Applied Science in 1963, a position which he held until he retired as a professor emeritus in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> In the last two decades of his life, Shockley, who had no degree in <a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics</a>, became widely known for his extreme views on <a href="/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Race (classification of human beings)">race</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">human intelligence</a>, and his advocacy of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-6">[6]</a> As described by his Los Angeles Times obituary, "He went from being a physicist with impeccable academic credentials to amateur geneticist, becoming a lightning rod whose views sparked campus demonstrations and a cascade of calumny". He thought his work was important to the future of humanity and he also described it as the most important aspect of his career. He argued that a higher rate of reproduction among purportedly less intelligent people was having a <a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">dysgenic</a> effect, and argued that a drop in average intelligence would lead to a decline in <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>. He also claimed that <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">black people</a> were genetically and intellectually inferior to <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a> Shockley's biographer Joel Shurkin notes that for much of Shockley's life in the <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racially segregated</a> United States of the time, he had almost no contact with black people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin200652-49">[49]</a> In a debate with psychiatrist <a href="/wiki/Frances_Cress_Welsing" title="Frances Cress Welsing">Frances Cress Welsing</a> and on <a href="/wiki/Firing_Line_(TV_series)" class="mw-redirect" title="Firing Line (TV series)">Firing Line</a> with <a href="/wiki/William_F._Buckley_Jr." title="William F. Buckley Jr.">William F. Buckley Jr.</a>, Shockley argued, "My research leads me inescapably to the opinion that the major cause of the American Negro's intellectual and social deficits is hereditary and racially genetic in origin and, thus, not remediable to a major degree by practical improvements in the environment".<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Shockley was one of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">race theorists</a> who received money from the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" title="Pioneer Fund">Pioneer Fund</a>, and at least one donation to him came from its founder, the eugenicist <a href="/wiki/Wickliffe_Draper" title="Wickliffe Draper">Wickliffe Draper</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006221-223-52">[52]</a> Shockley proposed that individuals with <a href="/wiki/IQ" class="mw-redirect" title="IQ">IQs</a> below 100 should be paid to undergo voluntary <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">sterilization</a>, $1,000 for each of their IQ points under 100.<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a> This proposal led to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leeds" title="University of Leeds">University of Leeds</a> to withdraw its offer of an honorary degree to him.<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a> Anthropologist and far-right activist <a href="/wiki/Roger_Pearson_(anthropologist)" title="Roger Pearson (anthropologist)">Roger Pearson</a> defended Shockley in a self-published book co-authored with Shockley.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> In 1973, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wisconsin%E2%80%93Milwaukee" title="University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee">University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee</a> professor Edgar G. Epps argued that "William Shockley's position lends itself to racist interpretations".<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_Poverty_Law_Center" title="Southern Poverty Law Center">The Southern Poverty Law Center</a> describes Shockley as a <a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">white nationalist</a> who failed to produce evidence for his eugenic theories amidst "near-universal acknowledgement that his work was that of a racist crank".<a href="#cite_note-:0-55">[55]</a> The science writer <a href="/wiki/Angela_Saini" title="Angela Saini">Angela Saini</a> describes Shockley as having been "a notorious racist".<a href="#cite_note-:2-51">[51]</a> Shockley insisted that he was not a <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racist</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> He wrote that his findings do not support <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a>, instead claiming that East Asians and Jews fare better than whites intellectually.<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> In 1973, Edgar Epps wrote that "I am pleased that Professor Shockley is not an Aryan supremacist, but I would remind him that a theory espousing hereditary superiority of Orientals or Jews is just as racist in nature as the Aryan supremacy doctrine".<a href="#cite_note-:12-54">[54]</a> Shockley's advocacy of eugenics triggered protests. In one incident, the science society <a href="/wiki/Sigma_Xi" title="Sigma Xi">Sigma Xi</a>, fearing violence, canceled a 1968 convocation in <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn" title="Brooklyn">Brooklyn</a> where Shockley was scheduled to speak.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006219-220-57">[57]</a> In Atlanta in 1981, Shockley filed a <a href="/wiki/Libel" class="mw-redirect" title="Libel">libel</a> suit against the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta Constitution">Atlanta Constitution</a> after a science writer, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_Witherspoon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger Witherspoon (page does not exist)">Roger Witherspoon</a>, compared Shockley's advocacy of a voluntary sterilization program to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_human_experimentation" title="Nazi human experimentation">Nazi human experimentation</a>. The suit took three years to go to trial. Shockley won the suit but he only received <a href="/wiki/Damages#Nominal_damages" title="Damages">one dollar in damages</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> and he did not receive any <a href="/wiki/Punitive_damages" title="Punitive damages">punitive damages</a>. Shockley's biographer Joel Shurkin, a science writer on the staff of Stanford University during those years, sums this statement up by saying that it was defamatory, but Shockley's reputation was not worth much by the time the trial reached a verdict.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006pp259–260-59">[59]</a> Shockley taped his <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a> conversations with reporters, transcribed them, and sent the transcripts to the reporters by registered mail. At one point, he toyed with the idea of making the reporters take a simple quiz on his work before he would discuss the subject matter of it with them. His habit of saving all of his papers (including laundry lists) provides abundant documentation on his life for researchers.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006p286-60">[60]</a> Shockley was a candidate for the <a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> nomination in the <a href="/wiki/1982_United_States_Senate_election_in_California" title="1982 United States Senate election in California">1982 United States Senate election in California</a>. He ran on a <a href="/wiki/Single-issue_politics" title="Single-issue politics">single-issue platform</a> of opposing the "dysgenic threat" that he alleged <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-Americans</a> and other groups posed.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> He came in eighth place in the primary, receiving 8,308 votes and 0.37% of the vote.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> According to Shurkin, by this time, "His racism destroyed his credibility. Almost no one wanted to be associated with him, and many of those who were willing did him more harm than good".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006268-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundation_for_Research_and_Education_on_Eugenics_and_Dysgenics">Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics">edit</a>]</div> Foundation for Research and Education on Eugenics and Dysgenics (FREED) was a <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_organization" title="Nonprofit organization">non-profit organization</a> founded in March 1970 in the United States formed to support the research of Shockley, who was the president of the foundation and <a href="/wiki/R._Travis_Osborne" title="R. Travis Osborne">R. Travis Osborne</a>, a member.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tucker_1994-67">[67]</a> The foundation released newsletter 'FREED' and research papers at <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. The organization was founded according to its mission "solely for scientific and educational purposes related to human population and quality problems".<a href="#cite_note-Tucker_1994-67">[67]</a> From 1969 to 1976, the <a href="/wiki/Pioneer_Fund" title="Pioneer Fund">Pioneer Fund</a> allocated about $2.5 million (<a href="/wiki/Adjusted-for-inflation" class="mw-redirect" title="Adjusted-for-inflation">adjusted-for-inflation</a> in 2023) to support Shockley's endeavors. This funding was distributed through grants to <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a> for the exploration of "research into the factors which affect genetic potential" and also directly to FREED.<a href="#cite_note-fighting-hate/extremist-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Via FREED, Shockley promoted his concept of a "Voluntary Sterilization Bonus Plan", proposing to compensate <a href="/wiki/Economically_disadvantaged" class="mw-redirect" title="Economically disadvantaged">economically disadvantaged</a> women for undergoing <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">sterilization</a> procedures.<a href="#cite_note-fighting-hate/extremist-68">[68]</a> In 1970, Shockley listed former <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Alaska" title="List of United States senators from Alaska">senator of Alaska</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Gruening" title="Ernest Gruening">Ernest Gruening</a> as a director of FREED.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Personal life">edit</a>]</div> At age 23 and while still a student, Shockley married Jean Bailey in August 1933. The couple had two sons and a daughter.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Shockley separated from her in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> He married Emily Lanning, a psychiatric nurse, in 1955; she helped him with some of his theories.<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Although one of his sons earned a PhD at Stanford University and his daughter graduated from Radcliffe College, Shockley believed his children "represent a very significant regression ... my first wife – their mother – had not as high an academic-achievement standing as I had".<a href="#cite_note-latimesobit-3">[3]</a> Shockley was an accomplished rock climber, going often to the <a href="/wiki/Shawangunk_Ridge" title="Shawangunk Ridge">Shawangunks</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hudson_Valley" title="Hudson Valley">Hudson River Valley</a>. His route across an overhang, known as "Shockley's Ceiling", is one of the classic climbing routes in the area.<a href="#cite_note-Crystal_Fire_p._132-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Several[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification needed</a>] climbing guidebooks changed the route's name to "The Ceiling" in 2020 due to Shockley's eugenics controversies.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> He was popular as a speaker, lecturer, and amateur magician. He once "magically" produced a bouquet of roses at the end of his address before the <a href="/wiki/American_Physical_Society" title="American Physical Society">American Physical Society</a>. He was also known in his early years for elaborate practical jokes.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> He had a longtime hobby of raising <a href="/wiki/Ant_colony" title="Ant colony">ant colonies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-13">[13]</a> Shockley <a href="/wiki/Donated_sperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Donated sperm">donated sperm</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Repository_for_Germinal_Choice" title="Repository for Germinal Choice">Repository for Germinal Choice</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">sperm bank</a> founded by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Klark_Graham" title="Robert Klark Graham">Robert Klark Graham</a> in hopes of spreading humanity's best <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. The bank, called by the media the "Nobel Prize sperm bank", claimed to have three Nobel Prize-winning donors, though Shockley was the only one to publicly acknowledge his involvement.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> However, Shockley's controversial views brought the Repository for Germinal Choice a degree of notoriety and may have discouraged other Nobel Prize winners from donating sperm.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Broadcasting Service">PBS</a>, Shockley was cruel towards his children and unhappy in his life. He reportedly tried playing <a href="/wiki/Russian_roulette" title="Russian roulette">Russian roulette</a> as part of an attempted suicide.<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Death">Death</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Death">edit</a>]</div> Shockley died of <a href="/wiki/Prostate_cancer" title="Prostate cancer">prostate cancer</a> in 1989 at the age of 79.<a href="#cite_note-obit-78">[78]</a> At the time of his death, he was estranged from most of his friends and family, except his second wife, the former Emmy Lanning (1913–2007). His children reportedly learned of his death by reading his obituary in the newspaper.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] Shockley is interred at <a href="/wiki/Alta_Mesa_Memorial_Park" title="Alta Mesa Memorial Park">Alta Mesa Memorial Park</a> in Palo Alto, California. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honors">Honors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Honors">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>National Medal of Merit, for his war work in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-Shurkin2006p85-21">[21]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comstock_Prize_in_Physics" title="Comstock Prize in Physics">Comstock Prize in Physics</a> of the National Academy of Sciences in 1953.<a href="#cite_note-Comstock-80">[80]</a></li> <li>First recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Oliver_E._Buckley_Condensed_Matter_Prize" class="mw-redirect" title="Oliver E. Buckley Condensed Matter Prize">Oliver E. Buckley</a> Solid State Physics Prize of the American Physical Society in 1953.</li> <li>Co-recipient of the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in physics">Nobel Prize in physics</a> in 1956, along with <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Walter_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Brattain">Walter Brattain</a>. In his Nobel lecture, he gave full credit to Brattain and Bardeen as the inventors of the point-contact transistor.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holley_Medal" title="Holley Medal">Holley Medal</a> of the <a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Mechanical_Engineers" title="American Society of Mechanical Engineers">American Society of Mechanical Engineers</a> in 1963.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Exner_Medal" title="Wilhelm Exner Medal">Wilhelm Exner Medal</a> in 1963.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a></li> <li>Honorary science doctorates from the University of Pennsylvania, Rutgers University in New Jersey, and Gustavus Adolphus Colleges in Minnesota.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Medal_of_Honor" title="IEEE Medal of Honor">IEEE Medal of Honor</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers</a> (IEEE) in 1980.</li> <li>Named by <a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a> magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.</li> <li>Listed at No. 3 on the <a href="/wiki/Boston_Globe" class="mw-redirect" title="Boston Globe">Boston Globe</a>'s 2011 <a href="/wiki/MIT150" title="MIT150">MIT150</a> list of the top 150 innovators and ideas in the 150-year history of <a href="/wiki/MIT" class="mw-redirect" title="MIT">MIT</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Patents">Patents</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Patents">edit</a>]</div> Shockley was granted over ninety US patents.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Some notable ones are: <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2502488">US 2502488</a>  Semiconductor Amplifier. April 4, 1950; his first granted patent involving transistors.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2569347">US 2569347</a>  Circuit element utilizing semiconductive material. September 25, 1951; His earliest applied for (June 26, 1948) patent involving transistors.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2655609">US 2655609</a>  Bistable Circuits. October 13, 1953; Used in computers.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2787564">US 2787564</a>  Forming Semiconductive Devices by Ionic Bombardment. April 2, 1957; The diffusion process for implantation of impurities.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3031275">US 3031275</a>  Process for Growing Single Crystals. April 24, 1962; Improvements on process for production of basic materials.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3053635">US 3053635</a>  Method of Growing Silicon Carbide Crystals. September 11, 1962; Exploring other semiconductors.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prewar_scientific_articles_by_Shockley">Prewar scientific articles by Shockley</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Prewar scientific articles by Shockley">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonShockley1936" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, R. P.; Shockley, W. (March 15, 1936). "An Electron Microscope for Filaments: Emission and Adsorption by Tungsten Single Crystals". Physical Review. 49 (6). American Physical Society (APS): 436–440. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1936PhRv...49..436J">1936PhRv...49..436J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.49.436">10.1103/physrev.49.436</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=An+Electron+Microscope+for+Filaments%3A+Emission+and+Adsorption+by+Tungsten+Single+Crystals&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=436-440&rft.date=1936-03-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.49.436&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1936PhRv...49..436J&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=R.+P.&rft.au=Shockley%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlaterShockley1936" class="citation journal cs1">Slater, J. C.; Shockley, W. (October 15, 1936). "Optical Absorption by the Alkali Halides". Physical Review. 50 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 705–719. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1936PhRv...50..705S">1936PhRv...50..705S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.50.705">10.1103/physrev.50.705</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Optical+Absorption+by+the+Alkali+Halides&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=705-719&rft.date=1936-10-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.50.705&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1936PhRv...50..705S&rft.aulast=Slater&rft.aufirst=J.+C.&rft.au=Shockley%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1936" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (October 15, 1936). "Electronic Energy Bands in Sodium Chloride". Physical Review. 50 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 754–759. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1936PhRv...50..754S">1936PhRv...50..754S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.50.754">10.1103/physrev.50.754</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=Electronic+Energy+Bands+in+Sodium+Chloride&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=754-759&rft.date=1936-10-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.50.754&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1936PhRv...50..754S&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1937" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W. (October 15, 1937). "The Empty Lattice Test of the Cellular Method in Solids". Physical Review. 52 (8). American Physical Society (APS): 866–872. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937PhRv...52..866S">1937PhRv...52..866S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.52.866">10.1103/physrev.52.866</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Empty+Lattice+Test+of+the+Cellular+Method+in+Solids&rft.volume=52&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=866-872&rft.date=1937-10-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.52.866&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1937PhRv...52..866S&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1939" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (August 15, 1939). "On the Surface States Associated with a Periodic Potential". Physical Review. 56 (4). American Physical Society (APS): 317–323. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...56..317S">1939PhRv...56..317S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.56.317">10.1103/physrev.56.317</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=On+the+Surface+States+Associated+with+a+Periodic+Potential&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=317-323&rft.date=1939-08-15&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.56.317&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...56..317S&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteigmanShockleyNix1939" class="citation journal cs1">Steigman, J.; Shockley, W.; Nix, F. C. (July 1, 1939). "The Self-Diffusion of Copper". Physical Review. 56 (1). American Physical Society (APS): 13–21. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1939PhRv...56...13S">1939PhRv...56...13S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1103%2Fphysrev.56.13">10.1103/physrev.56.13</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-899X">0031-899X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Self-Diffusion+of+Copper&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=13-21&rft.date=1939-07-01&rft.issn=0031-899X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1103%2Fphysrev.56.13&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1939PhRv...56...13S&rft.aulast=Steigman&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Shockley%2C+W.&rft.au=Nix%2C+F.+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postwar_articles_by_Shockley">Postwar articles by Shockley</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Postwar articles by Shockley">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1949" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W. (1949). "The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 435–489. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x">10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8580">0005-8580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bell+System+Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Theory+of+p-n+Junctions+in+Semiconductors+and+p-n+Junction+Transistors&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=435-489&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x&rft.issn=0005-8580&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockleyPearsonHaynes1949" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W.; Pearson, G. L.; Haynes, J. R. (1949). "Hole Injection in Germanium-Quantitative Studies and Filamentary Transistors". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (3). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 344–366. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03641.x">10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03641.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8580">0005-8580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bell+System+Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=Hole+Injection+in+Germanium-Quantitative+Studies+and+Filamentary+Transistors&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=344-366&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1949.tb03641.x&rft.issn=0005-8580&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rft.au=Pearson%2C+G.+L.&rft.au=Haynes%2C+J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1951" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W. (1951). "Hot Electrons in Germanium and Ohm's Law". Bell System Technical Journal. 30 (4). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 990–1034. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1951.tb03692.x">10.1002/j.1538-7305.1951.tb03692.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8580">0005-8580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bell+System+Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=Hot+Electrons+in+Germanium+and+Ohm%27s+Law&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=990-1034&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1951.tb03692.x&rft.issn=0005-8580&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1954" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, W. (1954). "Negative Resistance Arising from Transit Time in Semiconductor Diodes". Bell System Technical Journal. 33 (4). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 799–826. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1954.tb03742.x">10.1002/j.1538-7305.1954.tb03742.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8580">0005-8580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bell+System+Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=Negative+Resistance+Arising+from+Transit+Time+in+Semiconductor+Diodes&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=799-826&rft.date=1954&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1954.tb03742.x&rft.issn=0005-8580&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzeShockley1967" class="citation journal cs1">Sze, S. M.; Shockley, W. (May 6, 1967). "Unit-Cube Expression for Space-Charge Resistance". Bell System Technical Journal. 46 (5). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 837–842. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1967.tb01716.x">10.1002/j.1538-7305.1967.tb01716.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0005-8580">0005-8580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bell+System+Technical+Journal&rft.atitle=Unit-Cube+Expression+for+Space-Charge+Resistance&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=837-842&rft.date=1967-05-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fj.1538-7305.1967.tb01716.x&rft.issn=0005-8580&rft.aulast=Sze&rft.aufirst=S.+M.&rft.au=Shockley%2C+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/iq/1957-shockley.pdf">"On the Statistics of Individual Variations of Productivity in Research Laboratories"</a>, Shockley 1957</li> <li>On <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">heredity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">dysgenics</a> and social issues: <ul><li>Shockley 1965, "Is Quality of US Population Declining." U.S. News & World Report, November 22, pp. 68–71</li> <li>Shockley 1966, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/genetics/heritable/1966-shockley.pdf">"Possible Transfer of Metallurgical and Astronomical Approaches to Problem of Environment versus Ethnic Heredity"</a> (on an early form of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_admixture" title="Genetic admixture">admixture analysis</a>)</li> <li>Shockley 1966, "Population Control or Eugenics." In J. D. Roslansky (ed.), Genetics and the Future of Man (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts)</li> <li>Shockley 1967, "The Entrenched Dogmatism of Inverted Liberals", manuscript by Shockley from which major portions were read in lectures</li> <li>Shockley 1968, "Proposed Research to Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty", proposal read by Shockley before the National Academy of Science on April 24, 1968</li> <li>Shockley 1968, "Ten Point Position Statement on Human Quality Problems", revised by Shockley from a talk which he presented on "Human Quality Problems and Research Taboos"</li> <li>Shockley 1969, "An Analysis Leading to a Recommendation Concerning Inquiry into Eugenic Legislation", press release by Shockley, Stanford University, April 28, 1969</li> <li>Shockley 1970, "A 'Try Simplest Cases' Approach to the Heredity-Poverty-Crime Problem." In V. L. Allen (ed.), Psychological Factors in Poverty (Chicago: Markham)</li> <li>Shockley 1979, "Proposed NAS Resolution, drafted October 17, 1970", proposed by Shockley before the National Academy of Sciences</li> <li>Shockley 1970, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/genetics/selection/1970-shockley.pdf">"New Methodology to Reduce the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty About Dysgenics"</a></li> <li>Shockley 1971, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/genetics/selection/1971-shockley.pdf">"Hardy-Weinberg Law Generalized to Estimate Hybrid Variance for Negro Populations and Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty"</a></li> <li>Shockley 1971, "Dysgenics – A Social Problem Evaded by the Illusion of Infinite Plasticity of Human Intelligence?", manuscript planned for reading at the American Psychological Association Symposium entitled: "Social Problems: Illusion, Delusion or Reality."</li> <li>"Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro IQ Deficits", W. Shockley, (1971) <a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/iq/1971-shockley.pdf">"Negro IQ Deficit: Failure of a 'Malicious Coincidence' Model Warrants New Research Proposals"</a>, Shockley 1971<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/iq/1972-shockley.pdf">"Dysgenics, Geneticity, Raceology: A Challenge to the Intellectual Responsibility of Educators"</a>, Shockley 1972a<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/iq/1972-shockley-2.pdf">"A Debate Challenge: Geneticity Is 80% for White Identical Twins' I.Q.'s"</a>, Shockley 1972b<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a></li> <li>Shockley 1972, "Proposed Resolution Regarding the 80% Geneticity Estimate for Caucasian IQ", advance press release concerning a paper presented by Shockley</li> <li>Shockley 1973, "Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Caused by Assortative Mating in Hybrid Populations"<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a></li> <li>Shockley 1974, "Eugenic, or Anti-Dysgenic, Thinking Exercises", press release by Shockley dated 1974 May 3</li> <li>Shockley 1974, "Society Has a Moral Obligation to Diagnose Tragic Racial IQ Deficits", prepared statement by Shockley to be read during his debate against Roy Innis</li> <li>Shockley 1978, "Has Intellectual Humanitarianism Gone Berserk?", introductory statement read by Shockley prior to a lecture given by him at UT Dallas</li> <li>Shockley 1979, "Anthropological Taboos About Determinations of Racial Mixes", press release by Shockley on October 16, 1979</li> <li>Shockley 1980, "Sperm Banks and Dark-Ages Dogmatism", position paper presented by Shockley in a lecture to the Rotary Club of Chico, California, April 16, 1980</li> <li>Shockley 1981, "Intelligence in Trouble", article by Shockley published in Leaders magazine, issue dated 1981 June 15</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books_by_Shockley">Books by Shockley</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Books by Shockley">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Shockley, William – Electrons and holes in semiconductors, with applications to transistor electronics, Krieger (1956) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88275-382-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-88275-382-7">0-88275-382-7</a></li> <li>Shockley, William and Gong, Walter A – Mechanics Charles E. Merrill, Inc. (1966)</li> <li>Shockley, William and Pearson, Roger – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/genetics/selection/1992-pearson-shockleyoneugenicsandrace.djvu">Shockley on Eugenics and Race: The Application of Science to the Solution of Human Problems</a>, Scott-Townsend (1992) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-878465-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-878465-03-1">1-878465-03-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interviews">Interviews</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Interviews">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4889">Interview of William Shockley by Lillian Hoddeson on 1974 Sep. 10, Niels Bohr Library & Archives, American Institute of Physics, College Park, MD USA</a></li> <li>Playboy 1980, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gwern.net/docs/genetics/heritable/1980-shockley.djvu">William Shockley interview with Playboy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:7-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_1-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorrell2001" class="citation journal cs1">Borrell, Jerry (2001). 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Retrieved May 11, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=Controversial+Nobel+Laureate+Shockley+Dies&rft.date=1989-08-14&rft.aulast=Boyer&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-1989-08-14-mn-369-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYTimesobit-4"><a href="#cite_ref-NYTimesobit_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSaxon1989">Saxon 1989</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-PhysicsTodayobit-5"><a href="#cite_ref-PhysicsTodayobit_5-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSparksHoganLinville1991">Sparks, Hogan & Linville 1991</a>, pp. 130–132 </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nqlJAAAAIBAJ&pg=4602,1428735">"Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery"</a>. Bangor Daily News. Associated Press. December 26, 1987. Retrieved July 13, 2022. <q>Although he has received less publicity in recent years, his views have become, if anything, more extreme. He suggested in an interview the possibility of bonus payments to black people for undergoing voluntary sterilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bangor+Daily+News&rft.atitle=Inventors+of+the+transistor+followed+diverse+paths+after+1947+discovery&rft.date=1987-12-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DnqlJAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D4602%2C1428735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.paloaltohistory.org/william-shockley.php">"Palo Alto History"</a>. www.paloaltohistory.org. Retrieved October 7, 2024. <q>His views became increasingly controversial, as he asserted that darker races were mentally inferior to whites and that ghetto blacks were "downbreeding" humanity. He became a firm proponent of eugenics: the belief that targeted breeding could lead to improvements in the human race.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.paloaltohistory.org&rft.atitle=Palo+Alto+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paloaltohistory.org%2Fwilliam-shockley.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorp2022" class="citation journal cs1">Thorp, H. Holden (November 18, 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.adf8117">"Shockley was a racist and eugenicist"</a>. Science. 378 (6621): 683. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022Sci...378..683T">2022Sci...378..683T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.adf8117">10.1126/science.adf8117</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0036-8075">0036-8075</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36395223">36395223</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:253582584">253582584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Shockley+was+a+racist+and+eugenicist&rft.volume=378&rft.issue=6621&rft.pages=683&rft.date=2022-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A253582584%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022Sci...378..683T&rft.issn=0036-8075&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.adf8117&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36395223&rft.aulast=Thorp&rft.aufirst=H.+Holden&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%252Fscience.adf8117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IREProceedings1952-9"><a href="#cite_ref-IREProceedings1952_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Contributors to Proceedings of the I.R.E.". 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Retrieved December 14, 2020. <q>In Palo Alto, William's temper improved little at first. But ignoring psychiatric recommendations for more socialization, his parents decided to home school William until age eight. Finally, feeling they were unable to keep him out of a school setting any longer, they sent him to the Homer Avenue School for two years, where his behavior improved dramatically --- he even earned an "A" in comportment in his first year.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.paloaltohistory.org&rft.atitle=Palo+Alto+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.paloaltohistory.org%2Fwilliam-shockley.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4889">"William Shockley"</a>. American Institute of Physics. September 10, 1974. 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Los Angeles Times.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Los+Angeles+Times&rft.atitle=The+Twisted+Legacy+of+William+Shockley&rft.date=2001-12-02&rft.aulast=Hiltzik&rft.aufirst=Michael+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latimes.com%2Farchives%2Fla-xpm-2001-dec-02-tm-10501-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoll1995" class="citation book cs1">Moll, John L. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/shockley-w.pdf">A Biographical Memoir of William Bradford Shockley</a> (PDF). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biographical+Memoir+of+William+Bradford+Shockley&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Moll&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Fshockley-w.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shurkin2006pp38–39-15"><a href="#cite_ref-Shurkin2006pp38–39_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, pp. 38–39 </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:5_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:5_16-1">b</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor/Innovation-at-Bell-Labs">Transistor – Innovation at Bell Labs</a> Encyclopedia Britannica </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCooper2000" class="citation book cs1">Cooper, David Y. 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Barrow, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1995, p. 239 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Brattain quoted in Crystal Fire p. 127 </li> <li id="cite_note-Crystal_Fire_p._132-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_Fire_p._132_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Crystal_Fire_p._132_26-1">b</a> Crystal Fire p.132 </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=CA272437">CA 272437</a>  "Electric current control mechanism", first filed in Canada on October 22, 1925 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/lilienfeld.htm">Lilienfeld</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061002065548/http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/lilienfeld.htm">Archived</a> October 2, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/William_Shockley">"William Shockley"</a>. IEEE Global History Network. IEEE. Retrieved July 18, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Global+History+Network&rft.atitle=William+Shockley&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ieeeghn.org%2Fwiki%2Findex.php%2FWilliam_Shockley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-crystal-fire-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-crystal-fire_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-crystal-fire_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichael_RiordanLillian_Hoddeson1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Riordan_(physicist)" title="Michael Riordan (physicist)">Michael Riordan</a> & <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Lillian Hoddeson</a> (1998). Crystal fire: the invention of the transistor and the birth of the information age. W. W. Norton & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31851-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-31851-7"><bdi>978-0-393-31851-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crystal+fire%3A+the+invention+of+the+transistor+and+the+birth+of+the+information+age&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-393-31851-7&rft.au=Michael+Riordan&rft.au=Lillian+Hoddeson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-True_Genius-31"><a href="#cite_ref-True_Genius_31-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoddesonDaitch2002" class="citation book cs1">Hoddeson, Lillian; Daitch, Vicki (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/truegeniuslifesc0000hodd">True genius: the life and science of John Bardeen : the only winner of two Nobel prizes in physics</a>. Joseph Henry Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-08408-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-309-08408-6"><bdi>978-0-309-08408-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 30, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=True+genius%3A+the+life+and+science+of+John+Bardeen+%3A+the+only+winner+of+two+Nobel+prizes+in+physics&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-309-08408-6&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft.au=Daitch%2C+Vicki&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftruegeniuslifesc0000hodd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDiana_Buchwald2003" class="citation magazine cs1">Diana Buchwald (March–April 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150102044400/http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/john-who">"John Who?"</a>. American Scientist. Vol. 91, no. 2. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanscientist.org/bookshelf/pub/john-who">the original</a> on January 2, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Scientist&rft.atitle=John+Who%3F&rft.volume=91&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2003-03%2F2003-04&rft.au=Diana+Buchwald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americanscientist.org%2Fbookshelf%2Fpub%2Fjohn-who&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brittain1984p1695-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Brittain1984p1695_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrittain1984">Brittain 1984</a>, p. 1695 "an observation that William Shockley interpreted as confirmation of his concept of that junction transistor" </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-33"><a href="#cite_ref-:3_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=nqlJAAAAIBAJ&pg=4602,1428735">"Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery"</a>. Associated press – Bangor Daily news. December 25, 1987. Retrieved May 6, 2012. <q>'mixture of cooperation and competition' and 'Shockley, eager to make his own contribution, said he kept some of his own work secret until "my hand was forced" in early 1948 by an advance reported by John Shive, another Bell Laboratories researcher'</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inventors+of+the+transistor+followed+diverse+paths+after+1947+discovery&rft.date=1987-12-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.google.com%2Fnewspapers%3Fid%3DnqlJAAAAIBAJ%26pg%3D4602%2C1428735&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Broken Genius, p 121-122 </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.computerhistory.org/semiconductor/timeline/1951-First.html">"1951 – First grown-junction transistors fabricated"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>. 2007. Retrieved July 3, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1951+%E2%80%93+First+grown-junction+transistors+fabricated&rft.pub=Computer+History+Museum&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.computerhistory.org%2Fsemiconductor%2Ftimeline%2F1951-First.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sns.ias.edu/~jnb/Vitae/NASaward/nasaward.html">"Comstock Prize"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comstock+Prize&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sns.ias.edu%2F~jnb%2FVitae%2FNASaward%2Fnasaward.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScienCentral" class="citation web cs1">ScienCentral, ScienCentral. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley/shockley3.html">"Bill Shockley, Part 3 of 3"</a>. www.pbs.org.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=Bill+Shockley%2C+Part+3+of+3&rft.aulast=ScienCentral&rft.aufirst=ScienCentral&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftransistor%2Falbum1%2Fshockley%2Fshockley3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Crystal Fire p. 278 </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley/shockley2.html">"Transistorized! William Shockley"</a>. www.pbs.org. 1999. Retrieved July 10, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=Transistorized%21+William+Shockley&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftransistor%2Falbum1%2Fshockley%2Fshockley2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/realestate/keymagazine/406Lede-t.html?pagewanted=all">"Holding On"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. April 6, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2014. <q>In 1955, the physicist William Shockley set up a semiconductor laboratory in Mountain View, partly to be near his mother in Palo Alto. ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Holding+On&rft.date=2008-04-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F04%2F06%2Frealestate%2Fkeymagazine%2F406Lede-t.html%3Fpagewanted%3Dall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B07EEDC153BF930A25752C0A96E9C8B63&">"Two Views of Innovation, Colliding in Washington"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. January 13, 2008. Retrieved December 7, 2014. <q>The co-inventor of the transistor and the founder of the valley's first chip company, William Shockley, moved to Palo Alto, Calif., because his mother lived there. ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Two+Views+of+Innovation%2C+Colliding+in+Washington&rft.date=2008-01-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D9B07EEDC153BF930A25752C0A96E9C8B63%26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-42">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_42-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_42-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5573656?">"Electronics Pioneer William Shockley's Legacy"</a>. NPR.org. Retrieved July 17, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR.org&rft.atitle=Electronics+Pioneer+William+Shockley%27s+Legacy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Ftemplates%2Fstory%2Fstory.php%3FstoryId%3D5573656%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/films/silicon/">"Silicon Valley | American Experience | PBS"</a>. www.pbs.org. 2013. Retrieved July 10, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.pbs.org&rft.atitle=Silicon+Valley+%7C+American+Experience+%7C+PBS&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Fwgbh%2Famericanexperience%2Ffilms%2Fsilicon%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_44-1">b</a> Crystal Fire p. 247 </li> <li id="cite_note-Goodheart2006-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Goodheart2006_45-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodheart2006">Goodheart 2006</a> "Fed up with their boss, eight lab workers walked off the job on this day in Mountain View, Calif. Their employer, William Shockley, had decided not to continue research into silicon-based semiconductors; frustrated, they decided to undertake the work on their own. The researchers — who would become known as 'the traitorous eight' — went on to invent the microprocessor (and to found Intel, among other companies). </li> <li id="cite_note-NetValley-46"><a href="#cite_ref-NetValley_46-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory_Gromov" class="citation web cs1">Gregory Gromov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.netvalley.com/silicon_valley/Legal_Bridge_From_El_Dorado_to_Silicon_Valley.html">"A legal bridge spanning 100 years: from the gold mines of El Dorado to the "golden" startups of Silicon Valley"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+legal+bridge+spanning+100+years%3A+from+the+gold+mines+of+El+Dorado+to+the+%22golden%22+startups+of+Silicon+Valley&rft.au=Gregory+Gromov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.netvalley.com%2Fsilicon_valley%2FLegal_Bridge_From_El_Dorado_to_Silicon_Valley.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawn_Levy2002" class="citation pressrelease cs1">Dawn Levy (October 22, 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050404102748/http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/02/shockley1023.html">"William Shockley: still controversial, after all these years"</a> (Press release). Stanford University. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/pr/02/shockley1023.html">the original</a> on April 4, 2005. Retrieved June 14, 2005.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=William+Shockley%3A+still+controversial%2C+after+all+these+years&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2002-10-22&rft.au=Dawn+Levy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fdept%2Fnews%2Fpr%2F02%2Fshockley1023.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> Crystal Fire p. 277 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin200652-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShurkin200652_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7JOIqkh2ms8&t=3116">"Firing Line with William F. Buckley Jr.: Shockley's Thesis (Episode S0145, Recorded on June 10, 1974)"</a>. <a href="/wiki/YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a>. January 27, 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211117/7JOIqkh2ms8">Archived</a> from the original on November 17, 2021. Retrieved September 17, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=Firing+Line+with+William+F.+Buckley+Jr.%3A+Shockley%27s+Thesis+%28Episode+S0145%2C+Recorded+on+June+10%2C+1974%29&rft.date=2017-01-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3D7JOIqkh2ms8%26t%3D3116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_51-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaini2019" class="citation book cs1">Saini, Angela (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1091236746">Superior : the return of race science</a>. Boston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7694-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-7694-1"><bdi>978-0-8070-7694-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1091236746">1091236746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Superior+%3A+the+return+of+race+science&rft.place=Boston&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1091236746&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-7694-1&rft.aulast=Saini&rft.aufirst=Angela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1091236746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006221-223-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006221-223_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. 221-223. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Pearson, Roger (1992). Shockley on Eugenics and Race, pg. 15–49. Scott-Townsend Publishers. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-878465-03-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-878465-03-1">1-878465-03-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-54">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_54-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEpps,_Edgar_G1973" class="citation journal cs1">Epps, Edgar G (February 1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/simpleSearch.jsp;jsessionid=OMenSuducta6igZF3Xq3pQ__.ericsrv005?newSearch=true&eric_sortField=&searchtype=keyword&pageSize=10&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=EJ070419&eric_displayStartCount=1&_pageLabel=ERICSearchResult&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=kw">"Racism, Science, and the I.Q."</a> Integrated Education. 11 (1): 35–44. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0020486730110105">10.1080/0020486730110105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Integrated+Education&rft.atitle=Racism%2C+Science%2C+and+the+I.Q.&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=35-44&rft.date=1973-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F0020486730110105&rft.au=Epps%2C+Edgar+G&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feric.ed.gov%2FERICWebPortal%2Fsearch%2FsimpleSearch.jsp%3Bjsessionid%3DOMenSuducta6igZF3Xq3pQ__.ericsrv005%3FnewSearch%3Dtrue%26eric_sortField%3D%26searchtype%3Dkeyword%26pageSize%3D10%26ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0%3DEJ070419%26eric_displayStartCount%3D1%26_pageLabel%3DERICSearchResult%26ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0%3Dkw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_55-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/william-shockley">"William Shockley"</a>. Southern Poverty Law Center.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Southern+Poverty+Law+Center&rft.atitle=William+Shockley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.splcenter.org%2Ffighting-hate%2Fextremist-files%2Findividual%2Fwilliam-shockley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1984" class="citation news cs1">Harris, Art (September 12, 1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1984/09/12/the-shockley-suit/31817b93-4807-4a16-aa3d-edd773ff9e56/">"The Shockley Suit"</a>. Washington Post. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a>. Retrieved March 29, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=The+Shockley+Suit&rft.date=1984-09-12&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Art&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Farchive%2Flifestyle%2F1984%2F09%2F12%2Fthe-shockley-suit%2F31817b93-4807-4a16-aa3d-edd773ff9e56%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006219-220-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006219-220_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. 219-220. </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler" class="citation news cs1">Kessler, Ronald. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150224230527/http://www1.hollins.edu/faculty/richter/327/AbsentCreation.htm">"Absent at the Creation; How one scientist made off with the biggest invention since the light bulb"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.hollins.edu/faculty/richter/327/AbsentCreation.htm">the original</a> on February 24, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Absent+at+the+Creation%3B+How+one+scientist+made+off+with+the+biggest+invention+since+the+light+bulb&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Ronald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.hollins.edu%2Ffaculty%2Frichter%2F327%2FAbsentCreation.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shurkin2006pp259–260-59"><a href="#cite_ref-Shurkin2006pp259–260_59-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, pp. 259–260 "Essentially, the jury agreed that Witherspoon's column met the standards of defamation, but that by then, Shockley's reputation wasn't worth very much." </li> <li id="cite_note-Shurkin2006p286-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Shurkin2006p286_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. 286 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoll1995" class="citation web cs1">Moll, John L. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/shockley-w.pdf">"William Bradford Shockley 1910—1989"</a> (PDF). National Academy of Sciences.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=William+Bradford+Shockley+1910%E2%80%941989&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Moll&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Fshockley-w.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1982/02/12/us/shockley-nobel-winner-files-for-senate-race-in-california.html">"Shockley, Nobel Winner, Files for Senate Race in California"</a>. The New York Times. February 12, 1982.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Shockley%2C+Nobel+Winner%2C+Files+for+Senate+Race+in+California&rft.date=1982-02-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1982%2F02%2F12%2Fus%2Fshockley-nobel-winner-files-for-senate-race-in-california.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ourcampaigns.com/RaceDetail.html?RaceID=382924">"CA US Senate – D Primary"</a>. OurCampaigns. Retrieved November 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=OurCampaigns&rft.atitle=CA+US+Senate+%E2%80%93+D+Primary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ourcampaigns.com%2FRaceDetail.html%3FRaceID%3D382924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006268-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShurkin2006268_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/419333630/">"The Gazette from Montreal, Quebec, Canada"</a>. Newspapers.com. March 28, 1985. 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SpringerLink. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-230-55229-6">10.1007/978-0-230-55229-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55192-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-55192-3"><bdi>978-0-230-55192-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=SpringerLink&rft.atitle=Broken+Genius&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-0-230-55229-6&rft.isbn=978-0-230-55192-3&rft.aulast=Shurkin&rft.aufirst=Joel+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Fbook%2F10.1007%2F978-0-230-55229-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tucker_1994-67">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_1994_67-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tucker_1994_67-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker1994" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, William H. 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University of Illinois Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06560-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06560-6"><bdi>978-0-252-06560-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Science+and+Politics+of+Racial+Research&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06560-6&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOBsHSzmkYHkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fighting-hate/extremist-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fighting-hate/extremist_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fighting-hate/extremist_68-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/william-shockley">"William Shockley"</a>. 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Vicki Daitch. Washington, District of Columbia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-309-16954-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-309-16954-2"><bdi>0-309-16954-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1162253791">1162253791</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=True+genius+%3A+the+life+and+science+of+John+Bardeen+%3A+the+only+winner+of+two+Nobel+Prizes+in+physics&rft.place=Washington%2C+District+of+Columbia&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1162253791&rft.isbn=0-309-16954-2&rft.aulast=Hoddeson&rft.aufirst=Lillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1162253791&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mountainproject.com/route/105799687/shockleys-ceiling">"Shockley's Ceiling"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mountain_Project" title="Mountain Project">Mountain Project</a>. Retrieved December 12, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mountain+Project&rft.atitle=Shockley%27s+Ceiling&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountainproject.com%2Froute%2F105799687%2Fshockleys-ceiling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mountainproject.com/route/105799687/the-ceiling">"Rock Climb The Ceiling, The Gunks"</a>. Mountain Project. Retrieved September 16, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mountain+Project&rft.atitle=Rock+Climb+The+Ceiling%2C+The+Gunks&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mountainproject.com%2Froute%2F105799687%2Fthe-ceiling&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Crystal Fire p. 45 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKulman1982" class="citation news cs1">Kulman, Doris (September 19, 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newspapers.com/clip/120466259/repository-for-germinal-choice-three/">"'Banker's' assets misdirected"</a>. The Daily Register. p. 47. <q>According to the bank's owner-operator, California millionaire Robert T. Graham, three Nobel Prize-winning scientists are among those who have sperm on deposit.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Register&rft.atitle=%27Banker%27s%27+assets+misdirected&rft.pages=47&rft.date=1982-09-19&rft.aulast=Kulman&rft.aufirst=Doris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newspapers.com%2Fclip%2F120466259%2Frepository-for-germinal-choice-three%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPolly_Morrice2005" class="citation news cs1">Polly Morrice (July 3, 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/03/books/review/03MORRICE.html?ei=5088&en=859598b50aab62e1&ex=1278043200&partner=rssnyt&emc=rss&pagewanted=all#">"The Genius Factory: Test-Tube Superbabies"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved February 12, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=The+Genius+Factory%3A+Test-Tube+Superbabies&rft.date=2005-07-03&rft.au=Polly+Morrice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2005%2F07%2F03%2Fbooks%2Freview%2F03MORRICE.html%3Fei%3D5088%26en%3D859598b50aab62e1%26ex%3D1278043200%26partner%3Drssnyt%26emc%3Drss%26pagewanted%3Dall%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-obit-78"><a href="#cite_ref-obit_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091015051326/https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0213.html">"William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. August 14, 1989. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0213.html">the original</a> on October 15, 2009. Retrieved July 21, 2007. <q>He drew further scorn when he proposed financial rewards for the genetically disadvantaged if they volunteered for <a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">sterilization</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=William+B.+Shockley%2C+79%2C+Creator+of+Transistor+and+Theory+on+Race&rft.date=1989-08-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0213.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley/shockley3.html">"William Shockley (Part 3 of 3): Confusion over Credit"</a>. <a href="/wiki/PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a>. 1999. Retrieved January 1, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=PBS&rft.atitle=William+Shockley+%28Part+3+of+3%29%3A+Confusion+over+Credit&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pbs.org%2Ftransistor%2Falbum1%2Fshockley%2Fshockley3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Comstock-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Comstock_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101229195326/http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_comstock">"Comstock Prize in Physics"</a>. National Academy of Sciences. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/site/PageServer?pagename=AWARDS_comstock">the original</a> on December 29, 2010. Retrieved February 13, 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comstock+Prize+in+Physics&rft.pub=National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fsite%2FPageServer%3Fpagename%3DAWARDS_comstock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Editor, ÖGV. (2015). Wilhelm Exner Medal. Austrian Trade Association. ÖGV. Austria. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/?assignee=Shockley+William">"Google Patents assignee:(Shockley William)"</a>. patents.google.com. Retrieved December 12, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=patents.google.com&rft.atitle=Google+Patents+assignee%3A%28Shockley+William%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2F%3Fassignee%3DShockley%2BWilliam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1971" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1169443">"Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro IQ Deficits"</a>. Review of Educational Research. 41 (4): 369–377. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3102%2F00346543041004369">10.3102/00346543041004369</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6543">0034-6543</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1169443">1169443</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Educational+Research&rft.atitle=Models%2C+Mathematics%2C+and+the+Moral+Obligation+to+Diagnose+the+Origin+of+Negro+IQ+Deficits&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=369-377&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0034-6543&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1169443%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3102%2F00346543041004369&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1169443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1971" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1169529">"Negro IQ Deficit: Failure of a "Malicious Coincidence" Model Warrants New Research Proposals"</a>. Review of Educational Research. 41 (3): 227–248. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1169529">10.2307/1169529</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0034-6543">0034-6543</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1169529">1169529</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Educational+Research&rft.atitle=Negro+IQ+Deficit%3A+Failure+of+a+%22Malicious+Coincidence%22+Model+Warrants+New+Research+Proposals&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=227-248&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0034-6543&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1169529%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1169529&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1169529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockleyShockley1972" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, Wiliam; Shockley, William (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20373194">"Dysgenics, Geneticity, Raceology: A Challenge to the Intellectual Responsibility of Educators"</a>. The Phi Delta Kappan. 53 (5): 297–307. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-7217">0031-7217</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20373194">20373194</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phi+Delta+Kappan&rft.atitle=Dysgenics%2C+Geneticity%2C+Raceology%3A+A+Challenge+to+the+Intellectual+Responsibility+of+Educators&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=297-307&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20373194%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0031-7217&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=Wiliam&rft.au=Shockley%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20373194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1972" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20373251">"A Debate Challenge: Geneticity Is 80% for White Identical Twins' I.Q.'s"</a>. The Phi Delta Kappan. 53 (7): 415–419. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-7217">0031-7217</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20373251">20373251</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phi+Delta+Kappan&rft.atitle=A+Debate+Challenge%3A+Geneticity+Is+80%25+for+White+Identical+Twins%27+I.Q.%27s&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=415-419&rft.date=1972&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20373251%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0031-7217&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20373251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShockley1973" class="citation journal cs1">Shockley, William (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC433346">"Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Caused by Assortative Mating in Hybrid Populations"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (3): 732–736. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973PNAS...70..732S">1973PNAS...70..732S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.70.3.732">10.1073/pnas.70.3.732</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/62346">62346</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC433346">433346</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4514986">4514986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences+of+the+United+States+of+America&rft.atitle=Deviations+from+Hardy-Weinberg+Frequencies+Caused+by+Assortative+Mating+in+Hybrid+Populations&rft.volume=70&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=732-736&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC433346%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F62346%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1973PNAS...70..732S&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4514986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.70.3.732&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Shockley&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC433346&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_notes">Other notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Other notes">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="#CITEREFParkLubinskiBenbow2010">Park, Lubinski & Benbow 2010</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=recognizing-spatial-intel">There were two young boys, Luis Alvarez and William Shockley, who were among the many who took Terman's tests but missed the cutoff score. Despite their exclusion from a study of young 'geniuses,' both went on to study physics, earn PhDs, and win the Nobel prize.</a>"</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFLeslie2000">Leslie 2000</a>, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678">We also know that two children who were tested but didn't make the cut – William Shockley and Luis Alvarez – went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. According to Hastorf, none of the Terman kids ever won a Nobel or Pulitzer.</a>"</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFShurkin2006">Shurkin 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cRb_qzEwWWAC&pg=PA13">13</a> (See also "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/beautiful-minds/200909/the-truth-about-the-termites">The Truth About the 'Termites'</a>" Kaufman, S. B. 2009)</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFSimonton1999">Simonton 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofgeniusd00simo/page/4">4</a> "When Terman first used the IQ test to select a sample of child geniuses, he unknowingly excluded a special child whose IQ did not make the grade. Yet a few decades later that talent received the Nobel Prize in physics: William Shockley, the cocreator of the transistor. Ironically, not one of the more than 1,500 children who qualified according to his IQ criterion received so high an honor as adults."</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFEysenck1998">Eysenck 1998</a>, pp. 127–128 "Terman, who originated those 'Genetic Studies of Genius', as he called them, selected ... children on the basis of their high IQs, the mean was 151 for both sexes. Seventy–seven who were tested with the newly translated and standardized Binet test had IQs of 170 or higher–well at or above the level of Cox's geniuses. What happened to these potential geniuses–did they revolutionize society? ... The answer in brief is that they did very well in terms of achievement, but none reached the Nobel Prize level, let alone that of genius. ... It seems clear that these data powerfully confirm the suspicion that intelligence is not a sufficient trait for truly creative achievement of the highest grade."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Shockley&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrittain1984" class="citation journal cs1">Brittain, J.E. (1984). "Becker and Shive on the transistor". Proceedings of the IEEE. 72 (12): 1695. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FPROC.1984.13075">10.1109/PROC.1984.13075</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-9219">0018-9219</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1616808">1616808</a>. <q>an observation that William Shockley interpreted as confirmation of his concept of that junction transistor</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+IEEE&rft.atitle=Becker+and+Shive+on+the+transistor&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1695&rft.date=1984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1616808%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0018-9219&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FPROC.1984.13075&rft.aulast=Brittain&rft.aufirst=J.E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEysenck1998" class="citation book cs1">Eysenck, Hans (1998). Intelligence: A New Look. New Brunswick (NJ): <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0707-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7658-0707-6"><bdi>978-0-7658-0707-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intelligence%3A+A+New+Look&rft.place=New+Brunswick+%28NJ%29&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-7658-0707-6&rft.aulast=Eysenck&rft.aufirst=Hans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiangreco1997" class="citation journal cs1">Giangreco, D. M. (1997). "Casualty Projections for the U.S. Invasions of Japan, 1945-1946: Planning and Policy Implications". <a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Military_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Military History">Journal of Military History</a>. 61 (3): 521–581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2954035">10.2307/2954035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0899-3718">0899-3718</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954035">2954035</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159870872">159870872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+History&rft.atitle=Casualty+Projections+for+the+U.S.+Invasions+of+Japan%2C+1945-1946%3A+Planning+and+Policy+Implications&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=521-581&rft.date=1997&rft.issn=0899-3718&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159870872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2954035%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2954035&rft.aulast=Giangreco&rft.aufirst=D.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodheart2006" class="citation news cs1">Goodheart, Adam (July 2, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2006/07/02/weekinreview/02goodheart.html">"10 Days That Changed History"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved January 2, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=10+Days+That+Changed+History&rft.date=2006-07-02&rft.aulast=Goodheart&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2006%2F07%2F02%2Fweekinreview%2F02goodheart.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeslie2000" class="citation journal cs1">Leslie, Mitchell (July–August 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210826224009/https://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678">"The Vexing Legacy of Lewis Terman"</a>. Stanford Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40678">the original</a> on August 26, 2021. Retrieved June 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Magazine&rft.atitle=The+Vexing+Legacy+of+Lewis+Terman&rft.date=2000-07%2F2000-08&rft.aulast=Leslie&rft.aufirst=Mitchell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falumni.stanford.edu%2Fget%2Fpage%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F%3Farticle_id%3D40678&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParkLubinskiBenbow2010" class="citation journal cs1">Park, Gregory; Lubinski, David; Benbow, Camilla P. (November 2, 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=recognizing-spatial-intel">"Recognizing Spatial Intelligence"</a>. Scientific American. Retrieved June 5, 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Recognizing+Spatial+Intelligence&rft.date=2010-11-02&rft.aulast=Park&rft.aufirst=Gregory&rft.au=Lubinski%2C+David&rft.au=Benbow%2C+Camilla+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle.cfm%3Fid%3Drecognizing-spatial-intel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShurkin2006" class="citation book cs1">Shurkin, Joel (2006). Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley, Creator of the Electronic Age. London: Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8815-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8815-7"><bdi>978-1-4039-8815-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Broken+Genius%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+William+Shockley%2C+Creator+of+the+Electronic+Age&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-8815-7&rft.aulast=Shurkin&rft.aufirst=Joel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrian_Clegg2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Brian Clegg (June 2, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160303173745/http://www.popularscience.co.uk/reviews/rev291.htm">"Review - Broken Genius - Joel Shurkin"</a>. Popular Science. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.popularscience.co.uk/reviews/rev291.htm">the original</a> on March 3, 2016. Retrieved November 13, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Popular+Science&rft.atitle=Review+-+Broken+Genius+-+Joel+Shurkin&rft.date=2013-06-02&rft.au=Brian+Clegg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.popularscience.co.uk%2Freviews%2Frev291.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimonton1999" class="citation book cs1">Simonton, Dean Keith (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/originsofgeniusd00simo">Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity</a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512879-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512879-6"><bdi>978-0-19-512879-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3080746">3080746</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origins+of+genius%3A+Darwinian+perspectives+on+creativity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3080746%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512879-6&rft.aulast=Simonton&rft.aufirst=Dean+Keith&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foriginsofgeniusd00simo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiordanHoddeson1997" class="citation book cs1">Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/crystalfirebirth00rior">Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age</a>. Sloan Technology Series. New York: Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04124-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04124-8"><bdi>978-0-393-04124-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crystal+Fire%3A+The+Invention+of+the+Transistor+and+the+Birth+of+the+Information+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Sloan+Technology+Series&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04124-8&rft.aulast=Riordan&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Hoddeson%2C+Lillian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcrystalfirebirth00rior&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArthur_P._Molella2000" class="citation journal cs1">Arthur P. Molella (July 2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/tech/summary/v041/41.3molella.html">"Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age (review)"</a>. Technology and Culture. 41 (3): 623–625. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2000.0121">10.1353/tech.2000.0121</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Crystal+Fire%3A+The+Birth+of+the+Information+Age+%28review%29&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=623-625&rft.date=2000-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2000.0121&rft.au=Arthur+P.+Molella&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Ftech%2Fsummary%2Fv041%2F41.3molella.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxon1989" class="citation news cs1">Saxon, Wolfgang (August 14, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0213.html">"William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Retrieved January 2, 2015. <q>He drew further scorn when he proposed financial rewards for the genetically disadvantaged if they volunteered for sterilization.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=William+B.+Shockley%2C+79%2C+Creator+of+Transistor+and+Theory+on+Race&rft.date=1989-08-14&rft.aulast=Saxon&rft.aufirst=Wolfgang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.nytimes.com%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0213.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121126041440/http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?arnumber=04050875">"Contributors to Proceedings of the I.R.E."</a> November 1952. p. 1611. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/4050875">the original</a> on November 26, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Contributors+to+Proceedings+of+the+I.R.E.&rft.pages=1611&rft.date=1952-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F4050875&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_magazine" title="Template:Cite magazine">cite magazine</a>}}</code>: Cite magazine requires <code class="cs1-code">|magazine=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSparksHoganLinville1991" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Morgan_Sparks" title="Morgan Sparks">Sparks, Morgan</a>; <a href="/wiki/Lester_Hogan" title="Lester Hogan">Hogan, Lester</a>; Linville, John (1991). "[Obituary:] William Shockley". Physics Today. 44 (6): 130–132. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991PhT....44f.130S">1991PhT....44f.130S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2810155">10.1063/1.2810155</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228">0031-9228</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Today&rft.atitle=%5BObituary%3A%5D+William+Shockley&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=130-132&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=0031-9228&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.2810155&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1991PhT....44f.130S&rft.aulast=Sparks&rft.aufirst=Morgan&rft.au=Hogan%2C+Lester&rft.au=Linville%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_H._Tucker_(psychologist)" title="William H. Tucker (psychologist)">Tucker, William H.</a> (2007) [first published 2002]. The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Illinois_Press" title="University of Illinois Press">University of Illinois Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07463-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-07463-9"><bdi>978-0-252-07463-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+funding+of+scientific+racism%3A+Wickliffe+Draper+and+the+Pioneer+Fund&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-252-07463-9&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrew_S._Winston2003" class="citation journal cs1">Andrew S. Winston (July 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/journal_of_the_history_of_medicine_and_allied_sciences/summary/v058/58.3winston.html">"The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (review)"</a>. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 58 (3): 391–392. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrg016">10.1093/jhmas/jrg016</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+History+of+Medicine+and+Allied+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Funding+of+Scientific+Racism%3A+Wickliffe+Draper+and+the+Pioneer+Fund+%28review%29&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=391-392&rft.date=2003-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjhmas%2Fjrg016&rft.au=Andrew+S.+Winston&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Fjournals%2Fjournal_of_the_history_of_medicine_and_allied_sciences%2Fsummary%2Fv058%2F58.3winston.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Shockley" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1956 Transistor Technology Evokes New Physics</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/album1/shockley">PBS biography</a></li> <li>Gordon Moore. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071016213117/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,990623,00.html">Biography of William Shockley</a> Time Magazine</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.abc.net.au/rn/inconversation/stories/2006/1678241.htm">Interview with Shockley biographer Joel Shurkin</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4889">Oral history interview transcript for William Shockley on 10 September 1974, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a> - interview conducted by <a href="/wiki/Lillian_Hoddeson" title="Lillian Hoddeson">Lillian Hoddeson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Murray_Hill,_New_Jersey" title="Murray Hill, New Jersey">Murray Hill, New Jersey</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/miraclemo.html">History of the transistor</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/William_Shockley">William Shockley (IEEE Global History Network)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/transistor/background1/events/patbat.html">Shockley and Bardeen-Brattain patent disputes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.counter-racism.com/c-r_tv/freeze-it.html">William Shockley vs. Francis Cress-Welsing (Tony Brown Show, 1974)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8qf8tf9/">William Bradford Shockley Papers</a> (SC0222) at Department of Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford University Libraries</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1901: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Röntgen</a></li> <li>1902: <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Lorentz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pieter_Zeeman" title="Pieter Zeeman">Zeeman</a></li> <li>1903: <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Becquerel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">P. Curie</a> / <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">M. Curie</a></li> <li>1904: <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Rayleigh</a></li> <li>1905: <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Lenard" title="Philipp Lenard">Lenard</a></li> <li>1906: <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a></li> <li>1907: <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Michelson</a></li> <li>1908: <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Lippmann" title="Gabriel Lippmann">Lippmann</a></li> <li>1909: <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Marconi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Karl_Ferdinand_Braun" title="Karl Ferdinand Braun">Braun</a></li> <li>1910: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Diderik_van_der_Waals" title="Johannes Diderik van der Waals">Van der Waals</a></li> <li>1911: <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wien" title="Wilhelm Wien">Wien</a></li> <li>1912: <a href="/wiki/Gustaf_Dal%C3%A9n" title="Gustaf Dalén">Dalén</a></li> <li>1913: <a href="/wiki/Heike_Kamerlingh_Onnes" title="Heike Kamerlingh Onnes">Kamerlingh Onnes</a></li> <li>1914: <a href="/wiki/Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Laue</a></li> <li>1915: <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Bragg" title="Lawrence Bragg">W. L. Bragg</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">W. H. Bragg</a></li> <li>1916</li> <li>1917: <a href="/wiki/Charles_Glover_Barkla" title="Charles Glover Barkla">Barkla</a></li> <li>1918: <a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Planck</a></li> <li>1919: <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Stark" title="Johannes Stark">Stark</a></li> <li>1920: <a href="/wiki/Charles_%C3%89douard_Guillaume" title="Charles Édouard Guillaume">Guillaume</a></li> <li>1921: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Einstein</a></li> <li>1922: <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">N. Bohr</a></li> <li>1923: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Andrews_Millikan" title="Robert Andrews Millikan">Millikan</a></li> <li>1924: <a href="/wiki/Manne_Siegbahn" title="Manne Siegbahn">M. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1925: <a href="/wiki/James_Franck" title="James Franck">Franck</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Ludwig_Hertz" title="Gustav Ludwig Hertz">Hertz</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/80px-Nobel_Prize.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/120px-Nobel_Prize.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/ed/Nobel_Prize.png/160px-Nobel_Prize.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="492" /></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1926–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1926: <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Perrin</a></li> <li>1927: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Compton" title="Arthur Compton">Compton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">C. Wilson</a></li> <li>1928: <a href="/wiki/Owen_Willans_Richardson" title="Owen Willans Richardson">O. Richardson</a></li> <li>1929: <a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Broglie" title="Louis de Broglie">De Broglie</a></li> <li>1930: <a href="/wiki/C._V._Raman" title="C. V. Raman">Raman</a></li> <li>1931</li> <li>1932: <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Heisenberg</a></li> <li>1933: <a href="/wiki/Erwin_Schr%C3%B6dinger" title="Erwin Schrödinger">Schrödinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Dirac</a></li> <li>1934</li> <li>1935: <a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">Chadwick</a></li> <li>1936: <a href="/wiki/Victor_Francis_Hess" title="Victor Francis Hess">Hess</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_David_Anderson" title="Carl David Anderson">C. D. Anderson</a></li> <li>1937: <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Davisson" title="Clinton Davisson">Davisson</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">G. P. Thomson</a></li> <li>1938: <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Fermi</a></li> <li>1939: <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Lawrence" title="Ernest Lawrence">Lawrence</a></li> <li>1940</li> <li>1941</li> <li>1942</li> <li>1943: <a href="/wiki/Otto_Stern" title="Otto Stern">Stern</a></li> <li>1944: <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Rabi</a></li> <li>1945: <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Pauli" title="Wolfgang Pauli">Pauli</a></li> <li>1946: <a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Bridgman</a></li> <li>1947: <a href="/wiki/Edward_Victor_Appleton" title="Edward Victor Appleton">Appleton</a></li> <li>1948: <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Blackett</a></li> <li>1949: <a href="/wiki/Hideki_Yukawa" title="Hideki Yukawa">Yukawa</a></li> <li>1950: <a href="/wiki/C._F._Powell" title="C. F. Powell">Powell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1951: <a href="/wiki/John_Cockcroft" title="John Cockcroft">Cockcroft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Walton" title="Ernest Walton">Walton</a></li> <li>1952: <a href="/wiki/Felix_Bloch" title="Felix Bloch">Bloch</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Purcell</a></li> <li>1953: <a href="/wiki/Frits_Zernike" title="Frits Zernike">Zernike</a></li> <li>1954: <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Born</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walther_Bothe" title="Walther Bothe">Bothe</a></li> <li>1955: <a href="/wiki/Willis_Lamb" title="Willis Lamb">Lamb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Polykarp_Kusch" title="Polykarp Kusch">Kusch</a></li> <li>1956: <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Brattain</a></li> <li>1957: <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chen-Ning" title="Yang Chen-Ning">C. N. Yang</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tsung-Dao_Lee" title="Tsung-Dao Lee">T. D. Lee</a></li> <li>1958: <a href="/wiki/Pavel_Cherenkov" title="Pavel Cherenkov">Cherenkov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ilya_Frank" title="Ilya Frank">Frank</a> / <a href="/wiki/Igor_Tamm" title="Igor Tamm">Tamm</a></li> <li>1959: <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Segrè</a> / <a href="/wiki/Owen_Chamberlain" title="Owen Chamberlain">Chamberlain</a></li> <li>1960: <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Glaser</a></li> <li>1961: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hofstadter" title="Robert Hofstadter">Hofstadter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_M%C3%B6ssbauer" title="Rudolf Mössbauer">Mössbauer</a></li> <li>1962: <a href="/wiki/Lev_Landau" title="Lev Landau">Landau</a></li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Wigner</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert_Mayer" title="Maria Goeppert Mayer">Goeppert Mayer</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">Jensen</a></li> <li>1964: <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Basov" title="Nikolay Basov">Basov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Prokhorov" title="Alexander Prokhorov">Prokhorov</a></li> <li>1965: <a href="/wiki/Shin%27ichir%C5%8D_Tomonaga" title="Shin'ichirō Tomonaga">Tomonaga</a> / <a href="/wiki/Julian_Schwinger" title="Julian Schwinger">Schwinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a></li> <li>1966: <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Kastler" title="Alfred Kastler">Kastler</a></li> <li>1967: <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bethe" title="Hans Bethe">Bethe</a></li> <li>1968: <a href="/wiki/Luis_Walter_Alvarez" title="Luis Walter Alvarez">Alvarez</a></li> <li>1969: <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Gell-Mann</a></li> <li>1970: <a href="/wiki/Hannes_Alfv%C3%A9n" title="Hannes Alfvén">Alfvén</a> / <a href="/wiki/Louis_N%C3%A9el" title="Louis Néel">Néel</a></li> <li>1971: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Gabor" title="Dennis Gabor">Gabor</a></li> <li>1972: <a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">Bardeen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Leon_Cooper" title="Leon Cooper">Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Robert_Schrieffer" title="John Robert Schrieffer">Schrieffer</a></li> <li>1973: <a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Esaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ivar_Giaever" title="Ivar Giaever">Giaever</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Josephson" title="Brian Josephson">Josephson</a></li> <li>1974: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Ryle" title="Martin Ryle">Ryle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antony_Hewish" title="Antony Hewish">Hewish</a></li> <li>1975: <a href="/wiki/Aage_Bohr" title="Aage Bohr">A. Bohr</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ben_Roy_Mottelson" title="Ben Roy Mottelson">Mottelson</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Rainwater" title="James Rainwater">Rainwater</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>1976: <a href="/wiki/Burton_Richter" title="Burton Richter">Richter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Samuel_C._C._Ting" title="Samuel C. C. Ting">Ting</a></li> <li>1977: <a href="/wiki/Philip_W._Anderson" title="Philip W. Anderson">P. W. Anderson</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nevill_Francis_Mott" title="Nevill Francis Mott">Mott</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Hasbrouck_Van_Vleck" title="John Hasbrouck Van Vleck">Van Vleck</a></li> <li>1978: <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Kapitsa" title="Pyotr Kapitsa">Kapitsa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arno_Allan_Penzias" title="Arno Allan Penzias">Penzias</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Robert Woodrow Wilson">R. Wilson</a></li> <li>1979: <a href="/wiki/Sheldon_Glashow" title="Sheldon Glashow">Glashow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Abdus_Salam" title="Abdus Salam">Salam</a> / <a href="/wiki/Steven_Weinberg" title="Steven Weinberg">Weinberg</a></li> <li>1980: <a href="/wiki/James_Cronin" title="James Cronin">Cronin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Val_Logsdon_Fitch" title="Val Logsdon Fitch">Fitch</a></li> <li>1981: <a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Bloembergen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Leonard_Schawlow" title="Arthur Leonard Schawlow">Schawlow</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kai_Siegbahn" title="Kai Siegbahn">K. Siegbahn</a></li> <li>1982: <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_G._Wilson" title="Kenneth G. Wilson">K. Wilson</a></li> <li>1983: <a href="/wiki/Subrahmanyan_Chandrasekhar" title="Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar">Chandrasekhar</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Alfred_Fowler" title="William Alfred Fowler">Fowler</a></li> <li>1984: <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Rubbia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Simon_van_der_Meer" title="Simon van der Meer">Van der Meer</a></li> <li>1985: <a href="/wiki/Klaus_von_Klitzing" title="Klaus von Klitzing">von Klitzing</a></li> <li>1986: <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Ruska" title="Ernst Ruska">Ruska</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Binnig" title="Gerd Binnig">Binnig</a> / <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rohrer" title="Heinrich Rohrer">Rohrer</a></li> <li>1987: <a href="/wiki/Georg_Bednorz" title="Georg Bednorz">Bednorz</a> / <a href="/wiki/K._Alex_M%C3%BCller" title="K. Alex Müller">Müller</a></li> <li>1988: <a href="/wiki/Leon_M._Lederman" title="Leon M. Lederman">Lederman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Schwartz" title="Melvin Schwartz">Schwartz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Steinberger" title="Jack Steinberger">Steinberger</a></li> <li>1989: <a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Ramsey</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hans_Georg_Dehmelt" title="Hans Georg Dehmelt">Dehmelt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Paul" title="Wolfgang Paul">Paul</a></li> <li>1990: <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Isaac_Friedman" title="Jerome Isaac Friedman">Friedman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Kendall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Taylor" title="Richard E. Taylor">R. Taylor</a></li> <li>1991: <a href="/wiki/Pierre-Gilles_de_Gennes" title="Pierre-Gilles de Gennes">de Gennes</a></li> <li>1992: <a href="/wiki/Georges_Charpak" title="Georges Charpak">Charpak</a></li> <li>1993: <a href="/wiki/Russell_Alan_Hulse" title="Russell Alan Hulse">Hulse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Hooton_Taylor_Jr." title="Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr.">J. Taylor</a></li> <li>1994: <a href="/wiki/Bertram_Brockhouse" title="Bertram Brockhouse">Brockhouse</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Shull" title="Clifford Shull">Shull</a></li> <li>1995: <a href="/wiki/Martin_Lewis_Perl" title="Martin Lewis Perl">Perl</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Reines" title="Frederick Reines">Reines</a></li> <li>1996: <a href="/wiki/David_Lee_(physicist)" title="David Lee (physicist)">D. Lee</a> / <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Osheroff" title="Douglas Osheroff">Osheroff</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Coleman_Richardson" title="Robert Coleman Richardson">R. Richardson</a></li> <li>1997: <a href="/wiki/Steven_Chu" title="Steven Chu">Chu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Claude_Cohen-Tannoudji" title="Claude Cohen-Tannoudji">Cohen-Tannoudji</a> / <a href="/wiki/William_Daniel_Phillips" title="William Daniel Phillips">Phillips</a></li> <li>1998: <a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Laughlin" title="Robert B. Laughlin">Laughlin</a> / <a href="/wiki/Horst_Ludwig_St%C3%B6rmer" title="Horst Ludwig Störmer">Störmer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Daniel_C._Tsui" title="Daniel C. Tsui">Tsui</a></li> <li>1999: <a href="/wiki/Gerard_%27t_Hooft" title="Gerard 't Hooft">'t Hooft</a> / <a href="/wiki/Martinus_J._G._Veltman" title="Martinus J. G. Veltman">Veltman</a></li> <li>2000: <a href="/wiki/Zhores_Alferov" title="Zhores Alferov">Alferov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Kroemer" title="Herbert Kroemer">Kroemer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Kilby</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001– present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>2001: <a href="/wiki/Eric_Allin_Cornell" title="Eric Allin Cornell">Cornell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wolfgang_Ketterle" title="Wolfgang Ketterle">Ketterle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieman" title="Carl Wieman">Wieman</a></li> <li>2002: <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Davis_Jr." title="Raymond Davis Jr.">Davis</a> / <a href="/wiki/Masatoshi_Koshiba" title="Masatoshi Koshiba">Koshiba</a> / <a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Giacconi</a></li> <li>2003: <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Abrikosov_(physicist)" title="Alexei Abrikosov (physicist)">Abrikosov</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vitaly_Ginzburg" title="Vitaly Ginzburg">Ginzburg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anthony_James_Leggett" title="Anthony James Leggett">Leggett</a></li> <li>2004: <a href="/wiki/David_Gross" title="David Gross">Gross</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hugh_David_Politzer" title="Hugh David Politzer">Politzer</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek</a></li> <li>2005: <a href="/wiki/Roy_J._Glauber" title="Roy J. Glauber">Glauber</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_L._Hall" title="John L. Hall">Hall</a> / <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._H%C3%A4nsch" title="Theodor W. Hänsch">Hänsch</a></li> <li>2006: <a href="/wiki/John_C._Mather" title="John C. Mather">Mather</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_Smoot" title="George Smoot">Smoot</a></li> <li>2007: <a href="/wiki/Albert_Fert" title="Albert Fert">Fert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Gr%C3%BCnberg" title="Peter Grünberg">Grünberg</a></li> <li>2008: <a href="/wiki/Yoichiro_Nambu" title="Yoichiro Nambu">Nambu</a> / <a href="/wiki/Makoto_Kobayashi_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makoto Kobayashi (physicist)">Kobayashi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Toshihide_Maskawa" title="Toshihide Maskawa">Maskawa</a></li> <li>2009: <a href="/wiki/Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Kao</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Boyle" title="Willard Boyle">Boyle</a> / <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">Smith</a></li> <li>2010: <a href="/wiki/Andre_Geim" title="Andre Geim">Geim</a> / <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Novoselov" title="Konstantin Novoselov">Novoselov</a></li> <li>2011: <a href="/wiki/Saul_Perlmutter" title="Saul Perlmutter">Perlmutter</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brian_Schmidt" title="Brian Schmidt">Schmidt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Adam_Riess" title="Adam Riess">Riess</a> </li> <li>2012: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Wineland" title="David J. Wineland">Wineland</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serge_Haroche" title="Serge Haroche">Haroche</a></li> <li>2013: <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Englert" title="François Englert">Englert</a> / <a href="/wiki/Peter_Higgs" title="Peter Higgs">Higgs</a></li> <li>2014: <a href="/wiki/Isamu_Akasaki" title="Isamu Akasaki">Akasaki</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hiroshi_Amano" title="Hiroshi Amano">Amano</a> / <a href="/wiki/Shuji_Nakamura" title="Shuji Nakamura">Nakamura</a></li> <li>2015: <a href="/wiki/Takaaki_Kajita" title="Takaaki Kajita">Kajita</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arthur_B._McDonald" title="Arthur B. McDonald">McDonald</a></li> <li>2016: <a href="/wiki/David_J._Thouless" title="David J. Thouless">Thouless</a> / <a href="/wiki/Duncan_Haldane" title="Duncan Haldane">Haldane</a> / <a href="/wiki/J._Michael_Kosterlitz" title="J. Michael Kosterlitz">Kosterlitz</a></li> <li>2017: <a href="/wiki/Rainer_Weiss" title="Rainer Weiss">Weiss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barry_Barish" title="Barry Barish">Barish</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kip_Thorne" title="Kip Thorne">Thorne</a></li> <li>2018: <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashkin" title="Arthur Ashkin">Ashkin</a> / <a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9rard_Mourou" title="Gérard Mourou">Mourou</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donna_Strickland" title="Donna Strickland">Strickland</a></li> <li>2019: <a href="/wiki/Jim_Peebles" title="Jim Peebles">Peebles</a> / <a href="/wiki/Michel_Mayor" title="Michel Mayor">Mayor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Didier_Queloz" title="Didier Queloz">Queloz</a></li> <li>2020: <a href="/wiki/Roger_Penrose" title="Roger Penrose">Penrose</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reinhard_Genzel" title="Reinhard Genzel">Genzel</a> / <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Ghez" title="Andrea M. Ghez">Ghez</a></li> <li>2021: <a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Parisi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Klaus_Hasselmann" title="Klaus Hasselmann">Hasselmann</a> / <a href="/wiki/Syukuro_Manabe" title="Syukuro Manabe">Manabe</a></li> <li>2022: <a href="/wiki/Alain_Aspect" title="Alain Aspect">Aspect</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Clauser" title="John Clauser">Clauser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anton_Zeilinger" title="Anton Zeilinger">Zeilinger</a></li> <li>2023: <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Agostini" title="Pierre Agostini">Agostini</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ferenc_Krausz" title="Ferenc Krausz">Krausz</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anne_L%27Huillier" title="Anne L'Huillier">L'Huillier</a></li> <li>2024: <a href="/wiki/John_Hopfield" title="John Hopfield">Hopfield</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Hinton" title="Geoffrey Hinton">Hinton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="1956_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template talk:1956 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:1956_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Special:EditPage/Template:1956 Nobel Prize winners"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="1956_Nobel_Prize_laureates" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">1956 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> laureates</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Chemistry</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (Great Britain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolay_Semyonov" title="Nikolay Semyonov">Nikolay Semyonov</a> (Soviet Union)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="Nobel Prize in Literature">Literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/1956_Nobel_Prize_in_Literature" title="1956 Nobel Prize in Literature">1956</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Ram%C3%B3n_Jim%C3%A9nez" title="Juan Ramón Jiménez">Juan Ramón Jiménez</a> (Spain)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Peace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>None</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Houser_Brattain" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a> (United States)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shockley</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Physiology or Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Cournand" title="André Frédéric Cournand">André Frédéric Cournand</a> (United States)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Forssmann" title="Werner Forssmann">Werner Forssmann</a> (Germany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dickinson_W._Richards" title="Dickinson W. Richards">Dickinson W. Richards</a> (United States)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_laureates" title="List of Nobel laureates">Nobel Prize recipients</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1951_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1951 Nobel Prize winners">1951</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1952_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1952 Nobel Prize winners">1952</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1953_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1953 Nobel Prize winners">1953</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1954_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1954 Nobel Prize winners">1954</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1955_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1955 Nobel Prize winners">1955</a></dd> <dd>1956 </dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1957_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1957 Nobel Prize winners">1957</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1958_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1958 Nobel Prize winners">1958</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1959_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1959 Nobel Prize winners">1959</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1960_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1960 Nobel Prize winners">1960</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Template:1961_Nobel_Prize_winners" title="Template:1961 Nobel Prize winners">1961</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="IEEE_Medal_of_Honor" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:IEEE_Medal_of_Honor_Laureates_1976%E2%80%932000" title="Template:IEEE Medal of Honor Laureates 1976–2000"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:IEEE_Medal_of_Honor_Laureates_1976%E2%80%932000" title="Template talk:IEEE Medal of Honor Laureates 1976–2000"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:IEEE_Medal_of_Honor_Laureates_1976%E2%80%932000" title="Special:EditPage/Template:IEEE Medal of Honor Laureates 1976–2000"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="IEEE_Medal_of_Honor" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/IEEE_Medal_of_Honor" title="IEEE Medal of Honor">IEEE Medal of Honor</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H._Earle_Vaughan" class="mw-redirect" title="H. Earle Vaughan">H. Earle Vaughan</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Noyce" title="Robert Noyce">Robert Noyce</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard Bellman</a> (1979)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shockley</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Darlington" title="Sidney Darlington">Sidney Darlington</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Tukey" title="John Tukey">John Tukey</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaas_Bloembergen" title="Nicolaas Bloembergen">Nicolaas Bloembergen</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Foster_Ramsey_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.">Norman Ramsey</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Roy_Whinnery" title="John Roy Whinnery">John Roy Whinnery</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kilby" title="Jack Kilby">Jack Kilby</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Lauterbur" title="Paul Lauterbur">Paul Lauterbur</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvin_Quate" title="Calvin Quate">Calvin Quate</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._Kumar_N._Patel" title="C. Kumar N. Patel">C. Kumar Patel</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_G._Gallager" title="Robert G. Gallager">Robert G. Gallager</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Esaki" title="Leo Esaki">Leo Esaki</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amos_E._Joel,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Amos E. Joel, Jr.">Amos E. Joel, Jr.</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Johan_%C3%85str%C3%B6m" title="Karl Johan Åström">Karl Johan Åström</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Y._Cho" title="Alfred Y. Cho">Alfred Y. Cho</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotfi_A._Zadeh" title="Lotfi A. Zadeh">Lotfi A. Zadeh</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._Heilmeier" title="George H. Heilmeier">George H. Heilmeier</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Pederson" title="Donald Pederson">Donald Pederson</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Concordia" title="Charles Concordia">Charles Concordia</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Template talk:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_Persons_of_the_Year" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time Persons of the Year"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_Persons_of_the_Year" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_Person_of_the_Year" title="Time Person of the Year">Time Persons of the Year</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1927–1950</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Chrysler" title="Walter Chrysler">Walter Chrysler</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Owen_D._Young" title="Owen D. Young">Owen D. Young</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mohandas Gandhi</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_S._Johnson" title="Hugh S. Johnson">Hugh S. Johnson</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie" title="Haile Selassie">Haile Selassie</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallis_Simpson" title="Wallis Simpson">Wallis Simpson</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soong_Mei-ling" title="Soong Mei-ling">Soong Mei-ling</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Byrnes" title="James F. Byrnes">James F. Byrnes</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_C._Marshall" title="George C. Marshall">George Marshall</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_S._Truman" title="Harry S. Truman">Harry S. Truman</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">The American Fighting-Man</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1951–1975</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Mosaddegh" title="Mohammad Mosaddegh">Mohammed Mosaddeq</a> (1951)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_II" title="Elizabeth II">Elizabeth II </a> (1952)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles" title="John Foster Dulles">John Foster Dulles</a> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlow_Curtice" title="Harlow Curtice">Harlow Curtice</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Revolution_of_1956" title="Hungarian Revolution of 1956">Hungarian Freedom Fighters</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev" title="Nikita Khrushchev">Nikita Khrushchev</a> (1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (1958)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dwight_D._Eisenhower" title="Dwight D. Eisenhower">Dwight D. Eisenhower</a> (1959)</li> <li> U.S. Scientists: <a href="/wiki/George_Beadle" title="George Beadle">George Beadle</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_Stark_Draper" title="Charles Stark Draper">Charles Draper</a> / <a href="/wiki/John_Franklin_Enders" title="John Franklin Enders">John Enders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Donald_A._Glaser" title="Donald A. Glaser">Donald A. Glaser</a> / <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Lederberg" title="Joshua Lederberg">Joshua Lederberg</a> / <a href="/wiki/Willard_Libby" title="Willard Libby">Willard Libby</a> / <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Mills_Purcell" title="Edward Mills Purcell">Edward Purcell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Isidor_Isaac_Rabi" title="Isidor Isaac Rabi">Isidor Rabi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a> / <a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shockley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edward_Teller" title="Edward Teller">Edward Teller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charles_H._Townes" title="Charles H. Townes">Charles Townes</a> / <a href="/wiki/James_Van_Allen" title="James Van Allen">James Van Allen</a> / <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns_Woodward" title="Robert Burns Woodward">Robert Woodward</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> (1961)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> (1962)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> (1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Westmoreland" title="William Westmoreland">William Westmoreland</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baby_boomers" title="Baby boomers">The Generation Twenty-Five and Under</a> (1966)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyndon_B._Johnson" title="Lyndon B. Johnson">Lyndon B. Johnson</a> (1967)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Apollo_8" title="Apollo 8">The Apollo 8 Astronauts</a>: <a href="/wiki/William_Anders" title="William Anders">William Anders</a> / <a href="/wiki/Frank_Borman" title="Frank Borman">Frank Borman</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jim_Lovell" title="Jim Lovell">Jim Lovell</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_America_(United_States)" title="Middle America (United States)">The Middle Americans</a> (1969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willy_Brandt" title="Willy Brandt">Willy Brandt</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a> / <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> (1972)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Sirica" title="John Sirica">John Sirica</a> (1973)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">King Faisal</a> (1974)</li> <li> American Women: <a href="/wiki/Susan_Brownmiller" title="Susan Brownmiller">Susan Brownmiller</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Byerly" title="Kathleen Byerly">Kathleen Byerly</a> / <a href="/wiki/Alison_Cheek" title="Alison Cheek">Alison Cheek</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jill_Ker_Conway" title="Jill Ker Conway">Jill Conway</a> / <a href="/wiki/Betty_Ford" title="Betty Ford">Betty Ford</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ella_Grasso" title="Ella Grasso">Ella Grasso</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carla_Anderson_Hills" title="Carla Anderson Hills">Carla Hills</a> / <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Billie_Jean_King" title="Billie Jean King">Billie Jean King</a> / <a href="/wiki/Susie_Sharp" title="Susie Sharp">Susie Sharp</a> / <a href="/wiki/Carol_Sutton_(journalist)" title="Carol Sutton (journalist)">Carol Sutton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Addie_L._Wyatt" title="Addie L. Wyatt">Addie Wyatt</a> (1975)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1976–2000</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anwar_Sadat" title="Anwar Sadat">Anwar Sadat</a> (1977)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_computer" title="Personal computer">The Computer</a> (1982)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yuri_Andropov" title="Yuri Andropov">Yuri Andropov</a> (1983)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Ueberroth" title="Peter Ueberroth">Peter Ueberroth</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xiaoping" title="Deng Xiaoping">Deng Xiaoping</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corazon_Aquino" title="Corazon Aquino">Corazon Aquino</a> (1986)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">The Endangered Earth</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a> (1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Turner" title="Ted Turner">Ted Turner</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> (1992)</li> <li> The Peacemakers: <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> / <a href="/wiki/F._W._de_Klerk" title="F. W. de Klerk">F. W. de Klerk</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin</a> (1993)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a> (1994)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newt_Gingrich" title="Newt Gingrich">Newt Gingrich</a> (1995)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Ho" title="David Ho">David Ho</a> (1996)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Grove" title="Andrew Grove">Andrew Grove</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ken_Starr" title="Ken Starr">Ken Starr</a> (1998)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeff_Bezos" title="Jeff Bezos">Jeff Bezos</a> (1999)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2000)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2001–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudy_Giuliani" title="Rudy Giuliani">Rudolph Giuliani</a> (2001)</li> <li> The Whistleblowers: <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Cooper_(accountant)" title="Cynthia Cooper (accountant)">Cynthia Cooper</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coleen_Rowley" title="Coleen Rowley">Coleen Rowley</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sherron_Watkins" title="Sherron Watkins">Sherron Watkins</a> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">The American Soldier</a> (2003)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">George W. Bush</a> (2004)</li> <li> The Good Samaritans: <a href="/wiki/Bono" title="Bono">Bono</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a> / <a href="/wiki/Melinda_French_Gates" title="Melinda French Gates">Melinda Gates</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/You_(Time_Person_of_the_Year)" title="You (Time Person of the Year)">You</a> (2006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Putin" title="Vladimir Putin">Vladimir Putin</a> (2007)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2008)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Bernanke" title="Ben Bernanke">Ben Bernanke</a> (2009)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Zuckerberg" title="Mark Zuckerberg">Mark Zuckerberg</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protest" title="Protest">The Protester</a> (2011)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a> (2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a> (2013)</li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Responses_to_the_West_African_Ebola_virus_epidemic" title="Responses to the West African Ebola virus epidemic">Ebola Fighters</a>: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. <a href="/wiki/Kent_Brantly" title="Kent Brantly">Kent Brantly</a> / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / <a href="/wiki/Salome_Karwah" title="Salome Karwah">Salome Karwah</a> (2014)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Merkel" title="Angela Merkel">Angela Merkel</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Trump" title="Donald Trump">Donald Trump</a> (2016)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/MeToo_movement" title="MeToo movement">The Silence Breakers</a> (2017)</li> <li> The Guardians: <a href="/wiki/Jamal_Khashoggi" title="Jamal Khashoggi">Jamal Khashoggi</a> / <a href="/wiki/Maria_Ressa" title="Maria Ressa">Maria Ressa</a> / <a href="/wiki/Wa_Lone" title="Wa Lone">Wa Lone</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kyaw_Soe_Oo" title="Kyaw Soe Oo">Kyaw Soe Oo</a> / Staff of <a href="/wiki/Capital_Gazette_shooting" title="Capital Gazette shooting">The Capital</a> (2018)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a> (2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Biden" title="Joe Biden">Joe Biden</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> (2020)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elon_Musk" title="Elon Musk">Elon Musk</a> (2021)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volodymyr_Zelenskyy" title="Volodymyr Zelenskyy">Volodymyr Zelenskyy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ukrainians" title="Ukrainians">Spirit of Ukraine</a> (2022)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Swift" title="Taylor Swift">Taylor Swift</a> (2023)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Beckman_Coulter" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Beckman_Coulter" title="Template:Beckman Coulter"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Beckman_Coulter" title="Template talk:Beckman Coulter"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Beckman_Coulter" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Beckman Coulter"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Beckman_Coulter" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Beckman_Coulter" title="Beckman Coulter">Beckman Coulter</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_O._Beckman" class="mw-redirect" title="Arnold O. Beckman">Arnold O. Beckman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallace_H._Coulter" title="Wallace H. Coulter">Wallace H. Coulter</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shockley</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Products</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coulter_counter" title="Coulter counter">Coulter counter</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Facilities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shockley_Semiconductor_Laboratory" title="Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory">Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related companies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danaher_Corporation" title="Danaher Corporation">Danaher Corporation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Template talk:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_20th_Century" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Time_100:_The_Most_Important_People_of_the_Century" title="Time 100: The Most Important People of the Century">Time 100: The Most Important People of the 20th Century</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leaders & revolutionaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston_Churchill" title="Winston Churchill">Winston Churchill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Gorbachev" title="Mikhail Gorbachev">Mikhail Gorbachev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh" title="Ho Chi Minh">Ho Chi Minh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Mandela" title="Nelson Mandela">Nelson Mandela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Roosevelt" title="Eleanor Roosevelt">Eleanor Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tank_Man" title="Tank Man">Unknown Tiananmen Square rebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lech_Wa%C5%82%C4%99sa" title="Lech Wałęsa">Lech Wałęsa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists & entertainers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Armstrong" title="Louis Armstrong">Louis Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucille_Ball" title="Lucille Ball">Lucille Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marlon_Brando" title="Marlon Brando">Marlon Brando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coco_Chanel" title="Coco Chanel">Coco Chanel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlie_Chaplin" title="Charlie Chaplin">Charlie Chaplin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Le_Corbusier" title="Le Corbusier">Le Corbusier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Dylan" title="Bob Dylan">Bob Dylan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._S._Eliot" title="T. S. Eliot">T. S. Eliot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aretha_Franklin" title="Aretha Franklin">Aretha Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Graham" title="Martha Graham">Martha Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Henson" title="Jim Henson">Jim Henson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joyce" title="James Joyce">James Joyce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pablo_Picasso" title="Pablo Picasso">Pablo Picasso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rodgers_and_Oscar_Hammerstein" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein">Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bart_Simpson" title="Bart Simpson">Bart Simpson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Sinatra" title="Frank Sinatra">Frank Sinatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_Spielberg" title="Steven Spielberg">Steven Spielberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igor_Stravinsky" title="Igor Stravinsky">Igor Stravinsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Builders & titans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Bechtel_Sr." title="Stephen Bechtel Sr.">Stephen Bechtel Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Burnett" title="Leo Burnett">Leo Burnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willis_Carrier" title="Willis Carrier">Willis Carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney" title="Walt Disney">Walt Disney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Ford" title="Henry Ford">Henry Ford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Gates" title="Bill Gates">Bill Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amadeo_Giannini" title="Amadeo Giannini">Amadeo Giannini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Kroc" title="Ray Kroc">Ray Kroc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Est%C3%A9e_Lauder_(businesswoman)" title="Estée Lauder (businesswoman)">Estée Lauder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Levitt" title="William Levitt">William Levitt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucky_Luciano" title="Lucky Luciano">Lucky Luciano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_B._Mayer" title="Louis B. Mayer">Louis B. Mayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Merrill" title="Charles E. Merrill">Charles E. Merrill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akio_Morita" title="Akio Morita">Akio Morita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Rozelle" title="Pete Rozelle">Pete Rozelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Sarnoff" title="David Sarnoff">David Sarnoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juan_Trippe" title="Juan Trippe">Juan Trippe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam_Walton" title="Sam Walton">Sam Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_J._Watson_Jr." title="Thomas J. Watson Jr.">Thomas J. Watson Jr.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientists & thinkers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Baekeland" title="Leo Baekeland">Leo Baekeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_H._Goddard" title="Robert H. Goddard">Robert H. Goddard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Keynes" title="John Maynard Keynes">John Maynard Keynes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leakey_family" title="Leakey family">Leakey family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Piaget" title="Jean Piaget">Jean Piaget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Shockley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Crick" title="Francis Crick">Francis Crick</a> & <a href="/wiki/James_Watson" title="James Watson">James Watson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wright_brothers" title="Wright brothers">Wright brothers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Heroes & icons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G.I." title="G.I.">The American G.I.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana,_Princess_of_Wales" title="Diana, Princess of Wales">Lady Diana Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_Frank" title="Anne Frank">Anne Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Graham" title="Billy Graham">Billy Graham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Che_Guevara" title="Che Guevara">Che Guevara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Hillary" title="Edmund Hillary">Edmund Hillary</a> & <a href="/wiki/Tenzing_Norgay" title="Tenzing Norgay">Tenzing Norgay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Keller" title="Helen Keller">Helen Keller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy_family" title="Kennedy family">Kennedy family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Lindbergh" title="Charles Lindbergh">Charles Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvey_Milk" title="Harvey Milk">Harvey Milk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marilyn_Monroe" title="Marilyn Monroe">Marilyn Monroe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmeline_Pankhurst" title="Emmeline Pankhurst">Emmeline Pankhurst</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pel%C3%A9" title="Pelé">Pelé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrei_Sakharov" title="Andrei Sakharov">Andrei Sakharov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_W." title="Bill W.">Bill W.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163415#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163415#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q163415#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000109203822">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/84393841">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/1760985/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJbRdWKxTW7vcDvvrRjpyd">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/120275147">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n91026074">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb151125332">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb151125332">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00526149">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jx20071203021&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p134485106">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/21585">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000095730&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC2018P7719">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810535268705606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007333042005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA0127751X?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:shockley.william">zbMATH</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://musicbrainz.org/artist/9b5a9783-6597-483f-ac6a-ea1c72f052db">MusicBrainz</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd120275147.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/120275147">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/111534720">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6df6stk">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" 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