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Kernel - Wikipedia

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mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Kernel rootpage-Kernel skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Vai al contenuto</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Sito"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Menu principale" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Menu principale</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Menu principale</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">sposta nella barra laterale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">nascondi</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigazione </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Pagina_principale" title="Visita la pagina principale [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Pagina principale</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:UltimeModifiche" title="Elenco delle ultime modifiche del sito [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Ultime modifiche</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:PaginaCasuale" title="Mostra una pagina a caso [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Una voce a caso</span></a></li><li id="n-nearby-pages-title" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:NelleVicinanze"><span>Nelle vicinanze</span></a></li><li id="n-vetrina" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vetrina"><span>Vetrina</span></a></li><li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Aiuto" title="Pagine di aiuto"><span>Aiuto</span></a></li><li id="n-Sportello-informazioni" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Sportello_informazioni"><span>Sportello informazioni</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-Comunità" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-Comunità" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Comunità </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portale:Comunit%C3%A0" title="Descrizione del progetto, cosa puoi fare, dove trovare le cose"><span>Portale Comunità</span></a></li><li id="n-villagepump" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bar"><span>Bar</span></a></li><li id="n-wikipediano" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikipediano"><span>Il Wikipediano</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a 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value="Speciale:Ricerca"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Ricerca</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Strumenti personali"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Aspetto"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Modifica la dimensione, la larghezza e il colore del testo" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Aspetto" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Aspetto</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_it.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=it" class=""><span>Fai una donazione</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:CreaUtenza&amp;returnto=Kernel" title="Si consiglia di registrarsi e di effettuare l&#039;accesso, anche se non è obbligatorio" class=""><span>registrati</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:Entra&amp;returnto=Kernel" title="Si consiglia di effettuare l&#039;accesso, anche se non è obbligatorio [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>entra</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Altre opzioni" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Strumenti personali" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Strumenti personali</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="Menu utente" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="//donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&amp;utm_medium=sidebar&amp;utm_campaign=C13_it.wikipedia.org&amp;uselang=it"><span>Fai una donazione</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:CreaUtenza&amp;returnto=Kernel" title="Si consiglia di registrarsi e di effettuare l&#039;accesso, anche se non è obbligatorio"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>registrati</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:Entra&amp;returnto=Kernel" title="Si consiglia di effettuare l&#039;accesso, anche se non è obbligatorio [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>entra</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pagine per utenti anonimi <a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Benvenuto" aria-label="Ulteriori informazioni sulla contribuzione"><span>ulteriori informazioni</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:MieiContributi" title="Un elenco delle modifiche fatte da questo indirizzo IP [y]" accesskey="y"><span>contributi</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:MieDiscussioni" title="Discussioni sulle modifiche fatte da questo indirizzo IP [n]" accesskey="n"><span>discussioni</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"><!-- CentralNotice --></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Sito"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Indice" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Indice</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">sposta nella barra laterale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">nascondi</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">Inizio</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Descrizione" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descrizione"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Descrizione</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descrizione-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classificazione" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classificazione"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classificazione</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classificazione-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Attiva/disattiva la sottosezione Classificazione</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classificazione-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kernel_monolitici" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kernel_monolitici"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Kernel monolitici</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kernel_monolitici-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microkernel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microkernel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Microkernel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microkernel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kernel_monolitici_e_microkernel:_confronto" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kernel_monolitici_e_microkernel:_confronto"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Kernel monolitici e microkernel: confronto</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kernel_monolitici_e_microkernel:_confronto-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kernel_ibridi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kernel_ibridi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Kernel ibridi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kernel_ibridi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esokernel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esokernel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Esokernel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esokernel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-No_Kernel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#No_Kernel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>No Kernel</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-No_Kernel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Note" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Note"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Note</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Note-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliografia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliografia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Bibliografia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliografia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Voci_correlate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voci_correlate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Voci correlate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voci_correlate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Altri_progetti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Altri_progetti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Altri progetti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Altri_progetti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collegamenti_esterni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collegamenti_esterni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Collegamenti esterni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collegamenti_esterni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Indice" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Mostra/Nascondi l&#039;indice" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Mostra/Nascondi l&#039;indice</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kernel</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Vai a una voce in un&#039;altra lingua. Disponibile in 78 lingue" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">78 lingue</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedryfstelselkern" title="Bedryfstelselkern - afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Bedryfstelselkern" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - tedesco svizzero" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="tedesco svizzero" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A9_(%D9%86%D8%B8%D9%85_%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%BA%D9%8A%D9%84)" title="نواة (نظم تشغيل) - arabo" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نواة (نظم تشغيل)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="arabo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="কাৰ্ণেল - assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="কাৰ্ণেল" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleu_(inform%C3%A1tica)" title="Nucleu (informática) - asturiano" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Nucleu (informática)" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="asturiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BCv%C9%99_(komp%C3%BCter)" title="Nüvə (kompüter) - azerbaigiano" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Nüvə (kompüter)" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="azerbaigiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%DA%A9%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%A9(%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%85_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C)" title="چکیردک(ایشلتیم سیستمی) - South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="چکیردک(ایشلتیم سیستمی)" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Ядро аперацыйнай сістэмы - bielorusso" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ядро аперацыйнай сістэмы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="bielorusso" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_(%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0)" title="Ядро (операционна система) - bulgaro" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Ядро (операционна система)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="bulgaro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_(%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8)" title="কার্নেল (কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান) - bengalese" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কার্নেল (কম্পিউটার বিজ্ঞান)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="bengalese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - bosniaco" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="bosniaco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucli_del_sistema_operatiu" title="Nucli del sistema operatiu - catalano" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nucli del sistema operatiu" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="catalano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A1dro_opera%C4%8Dn%C3%ADho_syst%C3%A9mu" title="Jádro operačního systému - ceco" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Jádro operačního systému" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="ceco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerne_(styresystem)" title="Kerne (styresystem) - danese" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kerne (styresystem)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="danese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(Betriebssystem)" title="Kernel (Betriebssystem) - tedesco" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kernel (Betriebssystem)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="tedesco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dend%C4%B1k_(komputer)" title="Dendık (komputer) - Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Dendık (komputer)" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%85%CF%81%CE%AE%CE%BD%CE%B1%CF%82_(%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%AD%CF%82)" title="Πυρήνας (υπολογιστές) - greco" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πυρήνας (υπολογιστές)" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="greco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)" title="Kernel (operating system) - inglese" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Kernel (operating system)" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="inglese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerno_(operaciumo)" title="Kerno (operaciumo) - esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kerno (operaciumo)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_(inform%C3%A1tica)" title="Núcleo (informática) - spagnolo" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Núcleo (informática)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="spagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuum_(informaatika)" title="Tuum (informaatika) - estone" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Tuum (informaatika)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="estone" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nukleo_(informatika)" title="Nukleo (informatika) - basco" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nukleo (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="basco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87_(%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%84)" title="هسته (سیستم‌عامل) - persiano" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="هسته (سیستم‌عامل)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="persiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4ytt%C3%B6j%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4n_ydin" title="Käyttöjärjestelmän ydin - finlandese" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Käyttöjärjestelmän ydin" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="finlandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noyau_de_syst%C3%A8me_d%27exploitation" title="Noyau de système d&#039;exploitation - francese" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Noyau de système d&#039;exploitation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="francese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - galiziano" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="galiziano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%91%D7%94_(%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A2%D7%9C%D7%94)" title="ליבה (מערכות הפעלה) - ebraico" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ליבה (מערכות הפעלה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ebraico" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B2_(%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%B0)" title="कर्नल (कम्प्यूटर) - hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कर्नल (कम्प्यूटर)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jezgra_(ra%C4%8Dunarstvo)" title="Jezgra (računarstvo) - croato" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Jezgra (računarstvo)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="croato" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rendszermag" title="Rendszermag - ungherese" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rendszermag" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ungherese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleo_(informatica)" title="Nucleo (informatica) - interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Nucleo (informatica)" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(ilmu_komputer)" title="Kernel (ilmu komputer) - indonesiano" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kernel (ilmu komputer)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="indonesiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - ilocano" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="ilocano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%BDrikerfiskjarni" title="Stýrikerfiskjarni - islandese" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Stýrikerfiskjarni" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="islandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AB%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8D%E3%83%AB" title="カーネル - giapponese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="カーネル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="giapponese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%98" title="ოპერაციული სისტემის ბირთვი - georgiano" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოპერაციული სისტემის ბირთვი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="georgiano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%BB%A4%EB%84%90_(%EC%BB%B4%ED%93%A8%ED%8C%85)" title="커널 (컴퓨팅) - coreano" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="커널 (컴퓨팅)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="coreano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - curdo" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="curdo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleus_(informatica)" title="Nucleus (informatica) - latino" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Nucleus (informatica)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="latino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - lombardo" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="lombardo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%87" title="ແກນກາງ - lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ແກນກາງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branduolys_(OS)" title="Branduolys (OS) - lituano" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Branduolys (OS)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="lituano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodols_(oper%C4%93t%C4%81jsist%C4%93ma)" title="Kodols (operētājsistēma) - lettone" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kodols (operētājsistēma)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="lettone" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - malgascio" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="malgascio" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_(%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Јадро (информатика) - macedone" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Јадро (информатика)" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="macedone" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%BD_(%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%99%E0%B5%8D)" title="കെർണൽ (കമ്പ്യൂട്ടിങ്) - malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കെർണൽ (കമ്പ്യൂട്ടിങ്)" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D3%A9%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC" title="Цөмийн горим - mongolo" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Цөмийн горим" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="mongolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="केर्नेल - marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="केर्नेल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inti_(sains_komputer)" title="Inti (sains komputer) - malese" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Inti (sains komputer)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="malese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%80%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%B2%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BA_(%E1%80%80%E1%80%BD%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%95%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B0%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC)" title="ကာနဲလ် (ကွန်ပျူတာ) - birmano" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ကာနဲလ် (ကွန်ပျူတာ)" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="birmano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - olandese" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="olandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operativsystemkjerne" title="Operativsystemkjerne - norvegese nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Operativsystemkjerne" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="norvegese nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kjerne_(operativsystem)" title="Kjerne (operativsystem) - norvegese bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjerne (operativsystem)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="norvegese bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B2_(%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%AE)" title="ਕਰਨਲ (ਆਪਰੇਟਿੰਗ ਸਿਸਟਮ) - punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਕਰਨਲ (ਆਪਰੇਟਿੰਗ ਸਿਸਟਮ)" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%85dro_systemu_operacyjnego" title="Jądro systemu operacyjnego - polacco" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Jądro systemu operacyjnego" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="polacco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%BAcleo_(sistema_operacional)" title="Núcleo (sistema operacional) - portoghese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Núcleo (sistema operacional)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="portoghese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chira_(llamk%27achiy_llikacha)" title="Chira (llamk&#039;achiy llikacha) - quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Chira (llamk&#039;achiy llikacha)" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleu_(sistem_de_operare)" title="Nucleu (sistem de operare) - rumeno" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Nucleu (sistem de operare)" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="rumeno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Ядро операционной системы - russo" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Ядро операционной системы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="russo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - siciliano" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="siciliano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - serbo-croato" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="serbo-croato" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%BA_(%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%AB%E0%B6%9A)" title="කර්නලය (පරිගණක) - singalese" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කර්නලය (පරිගණක)" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="singalese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(computer_science)" title="Kernel (computer science) - Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Kernel (computer science)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jadro_(informatika)" title="Jadro (informatika) - slovacco" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Jadro (informatika)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="slovacco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jedro_(ra%C4%8Dunalni%C5%A1tvo)" title="Jedro (računalništvo) - sloveno" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Jedro (računalništvo)" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="sloveno" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - serbo" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="serbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operativsystemk%C3%A4rna" title="Operativsystemkärna - svedese" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Operativsystemkärna" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="svedese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%81_(%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%81)" title="కెర్నలు (కంప్యూటరు) - telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="కెర్నలు (కంప్యూటరు)" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87" title="ใจกลาง - thailandese" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ใจกลาง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="thailandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87ekirdek_(bilgisayar_bilimi)" title="Çekirdek (bilgisayar bilimi) - turco" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çekirdek (bilgisayar bilimi)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="turco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Ядро операційної системи - ucraino" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ядро операційної системи" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="ucraino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operatsion_tizim_yadrosi" title="Operatsion tizim yadrosi - uzbeco" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Operatsion tizim yadrosi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="uzbeco" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel" title="Kernel - veneto" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Kernel" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="veneto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nh%C3%A2n_h%E1%BB%87_%C4%91i%E1%BB%81u_h%C3%A0nh" title="Nhân hệ điều hành - vietnamita" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nhân hệ điều hành" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="vietnamita" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E6%A0%B8" title="内核 - wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="内核" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%85%E6%A0%B8" title="内核 - cinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="内核" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="cinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E6%A0%B8" title="內核 - cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="內核" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9662#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Modifica collegamenti interlinguistici" class="wbc-editpage">Modifica collegamenti</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespace"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Generale </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:PuntanoQui/Kernel" title="Elenco di tutte le pagine che sono collegate a questa [j]" accesskey="j"><span>Puntano qui</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:ModificheCorrelate/Kernel" rel="nofollow" title="Elenco delle ultime modifiche alle pagine collegate a questa [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Modifiche correlate</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Speciale:PagineSpeciali" title="Elenco di tutte le pagine speciali [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Pagine speciali</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;oldid=140550779" title="Collegamento permanente a questa versione di questa pagina"><span>Link permanente</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=info" title="Ulteriori informazioni su questa pagina"><span>Informazioni pagina</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:Cita&amp;page=Kernel&amp;id=140550779&amp;wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Informazioni su come citare questa pagina"><span>Cita questa voce</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:UrlShortener&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fit.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKernel"><span>Ottieni URL breve</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:QrCode&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fit.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FKernel"><span>Scarica codice QR</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Stampa/esporta </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-create_a_book" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:Libro&amp;bookcmd=book_creator&amp;referer=Kernel"><span>Crea un libro</span></a></li><li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Speciale:DownloadAsPdf&amp;page=Kernel&amp;action=show-download-screen"><span>Scarica come PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;printable=yes" title="Versione stampabile di questa pagina [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Versione stampabile</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In altri progetti </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kernel" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9662" title="Collegamento all&#039;elemento connesso dell&#039;archivio dati [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Elemento Wikidata</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Strumenti pagine"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Aspetto"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Aspetto</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">sposta nella barra laterale</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">nascondi</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">Da Wikipedia, l&#039;enciclopedia libera.</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="it" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r130658281">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .hatnote.nota-disambigua{clear:both;margin-top:0;padding:.05em .5em}</style> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r139142988">.mw-parser-output .hatnote-content{align-items:center;display:flex}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-icon{flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-icon img{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-text{font-style:italic}body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .hatnote{border:1px solid #CCC;display:flex;margin:.5em 0;padding:.2em .5em}body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .hatnote-text{padding-left:.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-icon{padding-right:8px}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-icon img{height:auto;width:16px}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .hatnote a.new{color:#d73333}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .hatnote a.new:visited{color:#a55858}</style> <div class="hatnote noprint nota-disambigua"> <div class="hatnote-content"><span class="noviewer hatnote-icon" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/18px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/27px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Nota_disambigua.svg/36px-Nota_disambigua.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <span class="hatnote-text"><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Disambiguazione" title="Aiuto:Disambiguazione">Disambiguazione</a> – Se stai cercando altri significati, vedi <b><a href="/wiki/Kernel_(disambigua)" class="mw-disambig" title="Kernel (disambigua)">Kernel (disambigua)</a></b>.</span></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-simple.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Kernel-simple.svg/220px-Kernel-simple.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Kernel-simple.svg/330px-Kernel-simple.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Kernel-simple.svg/440px-Kernel-simple.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="259" data-file-height="317" /></a><figcaption>Astrazione dal <a href="/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a> all'<a href="/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware">hardware</a> passando per il <i>kernel</i></figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Informatica" title="Informatica">informatica</a>, il <b>kernel</b> (<a href="/wiki/Alfabeto_fonetico_internazionale" title="Alfabeto fonetico internazionale">AFI</a>: <a href="/wiki/Aiuto:IPA_per_l%27inglese" title="Aiuto:IPA per l&#39;inglese"><span title="Questa è una trascrizione IPA della pronuncia. Vedere l&#39;alfabeto fonetico internazionale." class="IPA">[ˈkəːnəl]</span></a>) o <b>nucleo</b> è un <a href="/wiki/Programma_(informatica)" title="Programma (informatica)">programma</a> situato al centro del <a href="/wiki/Sistema_operativo" title="Sistema operativo">sistema operativo</a> che ha generalmente un controllo completo dell'intero sistema<sup id="cite_ref-Linfo_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Linfo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> e fornisce un accesso sicuro e controllato dell'<a href="/wiki/Hardware" title="Hardware">hardware</a> ai <a href="/wiki/Processo_(informatica)" title="Processo (informatica)">processi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Esecuzione_(informatica)" title="Esecuzione (informatica)">esecuzione</a> sul <a href="/wiki/Elaboratore" class="mw-redirect" title="Elaboratore">computer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> Dato che possono eventualmente esserne eseguiti simultaneamente più di uno, il kernel può avere anche la responsabilità di assegnare una porzione di tempo-macchina (<i><a href="/wiki/Scheduling" class="mw-redirect" title="Scheduling">scheduling</a></i>) e di accesso all'hardware a ciascun programma (<i><a href="/wiki/Multitasking" title="Multitasking">multitasking</a></i>)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Descrizione">Descrizione</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=1" title="Modifica la sezione Descrizione" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Descrizione"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Un kernel non è strettamente necessario per far funzionare un computer. I <a href="/wiki/Programma_(informatica)" title="Programma (informatica)">programmi</a> possono essere infatti direttamente caricati ed eseguiti sulla macchina, a patto che i loro <a href="/wiki/Programmatore" title="Programmatore">sviluppatori</a> ritengano necessario fare a meno del supporto del sistema operativo. </p><p>Questa era la modalità di funzionamento tipica dei primi computer, che venivano resettati prima di eseguire un nuovo programma. In un secondo tempo, alcuni programmi accessori come i program loader e i <a href="/wiki/Debugger" title="Debugger">debugger</a> venivano lanciati da una <a href="/wiki/Read_Only_Memory" title="Read Only Memory">memoria a sola lettura</a>, o fatti risiedere in <a href="/wiki/Memoria_(informatica)" title="Memoria (informatica)">memoria</a> durante le transizioni del computer da un'<a href="/wiki/Applicazione_(informatica)" title="Applicazione (informatica)">applicazione</a> all'altra: essi formarono la base di fatto per la creazione dei primi sistemi operativi. </p><p>Un'altra situazione in cui l'assenza di sistema operativo è auspicabile è l'esempio dei <a href="/wiki/Microcontrollore" title="Microcontrollore">microcontrollori</a> monolitici. </p><p>L'accesso diretto al kernel da parte di un utente/<a href="/wiki/Sistemista" title="Sistemista">amministratore</a> può avvenire in modalità <a href="/wiki/User_mode" title="User mode">user mode</a> o <a href="/wiki/Kernel_mode" title="Kernel mode">kernel mode</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classificazione">Classificazione</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=2" title="Modifica la sezione Classificazione" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Classificazione"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:OS-structure2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/220px-OS-structure2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/330px-OS-structure2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/OS-structure2.svg/440px-OS-structure2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1499" data-file-height="383" /></a><figcaption>Confronto tra i diversi kernel</figcaption></figure> <p>L'accesso diretto all'hardware può essere anche molto complesso, quindi i kernel usualmente implementano uno o più tipi di astrazione dall'hardware, il cosiddetto <i>livello di astrazione dell'hardware</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Hardware_abstraction_layer" title="Hardware abstraction layer">hardware abstraction layer</a></i> o <i>HAL</i>). Queste astrazioni servono a "nascondere" la complessità e a fornire un'interfaccia pulita e uniforme all'hardware sottostante, in modo da semplificare il lavoro degli sviluppatori. </p><p>I kernel si possono classificare in quattro categorie, in base al grado di astrazione dell'hardware: </p> <ul><li><i>Kernel monolitici</i>, che implementano direttamente una completa astrazione dell'hardware sottostante.</li> <li><i>Microkernel</i>, che forniscono un insieme ristretto e semplice di astrazione dell'hardware e usano software (chiamati <a href="/wiki/Device_driver" class="mw-redirect" title="Device driver">device driver</a> o <a href="/wiki/Server" title="Server">server</a>) per fornire maggiori funzionalità.</li> <li><i>Kernel ibridi</i> (o <i>microkernel modificati</i>), che si differenziano dai microkernel puri per l'implementazione di alcune funzioni aggiuntive al fine di incrementare le prestazioni.</li> <li><i>Esokernel</i>, che rimuovono tutte le limitazioni legate all'astrazione dell'hardware e si limitano a garantire l'accesso concorrente allo stesso, permettendo alle singole applicazioni di implementare autonomamente le tradizionali astrazioni del sistema operativo per mezzo di speciali <a href="/wiki/Libreria_software" class="mw-redirect" title="Libreria software">librerie</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kernel_monolitici">Kernel monolitici</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=3" title="Modifica la sezione Kernel monolitici" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Kernel monolitici"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-monolithic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kernel-monolithic.svg/220px-Kernel-monolithic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kernel-monolithic.svg/330px-Kernel-monolithic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Kernel-monolithic.svg/440px-Kernel-monolithic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Rappresentazione grafica di un kernel monolitico</figcaption></figure> <p>L'approccio monolitico definisce un'interfaccia virtuale di alto livello sull'hardware e software, con un set di primitive o <a href="/wiki/Chiamata_di_sistema" title="Chiamata di sistema">chiamate di sistema</a> per implementare servizi di sistema operativo come <i>gestione dei processi</i>, <i>multitasking</i> e <i>gestione della memoria</i>, in diversi moduli che girano in <i>modalità supervisore</i>. </p><p>Anche se ogni modulo che serve queste operazioni è separato dal resto, l'integrazione del codice è molto stretta e difficile da fare in maniera corretta e, siccome tutti i moduli operano nello stesso spazio, un bug in uno di essi può bloccare l'intero sistema. Tuttavia, quando l'implementazione è completa e sicura, la stretta integrazione interna dei componenti rende un buon kernel monolitico estremamente efficiente. </p><p>Il più considerevole svantaggio dei kernel monolitici è tuttavia che non è possibile aggiungere un nuovo dispositivo hardware senza aggiungere il relativo modulo al kernel, operazione che richiede la <a href="/wiki/Compilatore" title="Compilatore">ricompilazione del kernel</a>. In alternativa è possibile compilare un kernel con tutti i moduli di supporto all'hardware, al costo di aumentarne molto la dimensione. Tuttavia i kernel monolitici più moderni come il <a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">kernel Linux</a> e <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a> possono caricare moduli in fase di esecuzione, se sono previsti in fase di configurazione (la fase di configurazione è la fase che precede quella di compilazione, durante la quale si può scegliere quali feature o driver debbano far parte del nuovo kernel), permettendo così l'estensione del kernel quando richiesto, mantenendo al contempo le dimensioni del codice nello spazio del kernel al minimo indispensabile. </p><p>Esempi di kernel monolitici: </p> <ul><li>I tradizionali kernel <a href="/wiki/UNIX" class="mw-redirect" title="UNIX">UNIX</a>, quali ad esempio i kernel <a href="/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution" title="Berkeley Software Distribution">BSD</a>.</li> <li>Il <a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">kernel Linux</a>.</li> <li>Kernel di ricerca come <a href="/w/index.php?title=AGNIX&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="AGNIX (la pagina non esiste)">AGNIX</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microkernel">Microkernel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=4" title="Modifica la sezione Microkernel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Microkernel"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r130657691">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .vedi-anche{font-size:95%}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r139142988"> <div class="hatnote noprint vedi-anche"> <div class="hatnote-content"><span class="noviewer hatnote-icon" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/18px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/27px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg/36px-Magnifying_glass_icon_mgx2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="286" data-file-height="280" /></span></span> <span class="hatnote-text">Lo stesso argomento in dettaglio: <b><a href="/wiki/Microkernel" class="mw-redirect" title="Microkernel">Microkernel</a></b>.</span></div> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-microkernel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Kernel-microkernel.svg/220px-Kernel-microkernel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Kernel-microkernel.svg/330px-Kernel-microkernel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Kernel-microkernel.svg/440px-Kernel-microkernel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Rappresentazione grafica di un microkernel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IBM_AIX_logo_(2021).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg/220px-IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg/330px-IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg/440px-IBM_AIX_logo_%282021%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="123" data-file-height="49" /></a><figcaption>Logo <a href="/wiki/AIX_(sistema_operativo)" title="AIX (sistema operativo)">AIX (sistema operativo)</a>, sistema operativo, basato su microkernel</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BeOS_screenshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/BeOS_screenshot.png/220px-BeOS_screenshot.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/BeOS_screenshot.png/330px-BeOS_screenshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/BeOS_screenshot.png/440px-BeOS_screenshot.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/BeOS" title="BeOS">BeOS</a>, altro sistema operativo basato su microkernel</figcaption></figure> <p>L'approccio microkernel consiste nel definire un kernel principale che fornisce esclusivamente un set di <i>primitive</i> o <a href="/wiki/Chiamata_di_sistema" title="Chiamata di sistema">chiamate di sistema</a> per implementare servizi minimali del sistema operativo quali gestione dei <a href="/wiki/Thread_(informatica)" title="Thread (informatica)">thread</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spazio_di_indirizzamento&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spazio di indirizzamento (la pagina non esiste)">spazi di indirizzamento</a> o <a href="/wiki/Comunicazione_tra_processi" title="Comunicazione tra processi">comunicazione interprocesso</a>. Sopra tale kernel minimale (da cui il prefisso "micro") vengono innestati dei server, ovvero programmi separati dal kernel che comunicano con questo tramite le suddette chiamate di sistema per implementare le varie funzionalità del sistema. </p><p>L'obiettivo principale è la separazione delle implementazioni dei servizi di base dalle strutture operative del sistema. Per esempio, il processo di blocco (locking) dell'input/output può essere implementato come modulo server a livello utente. Questi moduli a livello utente, usati per fornire servizi di alto livello al sistema, sono modulari e semplificano la struttura e la progettazione del kernel. Un servizio server che smette di funzionare non provoca il blocco dell'intero sistema, e può essere riavviato indipendentemente dal resto. </p><p>Vi sono alcuni tipi di microkernel che non possono essere definiti esattamente come tali, perché non implementano alcune funzioni sotto forma di server, sebbene siano caratterizzati da altre prerogative che definiscono i microkernel. Il più noto di essi è <a href="/wiki/AmigaOS#Exec" title="AmigaOS">Exec</a>, abbreviazione di Executive Multitasking (e il suo diretto successore <a href="/wiki/AmigaOS#ExecSG" title="AmigaOS">ExecSG</a>) che è il kernel di <a href="/wiki/AmigaOS" title="AmigaOS">AmigaOS</a>. </p><p>Esempi di microkernel e Sistemi operativi basati su microkernel: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIX_(sistema_operativo)" title="AIX (sistema operativo)">AIX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoeba_(sistema_operativo)" title="Amoeba (sistema operativo)">Amoeba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BeOS" title="BeOS">BeOS</a> e il suo successore <a href="/wiki/Haiku_(sistema_operativo)" title="Haiku (sistema operativo)">Haiku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ChorusOS" title="ChorusOS">Chorus microkernel</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=EROS&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="EROS (la pagina non esiste)">EROS</a></li> <li>FreeRTOS</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=K42&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="K42 (la pagina non esiste)">K42</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KeyKOS&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="KeyKOS (la pagina non esiste)">KeyKOS</a> (a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanokernel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nanokernel (la pagina non esiste)">nanokernel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LSE/OS&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="LSE/OS (la pagina non esiste)">LSE/OS</a> (a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nanokernel&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nanokernel (la pagina non esiste)">nanokernel</a>)</li> <li>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=L4_microkernel_family&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="L4 microkernel family (la pagina non esiste)">L4 microkernel family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mach_(kernel)" title="Mach (kernel)">Mach</a><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=MERT&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="MERT (la pagina non esiste)">MERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minix" class="mw-redirect" title="Minix">Minix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MorphOS" title="MorphOS">MorphOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QNX" title="QNX">QNX</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=RadiOS&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="RadiOS (la pagina non esiste)">RadiOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redox_(sistema_operativo)" title="Redox (sistema operativo)">Redox</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Spring_operating_system&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Spring operating system (la pagina non esiste)">Spring operating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbian_OS" title="Symbian OS">Symbian OS</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=VSTa&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="VSTa (la pagina non esiste)">VSTa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HarmonyOS" title="HarmonyOS">HarmonyOS</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kernel_monolitici_e_microkernel:_confronto">Kernel monolitici e microkernel: confronto</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=5" title="Modifica la sezione Kernel monolitici e microkernel: confronto" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Kernel monolitici e microkernel: confronto"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png/220px-DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png/330px-DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png/440px-DragonFly_BSD_4.2.3_bootloader_screenshot.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/DragonFly_BSD" title="DragonFly BSD">DragonFly</a></figcaption></figure> <p>I kernel monolitici sono spesso preferiti ai microkernel a causa del minor livello di complessità nel controllo dei codici di controllo in uno spazio di indirizzamento. Per esempio <a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a>, il kernel di <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a>, è basato su un kernel Mach 3.0 e componenti BSD nello stesso spazio di indirizzamento in modo da abbattere i tempi di latenza tipici dei microkernel. XNU risulta così un kernel dalle notevoli prestazioni poiché basato in parte su una soluzione ibrida e non può in ogni caso essere considerato un microkernel. Nella documentazione ufficiale di Apple si fa chiaro riferimento a XNU come Kernel Monolitico Modulare. </p><p>A partire dai primi <a href="/wiki/Anni_1990" title="Anni 1990">anni novanta</a> i kernel monolitici sono considerati obsoleti. Il <a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">kernel Linux</a> come kernel monolitico anziché come microkernel è stato uno degli argomenti della famosa <i>guerra di religione</i> fra <a href="/wiki/Linus_Torvalds" title="Linus Torvalds">Linus Torvalds</a> (il creatore di <a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">Linux</a>) e <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Stuart_Tanenbaum" title="Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum">Andrew Tanenbaum</a> (celebre docente di sistemi operativi, autore di <a href="/wiki/Minix" class="mw-redirect" title="Minix">Minix</a>) - in rete sono <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oreilly.com/catalog/opensources/book/appa.html">disponibili</a> maggiori dettagli. </p><p>In realtà vi sono ragioni da entrambe le parti. </p><p>I kernel monolitici tendono ad essere più semplici da progettare correttamente, e possono quindi evolversi più rapidamente di un sistema basato su microkernel. Ci sono storie di successi in entrambi gli schieramenti. I microkernel sono spesso usati in <a href="/wiki/Sistema_embedded" title="Sistema embedded">sistemi embedded</a> in applicazioni <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mission_critical&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Mission critical (la pagina non esiste)">mission critical</a> di automazione robotica o di medicina, a causa del fatto che i componenti del sistema risiedono in aree di memoria separate, private e protette. Ciò non è possibile con i kernel monolitici, nemmeno con i moderni moduli caricabili. </p><p>A parte il <a href="/wiki/Mach_(kernel)" title="Mach (kernel)">kernel Mach</a>, che è il più noto microkernel di uso generico, molti altri microkernel sono stati sviluppati con scopi specifici. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel_L3&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Kernel L3 (la pagina non esiste)">Kernel L3</a> in particolare è stato creato per dimostrare che i microkernel non sono necessariamente lenti. La <a href="/w/index.php?title=Famiglia_di_microkernel_L4&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Famiglia di microkernel L4 (la pagina non esiste)">famiglia di microkernel L4</a>, successori di L3, dispongono di una implementazione chiamata <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fiasco_(informatica)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Fiasco (informatica) (la pagina non esiste)">Fiasco</a> in grado di eseguire il <a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">kernel Linux</a> accanto agli altri processi di L4 in spazi di indirizzamento separati. </p><p><a href="/wiki/QNX" title="QNX">QNX</a> è un sistema operativo presente sulle scene dai primi <a href="/wiki/Anni_1980" title="Anni 1980">anni ottanta</a> e dispone di una implementazione a microkernel davvero minimalista. Questo sistema ha avuto molto più successo di Mach nel raggiungere gli obiettivi del paradigma a microkernel. È usato in situazioni in cui al software non è concesso di sbagliare, ad esempio nei bracci robotici dello <a href="/wiki/Space_shuttle" class="mw-redirect" title="Space shuttle">space shuttle</a> o in macchine che lavorano il vetro dove un errore anche piccolo può costare centinaia di migliaia di Euro. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kernel_ibridi">Kernel ibridi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=6" title="Modifica la sezione Kernel ibridi" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Kernel ibridi"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-hybrid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Kernel-hybrid.svg/220px-Kernel-hybrid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Kernel-hybrid.svg/330px-Kernel-hybrid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Kernel-hybrid.svg/440px-Kernel-hybrid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Rappresentazione grafica di un kernel ibrido</figcaption></figure> <p>I kernel ibridi sono essenzialmente dei microkernel che hanno del codice "non essenziale" al livello di spazio del kernel in modo che questo codice possa girare più rapidamente che se fosse implementato ad alto livello. Questo fu un compromesso adottato da molti sviluppatori di sistemi operativi prima che fosse dimostrato che i microkernel puri potevano invece avere performance elevate. Molti sistemi operativi moderni rientrano in questa categoria: <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Microsoft Windows</a> è l'esempio più noto. Anche <a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a>, il kernel di Mac OS X, è di fatto un microkernel modificato, per via dell'inclusione di codice BSD in un kernel basato su Mach. <a href="/wiki/DragonFly_BSD" title="DragonFly BSD">DragonFly BSD</a> è stato il primo sistema BSD non basato su Mach ad adottare l'architettura a kernel ibrido. </p><p>Non si confonda il termine "kernel ibrido" con i kernel monolitici che possono caricare moduli dopo il <a href="/wiki/Boot" title="Boot">boot</a>, poiché "ibrido" implica che il kernel in questione condivide concetti architetturali e meccanismi tipici sia dei kernel monolitici che dei microkernel, specialmente il passaggio di messaggi e la migrazione di porzioni di codice "non essenziale" a più alto livello, mantenendo a livello kernel solo il codice necessario per ragioni di prestazioni. </p><p>Esempi di kernel ibridi: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> <a href="/wiki/Windows_NT" title="Windows NT">Windows NT</a> che è usato su tutti i sistemi basati su NT</li> <li><a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a> kernel del <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">macOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DragonFly_BSD" title="DragonFly BSD">DragonFly BSD</a></li> <li>Quark, il kernel di <a href="/wiki/MorphOS" title="MorphOS">MorphOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haiku_(sistema_operativo)" title="Haiku (sistema operativo)">Haiku</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esokernel">Esokernel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=7" title="Modifica la sezione Esokernel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Esokernel"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kernel-exo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kernel-exo.svg/220px-Kernel-exo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kernel-exo.svg/330px-Kernel-exo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Kernel-exo.svg/440px-Kernel-exo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption>Rappresentazione grafica di un Exokernel</figcaption></figure> <p>Gli esokernel, o Exokernel, conosciuti anche come "sistemi operativi verticali", sono un approccio radicalmente differente alla progettazione dei sistemi operativi. L'idea centrale è "separare la protezione dalla gestione". </p><p>Nessuno meglio di uno sviluppatore sa come rendere efficiente l'uso dell'hardware disponibile, quindi l'obiettivo è dargli la possibilità di prendere le decisioni. Gli esokernel sono estremamente piccoli e compatti, poiché le loro funzionalità sono volutamente limitate alla protezione e al multiplexing delle risorse. </p><p>I kernel "classici" (sia monolitici che microkernel) astraggono l'hardware, nascondendo le risorse dietro a un <i>livello di astrazione dell'hardware</i>), o dietro a server "sicuri". In questi sistemi "classici", se ad esempio viene allocata della memoria, il programma non può sapere in quale pagina fisica questa verrà riservata dal sistema operativo, e se viene scritto un file non c'è modo di sapere direttamente in quale settore del disco è stato allocato. È questo il livello di astrazione che un esokernel cerca di evitare. Esso permette ad un'applicazione di richiedere aree specifiche di memoria, settori specifici su disco e così via, e si assicura solamente che le risorse richieste siano disponibili e che le applicazioni vi possano accedere. </p><p>Dato che un esokernel fornisce un'interfaccia davvero a basso livello all'hardware, mancando di qualsiasi funzionalità di alto livello tipica degli altri sistemi operativi, esso è accompagnato da un <i>sistema operativo-libreria</i> (in gergo libOS) che si interfaccia con l'esokernel sottostante fornendo quindi agli sviluppatori di applicazioni le funzionalità di un sistema operativo completo. </p><p>Tutto ciò ha un'importante implicazione: è possibile avere diversi libOS sul sistema. Se, per esempio, si installa un libOS che esporta un'API Unix e uno che esporta un'API Windows, è possibile eseguire simultaneamente applicazioni compilate per UNIX e per Windows. Lo sviluppo dei libOS avviene a livello utente, senza reboot, debug su console e in piena <a href="/wiki/Protezione_della_memoria" title="Protezione della memoria">protezione della memoria</a>. </p><p>Al momento gli esokernel sono più che altro dei progetti di ricerca e non sono usati in sistemi operativi commerciali. Un esempio di sistema basato su esokernel è <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nemesis_(informatica)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Nemesis (informatica) (la pagina non esiste)">Nemesis</a>, sviluppato dall'<a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A0_di_Cambridge" title="Università di Cambridge">Università di Cambridge</a>, dall'<a href="/wiki/Universit%C3%A0_di_Glasgow" title="Università di Glasgow">Università di Glasgow</a>, da <a href="/wiki/Citrix_Systems" title="Citrix Systems">Citrix Systems</a> e dall'<a href="/w/index.php?title=Istituto_Svedese_di_Informatica&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Istituto Svedese di Informatica (la pagina non esiste)">Istituto Svedese di Informatica</a>. Anche il <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a> ha sviluppato diversi sistemi basati su esokernel. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="No_Kernel">No Kernel</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=8" title="Modifica la sezione No Kernel" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: No Kernel"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Il software cosiddetto "no kernel" non ha l'obbligo di essere limitato ad un unico entry point che sia oltretutto centralizzato. Un esempio è dato da progetti come <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602150238/http://tunes.org/">TUNES</a> e UnununiumOS, che intendevano creare un sistema operativo privo di kernel (entrambi i progetti sono stati interrotti). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Note">Note</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=9" title="Modifica la sezione Note" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Note"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Linfo-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Linfo_1-0"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061208185439/http://www.linfo.org/kernel.html"><span style="font-style:italic;">Kernel</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">Linfo</span>, Bellevue Linux Users Group. <small>URL consultato il 15 settembre 2016</small> <small>(archiviato dall'<abbr title="http&#58;//www.linfo.org/kernel.html">url originale</abbr> l'8 dicembre 2006)</small>.</cite></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) Brian Bagnall, <span style="font-style:italic;">On The Edge: The Spectacular Rise and Fall of Commodore</span>, Variant Press, 2006, p.&#160;202, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/978-0-97-386490-8" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/978-0-97-386490-8">978-0-97-386490-8</a>.</cite><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r139517313">.mw-parser-output .itwiki-template-citazione{margin-bottom:.5em;font-size:95%;padding-left:2.4em;padding-right:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .itwiki-template-citazione-doppia{display:flex;gap:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .itwiki-template-citazione-doppia>div{width:0;flex:1 1 0}.mw-parser-output .itwiki-template-citazione-footer{padding:0 1.2em 0 0;margin:0}</style><div class="itwiki-template-citazione"> <div class="itwiki-template-citazione-doppia"> <div>(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <p>«The kernel is the most fundamental part of a program, typically an operating system, that resides in memory at all times and provides the basic services. It is the part of the operating system that is closest to the machine and may activate the hardware directly or interface to another software layer that drives the hardware.» </p> </div> <div>(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="italiano">IT</abbr></span>) <p>«Il kernel è la parte più fondamentale di un programma, normalmente un sistema operativo, che risiede in memoria per tutto il tempo e che fornisce i servizi di base: è la parte del sistema operativo che è più vicina alla macchina e che può attivare l'hardware direttamente oppure interfacciarsi con un altro livello software che gestisce l'hardware.» </p> </div></div></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) LifeV, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kukuruku.co/hub/opensource/multitasking-management-in-the-operating-system-kernel"><span style="font-style:italic;">Multitasking Management in the Operating System Kernel</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">kukuruku.co</span>, 13 maggio 2014. <small>URL consultato il 1º novembre 2016</small>.</cite><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r139517313"><div class="itwiki-template-citazione"> <div class="itwiki-template-citazione-doppia"> <div>(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <p>«Since only one instruction can be executed at one processor kernel at one moment, only one thread can be active. The process of chosing the active computing thread is called scheduling. In its turn, the module which is in charge of the choice is called the scheduler.» </p> </div> <div>(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="italiano">IT</abbr></span>) <p>«Siccome in un dato momento ogni processore gestito dal kernel può eseguire solo una istruzione per volta, ci può essere solo un thread attivo. Il processo mediante il quale si sceglie il thread di calcolo attivo è chiamato scheduling. A sua volta, il modulo incaricato di fare questa scelta è detto scheduler.» </p> </div></div></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4"><b>^</b></a> <span class="reference-text">Viene utilizzato inizialmente in <a href="/wiki/GNU_Hurd" title="GNU Hurd">GNU Hurd</a> e non in <a href="/wiki/MacOS" title="MacOS">MacOS</a>, che utilizza usa <a href="/wiki/XNU" title="XNU">XNU</a>, che è un kernel ibrido modulare nato dall'unione di Mach e del kernel <a href="/wiki/FreeBSD" title="FreeBSD">FreeBSD</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliografia">Bibliografia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=10" title="Modifica la sezione Bibliografia" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Bibliografia"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Harvey M. Deitel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=79046&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;coll=GUIDE"><span style="font-style:italic;">An introduction to operating systems</span></a>, revisited first edition, Addison-Wesley, 1984 <abbr title="Data di edizione originale">[1982]</abbr>, pp.&#160;673, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-201-14502-2" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-201-14502-2">0-201-14502-2</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> <a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Denning" title="Peter J. Denning">Peter J. Denning</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=859506&amp;coll=&amp;dl=ACM&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618"><span style="font-style:italic;">Why not innovations in computer architecture?</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News</span>, vol.&#160;8, n.&#160;2, aprile 1980, pp.&#160;4-7, <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a>&#160;0163-5964<span class="noprint plainlinks">&#160;(<span title="Ricerca su WorldCat"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0163-5964&amp;lang=it">WC</a></span>&#160;· <span title="Ricerca sul Catalogo Italiano dei Periodici"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acnpsearch.unibo.it/search?issn=0163-5964">ACNP</a></span>)</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> Per Brinch Hansen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=362278&amp;dl=ACM&amp;coll=GUIDE&amp;CFID=11111111&amp;CFTOKEN=2222222"><span style="font-style:italic;">The nucleus of a Multiprogramming System</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Communications of the ACM</span>, vol.&#160;13, n.&#160;4, aprile 1970, pp.&#160;238-241, <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a>&#160;0001-0782<span class="noprint plainlinks">&#160;(<span title="Ricerca su WorldCat"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782&amp;lang=it">WC</a></span>&#160;· <span title="Ricerca sul Catalogo Italiano dei Periodici"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acnpsearch.unibo.it/search?issn=0001-0782">ACNP</a></span>)</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Per_Brinch_Hansen&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Per Brinch Hansen (la pagina non esiste)">Per Brinch Hansen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=540365"><span style="font-style:italic;">Operating System Principles</span></a>, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, 1973, pp.&#160;496, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-637843-9" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-637843-9">0-13-637843-9</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Per_Brinch_Hansen&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Per Brinch Hansen (la pagina non esiste)">Per Brinch Hansen</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brinch-hansen.net/papers/2001b.pdf"><span style="font-style:italic;">The evolution of operating systems</span></a> (<span style="font-weight: bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="documento in formato PDF">PDF</abbr></span>), 2001. <small>URL consultato il 24 ottobre 2006</small>.</cite> nel libro<cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Per Brinch Hansen (a cura di), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://brinch-hansen.net/papers/2001b.pdf"><span style="font-style:italic;">1</span></a>, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=360596&amp;dl=ACM&amp;coll=&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618"><span style="font-style:italic;">Classic operating systems: from batch processing to distributed systems</span></a> (<span style="font-weight: bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="documento in formato PDF">PDF</abbr></span>), New York, Springer-Verlag, 2001, pp.&#160;1-36, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-387-95113-X" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-387-95113-X">0-387-95113-X</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> R. Levin, E. Cohen, W. Corwin, F. Pollack, W. Wulf, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=806531&amp;dl=ACM&amp;coll=&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618"><span style="font-style:italic;">Policy/mechanism separation in Hydra</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles / Proceedings of the fifth ACM symposium on Operating systems principles</span>, 1975, pp.&#160;132-140.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> Theodore A. Linden, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=356682&amp;coll=&amp;dl=ACM&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618"><span style="font-style:italic;">Operating System Structures to Support Security and Reliable Software</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR)</span>, vol.&#160;8, n.&#160;4, dicembre 1976, pp.&#160;409-445, <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a>&#160;0360-0300<span class="noprint plainlinks">&#160;(<span title="Ricerca su WorldCat"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0360-0300&amp;lang=it">WC</a></span>&#160;· <span title="Ricerca sul Catalogo Italiano dei Periodici"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acnpsearch.unibo.it/search?issn=0360-0300">ACNP</a></span>)</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Harold Lorin, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=578308&amp;coll=GUIDE&amp;dl=GUIDE&amp;CFID=2651732&amp;CFTOKEN=19681373"><span style="font-style:italic;">Operating systems</span></a>, Boston, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley, 1981, pp.&#160;161-186, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-201-14464-6" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-201-14464-6">0-201-14464-6</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> Michael D. Schroeder, Jerome H. Saltzer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=361275&amp;dl=ACM&amp;coll=&amp;CFID=15151515&amp;CFTOKEN=6184618"><span style="font-style:italic;">A hardware architecture for implementing protection rings</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Communications of the ACM</span>, vol.&#160;15, n.&#160;3, marzo 1972, pp.&#160;157-170, <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a>&#160;0001-0782<span class="noprint plainlinks">&#160;(<span title="Ricerca su WorldCat"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782&amp;lang=it">WC</a></span>&#160;· <span title="Ricerca sul Catalogo Italiano dei Periodici"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acnpsearch.unibo.it/search?issn=0001-0782">ACNP</a></span>)</span>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> Alan C. Shaw, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=540329"><span style="font-style:italic;">The logical design of Operating systems</span></a>, Prentice-Hall, 1974, pp.&#160;304, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-540112-7" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-540112-7">0-13-540112-7</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) <a href="/wiki/Andrew_S._Tanenbaum" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrew S. Tanenbaum">Andrew S. Tanenbaum</a>, <span style="font-style:italic;">Structured Computer Organization</span>, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, 1979, <a href="/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-148521-0" title="Speciale:RicercaISBN/0-13-148521-0">0-13-148521-0</a>.</cite></li> <li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal"> W. Wulf, E. Cohen, W. Corwin, A. Jones, R. Levin, C. Pierson, F. Pollack, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=36"><span style="font-style:italic;">HYDRA: the kernel of a multiprocessor operating system</span></a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r140554517">.mw-parser-output .chiarimento{background:#ffeaea;color:#444444}.mw-parser-output .chiarimento-apice{color:#EE0700}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .chiarimento{background:rgba(179,36,36,0.21);color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .chiarimento-apice{color:#b32424}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .chiarimento{background:rgba(179,36,36,0.21);color:inherit}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .chiarimento-apice{color:#b32424}}</style><span class="chiarimento" title="A volte può capitare che un link presente su Wikipedia non sia più raggiungibile. Se possibile ritrova il link e inserisci il collegamento corretto, comunque non rimuovere il collegamento e inserisci il template &#123;&#123;Collegamento interrotto&#125;&#125;"></span><sup class="noprint chiarimento-apice" title="A volte può capitare che un link presente su Wikipedia non sia più raggiungibile. Se possibile ritrova il link e inserisci il collegamento corretto, comunque non rimuovere il collegamento e inserisci il template &#123;&#123;Collegamento interrotto&#125;&#125;">&#91;<i><a href="/wiki/Aiuto:Collegamenti_interrotti" title="Aiuto:Collegamenti interrotti">collegamento interrotto</a></i>&#93;</sup>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Communications of the ACM</span>, vol.&#160;17, n.&#160;6, giugno 1974, pp.&#160;337-345, <a href="/wiki/ISSN" title="ISSN">ISSN</a>&#160;0001-0782<span class="noprint plainlinks">&#160;(<span title="Ricerca su WorldCat"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/issn/0001-0782&amp;lang=it">WC</a></span>&#160;· <span title="Ricerca sul Catalogo Italiano dei Periodici"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acnpsearch.unibo.it/search?issn=0001-0782">ACNP</a></span>)</span>.</cite> <ul><li><cite class="citation pubblicazione" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) W. Wulf, E. Cohen, W. Corwin, A. Jones, R. Levin, C. Pierson e F. Pollack, <span style="font-style:italic;">HYDRA:The Kernel of a Multiprocessor Operating System</span> (<span style="font-weight: bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="documento in formato PDF">PDF</abbr></span>) (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://research.cs.wisc.edu/areas/os/Qual/papers/hydra.pdf">abstract</a>). <small>URL consultato il 12 ottobre 2022</small> <small>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220628141742/https://research.cs.wisc.edu/areas/os/Qual/papers/hydra.pdf">archiviato</a> il 28 giugno 2022)</small>.</cite></li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Voci_correlate">Voci correlate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=11" title="Modifica la sezione Voci correlate" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Voci correlate"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kernel_mode" title="Kernel mode">Kernel mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schermata_blu_di_errore" title="Schermata blu di errore">Schermata blu di errore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kernel_panic" title="Kernel panic">Kernel panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spazio_utente" title="Spazio utente">Spazio utente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linux_(kernel)" title="Linux (kernel)">Linux (kernel)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Altri_progetti">Altri progetti</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=12" title="Modifica la sezione Altri progetti" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Altri progetti"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div id="interProject" class="toccolours" style="display: none; clear: both; margin-top: 2em"><p id="sisterProjects" style="background-color: #efefef; color: black; font-weight: bold; margin: 0"><span>Altri progetti</span></p><ul title="Collegamenti verso gli altri progetti Wikimedia"> <li class="" title=""><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/kernel" class="extiw" title="wikt:kernel">Wikizionario</a></li> <li class="" title=""><span class="plainlinks" title="commons:Category:Operating system kernels"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Operating_system_kernels?uselang=it">Wikimedia Commons</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/" title="Collabora a Wikizionario"><img alt="Collabora a Wikizionario" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/18px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/27px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Wiktionary_small.svg/36px-Wiktionary_small.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/" class="extiw" title="wikt:">Wikizionario</a> contiene il lemma di dizionario «<b><a href="https://it.wiktionary.org/wiki/kernel" class="extiw" title="wikt:kernel">kernel</a></b>»</li> <li><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/?uselang=it" title="Collabora a Wikimedia Commons"><img alt="Collabora a Wikimedia Commons" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/27px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/36px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> <span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/?uselang=it">Wikimedia Commons</a></span> contiene immagini o altri file sul <b><span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Operating_system_kernels?uselang=it">kernel</a></span></b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Collegamenti_esterni">Collegamenti esterni</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;veaction=edit&amp;section=13" title="Modifica la sezione Collegamenti esterni" class="mw-editsection-visualeditor"><span>modifica</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-divider"> | </span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kernel&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="Edit section&#039;s source code: Collegamenti esterni"><span>modifica wikitesto</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFDizionario_delle_scienze_fisiche" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/kernel_(Dizionario-delle-Scienze-Fisiche)/"><span style="font-style:italic;">kernel</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Dizionario delle scienze fisiche</span>, <a href="/wiki/Istituto_dell%27Enciclopedia_Italiana" title="Istituto dell&#39;Enciclopedia Italiana">Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana</a>, 1996.</cite> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9662#P10017" title="Modifica su Wikidata"><img alt="Modifica su Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFSapere.it" class="citation web" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sapere.it/enciclopedia/kernel.html"><span style="font-style:italic;">kernel</span></a>, su <span style="font-style:italic;">sapere.it</span>, <a href="/wiki/De_Agostini" title="De Agostini">De Agostini</a>.</cite> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9662#P6706" title="Modifica su Wikidata"><img alt="Modifica su Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFEnciclopedia_della_Matematica" class="citation libro" style="font-style:normal"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/kernel_(Enciclopedia-della-Matematica)/"><span style="font-style:italic;">kernel</span></a>, in <span style="font-style:italic;">Enciclopedia della Matematica</span>, <a href="/wiki/Istituto_dell%27Enciclopedia_Italiana" title="Istituto dell&#39;Enciclopedia Italiana">Istituto dell'Enciclopedia Italiana</a>, 2013.</cite> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9662#P9621" title="Modifica su Wikidata"><img alt="Modifica su Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/10px-Blue_pencil.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/15px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Blue_pencil.svg/20px-Blue_pencil.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></li> <li><cite id="CITEREFFOLDOC" class="citation testo" style="font-style:normal">(<span style="font-weight:bolder; font-size:80%"><abbr title="inglese">EN</abbr></span>) Denis Howe, <span style="font-style:italic;"><a href="https://foldoc.org/Kernel" class="extiw" title="foldoc:Kernel">Kernel</a></span>, in <span style="font-style:italic;"><a href="/wiki/Free_On-line_Dictionary_of_Computing" title="Free On-line Dictionary of Computing">Free On-line Dictionary of Computing</a></span>.</cite> Disponibile con licenza <a href="/wiki/GNU_Free_Documentation_License" title="GNU Free Documentation License">GFDL</a></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r141815314">.mw-parser-output .navbox{border:1px solid #aaa;clear:both;margin:auto;padding:2px;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox th{padding-left:1em;padding-right:1em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox>tbody>tr:first-child>th{background:#ccf;font-size:90%;width:100%;color:var(--color-base,black)}.mw-parser-output .navbox_navbar{float:left;margin:0;padding:0 10px 0 0;text-align:left;width:6em}.mw-parser-output .navbox_title{font-size:110%}.mw-parser-output .navbox_abovebelow{background:#ddf;font-size:90%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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