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class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Evolutionary theory of depression</div> <p><b>Rank theory</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">evolutionary theory of depression</a>, developed by <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Stevens_(Jungian_analyst)" title="Anthony Stevens (Jungian analyst)">Anthony Stevens</a> and John Price, and proposes that <a href="/wiki/Clinical_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinical depression">depression</a> promotes the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/survival" class="extiw" title="wikt:survival">survival</a> of <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depression is an <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive response</a> to losing status (rank) and losing confidence in the ability to regain it. The adaptive function of the depression is to change behaviour to promote survival for someone who has been defeated. According to rank theory, depression was naturally selected to allow us to accept a subordinate role. The function of this depressive adaptation is to prevent the loser from suffering further defeat in a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conflict" class="extiw" title="wikt:conflict">conflict</a>. </p><p>In the face of defeat, a behavioural process swings into action which causes the individual to cease competing and reduce their ambitions. This process is involuntary and results in the loss of energy, <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depressed mood</a>, sleep disturbance, poor appetite, and loss of confidence, which are typical characteristics of depression. The outward symptoms of depression (facial expressions, constant crying, etc.) signal to others that the loser is not fit to compete, and they also discourage others from attempting to restore the loser's rank.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This acceptance of a lower rank would serve to stabilise an ancestral human community, promoting the survival of any individual (or individual's genes) in the community through affording protection from other human groups, retaining access to resources, and to mates. The adaptive function of accepting a lower rank is twofold: first, it ensures that the loser truly yields and does not attempt to make a comeback, and second, the loser reassures the winner that yielding has truly taken place, so that the conflict ends, with no further damage to the loser. Social harmony is then restored.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development">Development</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Development"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rank theory of <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a>, initially known as the 'social competition hypothesis<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>', is based on <a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">ethological</a> theories of <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling</a>: in order to avoid injury, animals will perform 'appeasement displays' to demonstrate their subordination and lack of desire to engage in further competition.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, rank theory attempts to explain the link between low <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">socioeconomic status</a> and depression through a <a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">psychosocial</a> lens.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>John Price formulated rank theory after noticing that monkeys became uncommunicative following a competitive loss (e.g. relating to food, allies, or mates). He proposed that humans similarly submit in competitive situations to induce reconciliation.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By submitting to their opponent, losers allow a new hierarchy to form, strengthening social cohesion.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Depression is therefore a <a href="/wiki/Ritualized_aggression" title="Ritualized aggression">ritualistic</a> behaviour which fulfils an adaptive function:<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the loser is able to escape physical injury by <a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">signalling</a> that they are no longer a threat.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This adaptive strategy has been called "Involuntary Defeat Strategy" (IDS)<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to clarify that losers may demonstrate submissiveness to victors using other strategies, which have not been linked to depression. Although, historically, the Involuntary Defeat Strategy may have also prevented the loss of further material resources (e.g. food, shelter), evolutionary psychologists argue that this explanation is still applicable to modern societies, where humans compete on resources such as attractiveness<sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and competency.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Application_to_symptoms">Application to symptoms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Application to symptoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maladaptive_cycle.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Maladaptive_cycle.png/389px-Maladaptive_cycle.png" decoding="async" width="389" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Maladaptive_cycle.png/584px-Maladaptive_cycle.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Maladaptive_cycle.png/778px-Maladaptive_cycle.png 2x" data-file-width="1527" data-file-height="1434" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1: The adaptive and maladaptive cycles resulting from agonistic (hierarchical) encounters.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike other <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">evolutionary explanations of depression</a>, rank theory is able to explain why depression is incapacitating:<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by functioning as a substitute for physical damage, incapacitation prevents the 'loser' from posing a threat to the competitor they challenged. Moreover, rank theory aligns with <a href="/wiki/Beck%27s_cognitive_triad" title="Beck's cognitive triad">Beck's cognitive triad</a>, which proposes that depressed individuals suffer <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_distortion" title="Cognitive distortion">cognitive distortions</a> which result in pessimistic beliefs. Rank theory explains this pessimism by arguing that 'losers' with low expectations about their abilities are less likely to engage in competition, because they are pessimistic about their chances.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The explanation also accounts for common symptoms (e.g. apathy, loss of interest, <a href="/wiki/Anhedonia" title="Anhedonia">anhedonia</a>) by arguing they evolved as a form of harm-avoidance.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Psychologists such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gilbert_(psychologist)" title="Paul Gilbert (psychologist)">Paul Gilbert</a> have sought to explain the differences between depressive states following competition and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depression</a>. Gilbert has suggested that depression resulting from the Involuntary Defeat Strategy is a short-term condition, which becomes more serious due to external events (e.g. victor ignores the attempt at reconciliation) or internal events (e.g. excessive <a href="/wiki/Rumination_(psychology)" title="Rumination (psychology)">rumination</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rank theorists argue that depression, like vomiting, can become maladaptive when the defence mechanism, designed for the short-term, is overused (see Fig. 1).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrested_flight">Arrested flight</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arrested flight"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One factor which may make IDS develop into <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depression</a> is arrested flight. When individuals are unable to flee from dangerous situations,<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this 'entrapment' may intensify the depressive symptoms, making the condition long-term.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If the 'de-escalation strategies<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>' used by the loser are overexaggerated, this may result in symptoms such as <a href="/wiki/Social_anxiety" title="Social anxiety">social anxiety</a> and excessively low self-esteem. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Childhood_attachment">Childhood attachment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Childhood attachment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another factor which may explain why certain individuals are more prone to major depression is the degree of <a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">childhood attachment</a> security. Children with insecure attachments, for instance due to being raised in an abusive household, may have experienced a more frequent triggering of the Involuntary Defence Strategy<b><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b>. This results in an overly sensitive IDS, which requires significantly less stimulation to engage in submissive behaviours. Unlike securely attached children, whose IDS functions adaptively by allowing them to accept defeat, insecurely attached children will back down too early, lose confidence in their ability to win competitions, and therefore may be more prone to developing long-term depression<b><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevalence_in_adolescence">Prevalence in adolescence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Prevalence in adolescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rank theorists has also suggested an explanation to account for high depression rates in teenagers.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As competition for social approval is particularly salient in teenage peer relations,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adolescents may emphasise <a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_theory" title="Social comparison theory">social comparison</a> more. Rank theorists propose that children with insecure attachments<b><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> enter the highly socially competitive dynamic of adolescence feeling more submissive or craving a dominant role.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to fixating on social rank, these adolescents are more sensitive to social competition and are more likely to overuse the IDS, resulting in a higher likelihood of depression.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Therapeutic_implications">Therapeutic implications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Therapeutic implications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although not intended to become a new 'school of therapy',<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rank theorists have proposed changes to existing therapeutic interventions for depression such as <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_behavioral_therapy" title="Cognitive behavioral therapy">cognitive behavioral therapy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychodynamics" title="Psychodynamics">psychodynamic treatment</a>: </p> <ul><li><b>Status-changing</b>: Treating depressed individuals as high-status may reduce their self-perception of inferiority<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Preventing rumination:</b> Assisting clients in recognising their virtues by magnifying their achievements<b><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> can reduce the likelihood of IDS developing into maladaptive cycles</li> <li><b>Assertiveness</b>: Teaching individuals to stand up for themselves may prevent accumulations of rage and encourage coping with anger more healthily<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Strategy-switching:</b> Showing clients that they submit too quickly <i>or</i> not quickly enough (because they don't recognise the vulnerability of their position) may help individuals avoid misusing the IDS<sup id="cite_ref-:32_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Goal-setting:</b> setting small, achievable goals to build up the client's confidence may prevent a loss of confidence and help clients avoid reinforcing maladaptive cycles<b><sup id="cite_ref-:5_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The largest limitation of evolutionary explanations of depression, which include rank theory, is the lack of falsifiability.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these theories provide "reasonably parsimonious" explanations,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they are not grounded in empirical research, which severely affects their real-world application. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anger">Anger</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Anger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As rank theory suggests that depression functions to inhibit aggression and stimulate submissive behaviours, one criticism is rank theory's inability to account for higher levels of anger found in depressed individuals than in controls.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, rank theorists have weakened this argument by arguing that hostility in depressed individuals is just <i>redirected</i> towards 'lower-ranking' individuals in the social hierarchy (e.g. children) or objects (e.g. furniture).<sup id="cite_ref-:12_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power">Power</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Power"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another criticism of rank theory is that it may not account for depressed individuals who are socially powerful and exert manipulation over others, despite supposedly engaging in submissive behaviour.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To combat this criticism, rank theorists have suggested that depressed individuals <i>only</i> use manipulation on their supporters in order to switch support from being agonistic (i.e. intended to help the individual win in a competition by boasting) to being nurturing (i.e. accepting the individual has lost and also backing down).<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mood">Mood</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mood"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As individuals at the top of hierarchies may suffer from depression, and not all those on the low end of the hierarchy exhibit depressive symptoms, critics of rank theory have also argued that the mismatch between rank and mood weakens this explanation for depression.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this argument may over-simplify rank theory, as it does not take into account the <a href="/wiki/Social_comparison_theory" title="Social comparison theory">social comparison</a> element of rank theory, which suggests that dissatisfaction with one's rank may be due to comparison with peers who have achieved higher social ranks. Moreover, rank theorists have argued that the stress of a low rank may also depend on factors such as lower-rank individuals attempting to usurp you and higher-rank individuals bullying you.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i>Evolutionary Psychiatry: A New Beginning</i> by Anthony Stevens, John Price (published 2000, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-21978-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-21978-7">0-415-21978-7</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rank_theory_of_depression&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:12-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPriceSlomanGardnerGilbert1994" class="citation journal cs1">Price, John; Sloman, Leon; Gardner, Russell; Gilbert, Paul; Rohde, Peter (March 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/abs/social-competition-hypothesis-of-depression/18622D076771AB200A26D318AF52A1D9">"The Social Competition Hypothesis of Depression"</a>. <i>The British Journal of Psychiatry</i>. <b>164</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">309–</span>315. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1192%2Fbjp.164.3.309">10.1192/bjp.164.3.309</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0007-1250">0007-1250</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8199784">8199784</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44702973">44702973</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=The+Social+Competition+Hypothesis+of+Depression&rft.volume=164&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E309-%3C%2Fspan%3E315&rft.date=1994-03&rft.issn=0007-1250&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44702973%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8199784&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1192%2Fbjp.164.3.309&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Sloman%2C+Leon&rft.au=Gardner%2C+Russell&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+Paul&rft.au=Rohde%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fthe-british-journal-of-psychiatry%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fsocial-competition-hypothesis-of-depression%2F18622D076771AB200A26D318AF52A1D9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARank+theory+of+depression" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:02-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:02_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWetherallRobbO'Connor2019" class="citation journal cs1">Wetherall, Karen; Robb, Kathryn A; O'Connor, Rory C (2019-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0165032718310280">"Social rank theory of depression: A systematic review of self-perceptions of social rank and their relationship with depressive symptoms and suicide risk"</a>. <i>Journal of Affective Disorders</i>. <b>246</b>: <span class="nowrap">300–</span>319. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jad.2018.12.045">10.1016/j.jad.2018.12.045</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0165-0327">0165-0327</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30594043">30594043</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58623006">58623006</a>.</cite><span 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Template talk:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evolutionary psychology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Evolutionary_psychology1033" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="History of evolutionary psychology">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought" title="History of evolutionary thought">Evolutionary thought</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_foundations_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Theoretical foundations of evolutionary psychology">Theoretical foundations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_revolution" title="Cognitive revolution">Cognitive revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(psychology)" title="Cognitivism (psychology)">Cognitivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene-centered_view_of_evolution" title="Gene-centered view of evolution">Gene selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_synthesis_(20th_century)" title="Modern synthesis (20th century)">Modern synthesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_evolutionary_psychology" title="Criticism of evolutionary psychology">Criticism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Evolutionary<br />processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_adaptation" title="Psychological adaptation">Adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism_(biology)" title="Altruism (biology)">Altruism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">Cheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamiltonian_spite" title="Hamiltonian spite">Hamiltonian spite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sex_differences" title="Neuroscience of sex differences">Neuroscience</a></li> 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