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href="#Adding_and_amending_treaty_obligations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Adding and amending treaty obligations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adding_and_amending_treaty_obligations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adding and amending treaty obligations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adding_and_amending_treaty_obligations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reservations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Reservations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Amendments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amendments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Amendments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amendments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protocols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protocols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Protocols</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protocols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Execution_and_implementation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Execution_and_implementation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Execution and implementation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Execution_and_implementation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Execution and implementation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Execution_and_implementation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Interpretation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interpretation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Interpretation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interpretation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequences_of_terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequences_of_terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Consequences of terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequences_of_terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Enforcement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Enforcement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Enforcement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Enforcement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ending_treaty_obligations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ending_treaty_obligations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ending treaty obligations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ending_treaty_obligations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ending treaty obligations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ending_treaty_obligations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Withdrawal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Withdrawal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Withdrawal</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Withdrawal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suspension_and_termination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suspension_and_termination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Suspension and termination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suspension_and_termination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cartels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cartels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Cartels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cartels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invalid_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invalid_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Invalid treaties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Invalid_treaties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Invalid treaties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Invalid_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ultra_vires_treaties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultra_vires_treaties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span><i>Ultra vires</i> treaties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultra_vires_treaties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Misunderstanding,_fraud,_corruption,_coercion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misunderstanding,_fraud,_corruption,_coercion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Misunderstanding, fraud, corruption, coercion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misunderstanding,_fraud,_corruption,_coercion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contrary_to_peremptory_norms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contrary_to_peremptory_norms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Contrary to peremptory norms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contrary_to_peremptory_norms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_under_domestic_national_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_under_domestic_national_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Treaties under domestic national law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treaties_under_domestic_national_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treaties under domestic national law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treaties_under_domestic_national_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brazil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brazil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Brazil</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brazil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_and_indigenous_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_and_indigenous_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Treaties and indigenous peoples</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Treaties_and_indigenous_peoples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Treaties and indigenous peoples subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Treaties_and_indigenous_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Victoria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Victoria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Victoria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Victoria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Treaty_perceptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaty_perceptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Treaty perceptions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaty_perceptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Treaties_today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Treaties_today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2</span> <span>Treaties today</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Treaties_today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Treaty</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 77 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-77" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">77 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdrag" title="Verdrag – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Verdrag" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="معاهدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="معاهدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trat%C3%A1u_internacional" title="Tratáu internacional – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Tratáu internacional" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beyn%C9%99lxalq_m%C3%BCqavil%C9%99" title="Beynəlxalq müqavilə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Beynəlxalq müqavilə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF%D9%87" title="موعاهیده – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="موعاهیده" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%C3%A2u-iok" title="Tiâu-iok – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiâu-iok" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Международен договор – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Международен договор" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feur-emglev" title="Feur-emglev – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Feur-emglev" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractat_internacional" title="Tractat internacional – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tractat internacional" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezin%C3%A1rodn%C3%AD_smlouva" title="Mezinárodní smlouva – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Mezinárodní smlouva" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytundeb" title="Cytundeb – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cytundeb" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktat" title="Traktat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Traktat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerrechtlicher_Vertrag" title="Völkerrechtlicher Vertrag – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Völkerrechtlicher Vertrag" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvusvaheline_leping" title="Rahvusvaheline leping – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rahvusvaheline leping" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B5%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BD%CE%B8%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B7" title="Διεθνής Συνθήκη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διεθνής Συνθήκη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratado_internacional" title="Tratado internacional – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tratado internacional" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktato" title="Traktato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Traktato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazioarteko_itun" title="Nazioarteko itun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nazioarteko itun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%AF%D9%87" title="معاهده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="معاهده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altj%C3%B3%C3%B0a_s%C3%A1ttm%C3%A1li" title="Altjóða sáttmáli – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Altjóða sáttmáli" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trait%C3%A9_(droit_international_public)" title="Traité (droit international public) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Traité (droit international public)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdrach" title="Ferdrach – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ferdrach" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh" title="Conradh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Conradh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratado_internacional" title="Tratado internacional – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Tratado internacional" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A1%B0%EC%95%BD" title="조약 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="조약" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Միջազգային պայմանագիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջազգային պայմանագիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF_(%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%9D%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE)" title="सन्धि (समझौता) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सन्धि (समझौता)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%91unarodni_ugovor" title="Međunarodni ugovor – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Međunarodni ugovor" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktat" title="Traktat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Traktat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ej%C3%B3%C3%B0r%C3%A9ttarsamningur" title="Þjóðréttarsamningur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þjóðréttarsamningur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trattato_internazionale" title="Trattato internazionale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Trattato internazionale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%94_(%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%9D)" title="אמנה (הסכם) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אמנה (הסכם)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prajanj%C3%A8n_Internasional" title="Prajanjèn Internasional – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Prajanjèn Internasional" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%89ama_n%C9%A9na%CA%8A_takaya%C9%A3_(Trait%C3%A9)" title="Ɖama nɩnaʊ takayaɣ (Traité) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Ɖama nɩnaʊ takayaɣ (Traité)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90%E1%83%A8%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A8%E1%83%94%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="საერთაშორისო ხელშეკრულება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საერთაშორისო ხელშეკრულება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BBi%D1%81i%D0%BC%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Халықаралық келiсiмдер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Халықаралық келiсiмдер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pak_(trete)" title="Pak (trete) – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Pak (trete)" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peyman" title="Peyman – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Peyman" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pactio" title="Pactio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pactio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starptautisks_l%C4%ABgums" title="Starptautisks līgums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Starptautisks līgums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarptautin%C4%97_sutartis" title="Tarptautinė sutartis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tarptautinė sutartis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdraag" title="Verdraag – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Verdraag" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemzetk%C3%B6zi_szerz%C5%91d%C3%A9s" title="Nemzetközi szerződés – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nemzetközi szerződés" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%93%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Меѓународен договор – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Меѓународен договор" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perjanjian" title="Perjanjian – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Perjanjian" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verdrag" title="Verdrag – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Verdrag" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%A1%E7%B4%84" title="条約 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="条約" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktat" title="Traktat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Traktat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktat" title="Traktat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Traktat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tractat_(drech)" title="Tractat (drech) – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tractat (drech)" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shartnoma" title="Shartnoma – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Shartnoma" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B9%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE" title="ਸੁਲ੍ਹਾਨਾਮਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੁਲ੍ਹਾਨਾਮਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umowa_mi%C4%99dzynarodowa" title="Umowa międzynarodowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Umowa międzynarodowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratado" title="Tratado – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tratado" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xal%C4%B1qaral%C4%B1q_sh%C3%A1rtnama" title="Xalıqaralıq shártnama – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Xalıqaralıq shártnama" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tratat" title="Tratat – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Tratat" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Международный договор – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Международный договор" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktati" title="Traktati – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Traktati" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Treaty" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medzin%C3%A1rodn%C3%A1_zmluva" title="Medzinárodná zmluva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Medzinárodná zmluva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mednarodna_pogodba" title="Mednarodna pogodba – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Mednarodna pogodba" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%92%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%80" title="Међународни уговор – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Међународни уговор" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Me%C4%91unarodni_ugovor" title="Međunarodni ugovor – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Međunarodni ugovor" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perjangjian_internasional" title="Perjangjian internasional – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Perjangjian internasional" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valtiosopimus" title="Valtiosopimus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valtiosopimus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traktat" title="Traktat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Traktat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="สนธิสัญญา – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สนธิสัญญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A7%E1%8F%83%E1%8E%AE%E1%8F%9B_%E1%8F%9A%E1%8E%BE%E1%8F%A0%E1%8E%AF%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%85" title="ᎧᏃᎮᏛ ᏚᎾᏠᎯᏍᏔᏅ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎧᏃᎮᏛ ᏚᎾᏠᎯᏍᏔᏅ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antla%C5%9Fma" title="Antlaşma – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antlaşma" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%96%D0%B6%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%96%D1%80" title="Міжнародний договір – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Express agreement between nations under international law</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about an agreement valid in the scope of international law entered into by countries in international law. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Treaty_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Treaty (disambiguation)">Treaty (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Treaties" redirects here; not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Treatise" title="Treatise">Treatise</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg/170px-Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg/255px-Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg/340px-Treaty_of_Kadesh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2154" data-file-height="3617" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Egyptian%E2%80%93Hittite_peace_treaty" title="Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty">Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty</a>, on display at the <a href="/wiki/Istanbul_Archaeology_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Istanbul Archaeology Museum">Istanbul Archaeology Museum</a>, was for a long time believed to be the earliest example of any written international agreement of any kind.</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>treaty</b> is a formal, legally binding written agreement between <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovereign states">sovereign states</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/International_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="International organizations">international organizations</a> that is governed by <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A treaty may also be known as an <b>international agreement</b>, <b>protocol</b>, <b>covenant</b>, <b>convention</b>, <b>pact</b>, or <b>exchange of letters</b>, among other terms; however, only documents that are legally binding on the parties are considered treaties under international law.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treaties may be bilateral (between two countries) or multilateral (involving more than two countries). </p><p>Treaties are among the earliest manifestations of <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>; the first known example is a border agreement between the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerian</a> city-states of Lagash and Umma around 3100 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International agreements were used in some form by most major civilizations and became increasingly common and more sophisticated during the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early 19th century saw developments in diplomacy, foreign policy, and international law reflected by the widespread use of treaties. The 1969 <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> (VCLT) codified these practices and established rules and guidelines for creating, amending, interpreting, and terminating treaties, and for resolving disputes and alleged breaches.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Treaties are roughly analogous to <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a> in that they establish the rights and binding obligations of the parties.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They vary in their obligations (the extent to which states are bound to the rules), precision (the extent to which the rules are unambiguous), and delegation (the extent to which third parties have authority to interpret, apply and make rules).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treaties can take many forms and govern a wide range of subject matters, such as security, trade, environment, and human rights; they may also be used to establish international institutions, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rome_Statute_of_the_International_Criminal_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">United Nations</a>, for which they often provide a governing framework. Treaties serve as <a href="/wiki/Sources_of_international_law" title="Sources of international law">primary sources of international law</a> and have <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codified</a> or established most international legal principles since the early 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast with other sources of international law, such as <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a>, treaties are only binding on the parties that have signed and ratified them. </p><p>Notwithstanding the VCLT and <a href="/wiki/Customary_international_law" title="Customary international law">customary international law</a>, treaties are not required to follow any standard form, and differ widely in substance and complexity.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, all valid treaties must comply with the legal principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Pacta_sunt_servanda" title="Pacta sunt servanda">pacta sunt servanda</a></i> (Latin: "agreements must be kept"), under which parties are committed to perform their duties and honor their agreements in <a href="/wiki/Good_faith_(law)" title="Good faith (law)">good faith</a>. A treaty may also be invalidated, and thus rendered unenforceable, if it violates a <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">preemptory norm (<i>jus cogens</i>)</a>, such as permitting a war of aggression or crimes against humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_usage_and_form">Modern usage and form</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Modern usage and form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg/220px-Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg/330px-Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg/440px-Geneva_Conventions_-_signing_in_1949.jpg 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="612" /></a><figcaption>The signing of the <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> in 1949. A country's signature, through <a href="/wiki/Plenipotentiary" title="Plenipotentiary">plenipotentiaries</a> with "full power" to conclude a treaty, is often sufficient to manifest an intention to be bound by the treaty.</figcaption></figure> <p>A treaty is an official, express written agreement that states use to legally bind themselves.<sup id="cite_ref-ShawIL5th_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ShawIL5th-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also the objective outcome of a ceremonial occasion that acknowledges the parties and their defined relationships. There is no prerequisite of academic accreditation or cross-professional contextual knowledge required to publish a treaty. </p><p>However, since the late 19th century, most treaties have followed a fairly consistent format. A treaty typically begins with a <a href="/wiki/Preamble" title="Preamble">preamble</a> describing the "High Contracting Parties" and their shared objectives in executing the treaty, as well as summarizing any underlying events (such as the aftermath of a war in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">peace treaty</a>). Modern preambles are sometimes structured as a single very long sentence formatted into multiple paragraphs for readability, in which each of the paragraphs begins with a <a href="/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund">gerund</a> (desiring, recognizing, having, etc.). </p><p>The High Contracting Parties—referred to as either the official title of the <a href="/wiki/Head_of_state" title="Head of state">head of state</a> (but not including the personal name), e.g. <i>His <a href="/wiki/Majesty" title="Majesty">Majesty</a> The King of X</i> or <i>His <a href="/wiki/Excellency" title="Excellency">Excellency</a> The President of Y</i>, or alternatively in the form of "<i> Government of Z</i>"—are enumerated, along with the full names and titles of their plenipotentiary representatives; a <a href="/wiki/Boilerplate_clause" title="Boilerplate clause">boilerplate clause</a> describes how each party's representatives have communicated (or exchanged) their "full powers" (i.e., the official documents appointing them to act on behalf of their respective high contracting party) and found them in good or proper form. However, under the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> if the representative is the head of state, <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a> or <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_foreign_affairs" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of foreign affairs">minister of foreign affairs</a>, no special document is needed, as holding such high office is sufficient. </p><p>The end of the preamble and the start of the actual agreement is often signaled by the words "have agreed as follows". </p><p>After the preamble comes numbered articles, which contain the substance of the parties' actual agreement. Each article heading usually encompasses a paragraph. A long treaty may further group articles under chapter headings. </p><p>Modern treaties, regardless of subject matter, usually contain articles governing where the final authentic copies of the treaty will be deposited and how any subsequent disputes as to their interpretation will be peacefully resolved. </p><p>The end of a treaty, the <a href="/wiki/Eschatocol" title="Eschatocol">eschatocol</a> (or closing protocol), is often signaled by language such as "in witness whereof" or "in faith whereof", followed by the words "DONE at", then the site(s) of the treaty's execution and the date(s) of its execution. The date is typically written in its most formal, non-numerical form; for example, the <a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter of the United Nations</a> reads "DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five". If applicable, a treaty will note that it is executed in multiple copies in different languages, with a stipulation that the versions in different languages are equally authentic. </p><p>The signatures of the parties' representatives follow at the very end. When the text of a treaty is later reprinted, such as in a collection of treaties currently in effect, an editor will often append the dates on which the respective parties ratified the treaty and on which it came into effect for each party. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bilateral_and_multilateral_treaties">Bilateral and multilateral treaties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Bilateral and multilateral treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_treaty" title="Bilateral treaty">Bilateral treaties</a> are concluded between two states or entities.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholson135_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson135-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is possible for a bilateral treaty to have more than two parties; for example, each of the bilateral treaties between <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> (EU) has seventeen parties: The parties are divided into two groups, the Swiss ("on the one part") and the EU and its member states ("on the other part"). The treaty establishes rights and obligations between the Swiss and the EU and the member states severally—it does not establish any rights and obligations amongst the EU and its member states.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">multilateral treaty</a> is concluded among several countries, establishing rights and obligations between each party and every other party.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholson135_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson135-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multilateral treaties may be regional or may involve states across the world.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treaties of "mutual guarantee" are international compacts, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Locarno" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Locarno">Treaty of Locarno</a> which guarantees each signatory against attack from another.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholson135_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholson135-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_of_the_United_Nations">Role of the United Nations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Role of the United Nations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United Nations has extensive power to convene states to enact large-scale multilateral treaties and has experience doing so.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Charter" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Charter">United Nations Charter</a>, which is itself a treaty, treaties must be registered with the UN to be invoked before it, or enforced in its judiciary organ, the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>. This was done to prevent the practice of <a href="/wiki/Secret_treaty" title="Secret treaty">secret treaties</a>, which proliferated in the 19th and 20th centuries and often precipitated or exacerbated conflict. Article 103 of the Charter also states that its members' obligations under the Charter outweigh any competing obligations under other treaties. </p><p>After their adoption, treaties, as well as their amendments, must follow the official legal procedures of the United Nations, as applied by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_of_Legal_Affairs" title="United Nations Office of Legal Affairs">Office of Legal Affairs</a>, including signature, <a href="/wiki/Ratification" title="Ratification">ratification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Entry_into_force" title="Entry into force">entry into force</a>. </p><p>In function and effectiveness, the UN has been compared to the United States federal government under the <a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adding_and_amending_treaty_obligations">Adding and amending treaty obligations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adding and amending treaty obligations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reservations">Reservations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reservations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reservation_(law)" title="Reservation (law)">Reservation (law)</a></div> <p>Reservations are essentially caveats to a state's acceptance of a treaty. Reservations are unilateral statements purporting to exclude or to modify the legal obligation and its effects on the reserving state.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These must be included at the time of signing or ratification, i.e., "a party cannot add a reservation after it has already joined a treaty". Article 19 of the Vienna Convention on the law of Treaties in 1969. </p><p>Originally, international law was unaccepting of treaty reservations, rejecting them unless all parties to the treaty accepted the same reservations. However, in the interest of encouraging the largest number of states to join treaties, a more permissive rule regarding reservations has emerged. While some treaties still expressly forbid any reservations, they are now generally permitted to the extent that they are not inconsistent with the goals and purposes of the treaty. </p><p>When a state limits its treaty obligations through reservations, other states party to that treaty have the option to accept those reservations, object to them, or object and oppose them. If the state accepts them (or fails to act at all), both the reserving state and the accepting state are relieved of the reserved legal obligation as concerns their legal obligations to each other (accepting the reservation does not change the accepting state's legal obligations as concerns other parties to the treaty). If the state opposes, the parts of the treaty affected by the reservation drop out completely and no longer create any legal obligations on the reserving and accepting state, again only as concerns each other. Finally, if the state objects and opposes, there are no legal obligations under that treaty between those two state parties whatsoever. The objecting and opposing state essentially refuses to acknowledge the reserving state is a party to the treaty at all.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amendments">Amendments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Amendments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are three ways an existing treaty can be amended. First, a formal amendment requires State parties to the treaty to go through the ratification process all over again. The re-<a href="/wiki/The_Impact_of_Religion_on_International_Negotiations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Impact of Religion on International Negotiations">negotiation</a> of treaty provisions can be long and protracted, and often some parties to the original treaty will not become parties to the amended treaty. When determining the legal obligations of states, one party to the original treaty and one party to the amended treaty, the states will only be bound by the terms they both agreed upon. Treaties can also be amended informally by the treaty executive council when the changes are only procedural, technical change in customary international law can also amend a treaty, where state behavior evinces a new interpretation of the legal obligations under the treaty. Minor corrections to a treaty may be adopted by a <a href="/wiki/Proc%C3%A8s-verbal" title="Procès-verbal">procès-verbal</a>; but a procès-verbal is generally reserved for changes to rectify obvious errors in the text adopted, i.e., where the text adopted does not correctly reflect the intention of the parties adopting it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protocols">Protocols</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Protocols"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental protocol">Environmental protocol</a></div> <p>In international law and international relations, a protocol is generally a treaty or international agreement that supplements a previous treaty or international agreement. A protocol can amend the previous treaty or add additional provisions. Parties to the earlier agreement are not required to adopt the protocol, and this is sometimes made explicit, especially where many parties to the first agreement do not support the protocol. </p><p>A notable example is the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Framework_Convention_on_Climate_Change" title="United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change">United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change</a> (UNFCCC), which established a general framework for the development of binding <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emission</a> limits, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_Protocol" title="Kyoto Protocol">Kyoto Protocol</a> contained the specific provisions and regulations later agreed upon. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Execution_and_implementation">Execution and implementation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Execution and implementation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg/258px-International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg" decoding="async" width="258" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg/387px-International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg/516px-International_Court_of_Justice_1979.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3679" data-file-height="2440" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> is often called upon to aid in the interpretation or implementation of treaties.</figcaption></figure> <p>Treaties may be seen as "self-executing", in that merely becoming a party puts the treaty and all its obligations in action.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other treaties may be non-self-executing and require "implementing legislation"—a change in the domestic law of a state party that will direct or enable it to fulfill treaty obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a treaty requiring such legislation would be one mandating local prosecution by a party for particular crimes. </p><p>The division between the two is often unclear and subject to disagreements within a government, since a non-self-executing treaty cannot be acted on without the proper change in domestic law;<sup id="cite_ref-:6_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if a treaty requires implementing legislation, a state may default on its obligations due to its legislature failing to pass the necessary domestic laws. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interpretation">Interpretation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Interpretation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The language of treaties, like that of any law or contract, must be interpreted when the wording does not seem clear, or it is not immediately apparent how it should be applied in a perhaps unforeseen circumstance.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention</a> states that treaties are to be interpreted "in good faith" according to the "ordinary meaning given to the terms of the treaty in their context and in the light of its object and purpose".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International legal experts also often invoke the "principle of maximum effectiveness", which interprets treaty language as having the fullest force and effect possible to establish obligations between the parties.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No one party to a treaty can impose its particular interpretation of the treaty upon the other parties. Consent may be implied, however, if the other parties fail to explicitly disavow that initially unilateral interpretation, particularly if that state has acted upon its view of the treaty without complaint. Consent by all parties to the treaty to a particular interpretation has the legal effect of adding another clause to the treaty – this is commonly called an "authentic interpretation".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>International tribunals and arbiters are often called upon to resolve substantial disputes over treaty interpretations. To establish the meaning in context, these judicial bodies may review the preparatory work from the negotiation and drafting of the treaty as well as the final, signed treaty itself. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequences_of_terminology">Consequences of terminology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Consequences of terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One significant part of treaty-making is that signing a treaty implies a recognition that the other side is a sovereign state and that the agreement being considered is enforceable under international law. Hence, nations can be very careful about terming an agreement to be a treaty. For example, within the United States, agreements between states are <a href="/wiki/Interstate_compact" title="Interstate compact">compacts</a> and agreements between states and the federal government or between agencies of the government are <a href="/wiki/Memoranda_of_understanding" class="mw-redirect" title="Memoranda of understanding">memoranda of understanding</a>. </p><p>Another situation can occur when one party wishes to create an obligation under international law, but the other party does not. This factor has been at work with respect to discussions between <a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> and the United States over security guarantees and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a>. </p><p>The definition of the English word "treaty" varies depending on the legal and political context; in some jurisdictions, such as the United States, a treaty is specifically an international agreement that has been ratified, and thus made binding, per the procedures established under domestic law.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Enforcement">Enforcement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Enforcement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the Vienna Convention provides a general dispute resolution mechanism, many treaties specify a process outside the convention for arbitrating disputes and alleged breaches. This may by a specially convened panel, by reference to an existing court or panel established for the purpose such as the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>, the <a href="/wiki/European_Court_of_Justice" title="European Court of Justice">European Court of Justice</a> or processes such as the <a href="/wiki/Dispute_settlement_in_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Dispute settlement in the World Trade Organization">Dispute Settlement Understanding</a> of the <a href="/wiki/World_Trade_Organization" title="World Trade Organization">World Trade Organization</a>. Depending on the treaty, such a process may result in financial penalties or other enforcement action. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ending_treaty_obligations">Ending treaty obligations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ending treaty obligations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Withdrawal">Withdrawal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Withdrawal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Treaties are not necessarily permanently binding upon the signatory parties. As obligations in international law are traditionally viewed as arising only from the consent of states, many treaties expressly allow a state to withdraw as long as it follows certain procedures of notification ("denunciation"). For example, the <a href="/wiki/Single_Convention_on_Narcotic_Drugs" title="Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs">Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs</a> provides that the treaty will terminate if, as a result of denunciations, the number of parties falls below 40. Many treaties expressly forbid withdrawal. Article 56 of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> provides that where a treaty is silent over whether or not it can be denounced there is a rebuttable presumption that it cannot be unilaterally denounced unless: </p> <ul><li>it can be shown that the parties intended to admit the possibility, or</li> <li>a right of withdrawal can be inferred from the terms of the treaty.</li></ul> <p>The possibility of withdrawal depends on the terms of the treaty and its <i>travaux preparatory. </i>It has, for example, been held that it is not possible to withdraw from the <a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a>. When North Korea declared its intention to do this the Secretary-General of the United Nations, acting as registrar, said that original signatories of the ICCPR had not overlooked the possibility of explicitly providing for withdrawal, but rather had deliberately intended not to provide for it. Consequently, withdrawal was not possible.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Organization_of_American_States" title="Organization of American States">Organization of American States</a> (OAS) offers the ability of member states to withdraw from its framework by allowing states to officially inform the <a href="/wiki/General_Secretariat" class="mw-redirect" title="General Secretariat">General Secretariat</a> of the OAS of such intended withdrawal and being subject to a two-year long <a href="/wiki/Sunset_provision" title="Sunset provision">sunset period</a> in accordance with Article 143 of the body's charter. </p><p>In practice, state legislatures or other officials where so structured sometimes use their <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> or provisions of <a href="/wiki/Supreme_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme law">supreme law</a> to declare their withdrawal from and stop following the terms of a treaty even if this violates the terms of the treaty. Other parties may accept this outcome, may consider the state to be untrustworthy in future dealings, or may retaliate with sanctions or military action. Withdrawal by one party from a bilateral treaty is typically considered to terminate the treaty. Multilateral treaties typically continue even after the withdrawal of one member, unless the terms of the treaty or mutual agreement causes its termination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Suspension_and_termination">Suspension and termination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Suspension and termination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a party has materially violated or breached its treaty obligations, the other parties may invoke this breach as grounds for temporarily suspending their obligations to that party under the treaty. A material breach may also be invoked as grounds for permanently terminating the treaty itself.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A treaty breach does not automatically suspend or terminate treaty relations, however. It depends on how the other parties regard the breach and how they resolve to respond to it. Sometimes treaties will provide for the seriousness of a breach to be determined by a tribunal or other independent arbiter.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An advantage of such an arbiter is that it prevents a party from prematurely and perhaps wrongfully suspending or terminating its own obligations due to another's an alleged material breach. </p><p>Treaties sometimes include provisions for self-termination, meaning that the treaty is automatically terminated if certain defined conditions are met. Some treaties are intended by the parties to be only temporarily binding and are set to expire on a given date. Other treaties may self-terminate if the treaty is meant to exist only under certain conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A party may claim that a treaty should be terminated, even absent an express provision, if there has been a fundamental change in circumstances. Such a change is sufficient if unforeseen, if it undermined the "essential basis" of consent by a party if it radically transforms the extent of obligations between the parties, and if the obligations are still to be performed. A party cannot base this claim on change brought about by its own breach of the treaty. This claim also cannot be used to invalidate treaties that established or redrew political boundaries.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cartels">Cartels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Cartels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cartels ("Cartells", "Cartelle" or "Kartell-Konventionen" in other languages) were a special kind of treaty within the <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a> of the 17th to 19th centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their purpose was to regulate specific activities of common interest among contracting states that otherwise remained rivals in other areas. They were typically implemented on an <a href="/wiki/High_and_low_politics" title="High and low politics">administrative level</a>. Similar to the <i>cartels</i> for <a href="/wiki/Duels" class="mw-redirect" title="Duels">duels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tournaments" class="mw-redirect" title="Tournaments">tournaments</a>, these intergovernmental accords represented fairness agreements or <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_agreement" title="Gentlemen's agreement">gentlemen's agreements</a> between <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">states</a>. </p><p>In the United States, cartels governed humanitarian actions typically carried out by <a href="/wiki/Cartel_(ship)" title="Cartel (ship)">cartel ships</a> were dispatched for missions, such as to carry communications or prisoners between <a href="/wiki/Belligerent" title="Belligerent">belligerents</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the European history, a broader range of purposes is known. These "cartels" often reflected the cohesion of authoritarian ruling classes against their own unruly citizens. Generally, the European governments concluded - while curbing their mutual rivalries partially - cooperation agreements, which should apply generally or only in case of war:<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deserter" class="mw-redirect" title="Deserter">Deserters</a>, escaped <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serfs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">criminals</a> were to be mutually extradited.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">Prisoners of war</a> should be handed out according to rank in different exchange ratios.</li> <li>The maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">postal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Commerce" title="Commerce">commercial</a> traffic including the entry and exit of <a href="/wiki/Courier" title="Courier">couriers</a> should be guaranteed in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transport" title="Transport">transport</a>.</li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Customs" title="Customs">Customs</a> cartels" ("Zollkartelle") and "<a href="/wiki/Coin" title="Coin">coin</a> cartels" ("Münzkartelle") were "regulatory" agreements between Continental-European states in the 19th century.</li> <li>Against <a href="/wiki/Smuggler" class="mw-redirect" title="Smuggler">smugglers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Counterfeiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Counterfeiter">counterfeiters</a>, a joint action approach was adopted by the governments contracting on <a href="/wiki/International_trade" title="International trade">international trade</a> treaties. The latter often contained the relevant "cartel" regulations in their annexes.</li></ul> <p>The measures against criminals and unruly citizens were to be conducted regardless of the nationality and origin of the relevant persons. If necessary, national <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">borders</a> could be crossed by police forces of the respective neighboring country for capture and <a href="/wiki/Arrest" title="Arrest">arrest</a>. In the course of the 19th century, the term "cartel" (or "Cartell") gradually disappeared for intergovernmental agreements under international law. Instead, the term "convention" was used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Invalid_treaties">Invalid treaties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Invalid treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An otherwise valid and agreed upon treaty may be rejected as a binding international agreement on several grounds. For example, the Japan–Korea treaties of 1905, 1907, and 1910 were protested by several governments as having been essentially forced upon Korea by Japan;<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they were confirmed as "already <a href="/wiki/Null_and_void" class="mw-redirect" title="Null and void">null and void</a>" in the 1965 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_Basic_Relations_between_Japan_and_the_Republic_of_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea">Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultra_vires_treaties"><i>Ultra vires</i> treaties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ultra vires treaties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If an act or lack thereof is condemned under international law, the act will not assume international legality even if approved by internal law.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that in case of a conflict with domestic law, international law will always prevail.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A party's consent to a treaty is invalid if it had been given by an agent or body without power to do so under that state's <a href="/wiki/Domestic_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic laws">domestic laws</a>. States are reluctant to inquire into the internal affairs and processes of other states, and so a "manifest violation" is required such that it would be "objectively evident to any State dealing with the matter". A strong presumption exists internationally that a head of state has acted within his proper authority. It seems that no treaty has ever actually been invalidated on this provision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Consent is also invalid if it was given by a representative acting outside their restricted powers during the negotiations, if the other parties to the treaty were notified of those restrictions prior to his or her signing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misunderstanding,_fraud,_corruption,_coercion"><span id="Misunderstanding.2C_fraud.2C_corruption.2C_coercion"></span>Misunderstanding, fraud, corruption, coercion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Misunderstanding, fraud, corruption, coercion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Unequal_treaties" title="Unequal treaties">Unequal treaties</a></div> <p>Articles 46–53 of the <a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a> set out the only ways that treaties can be invalidated—considered unenforceable and void under international law. A treaty will be invalidated due to either the circumstances by which a state party joined the treaty or due to the content of the treaty itself. Invalidation is separate from withdrawal, suspension, or termination (addressed above), which all involve an alteration in the consent of the parties of a previously valid treaty rather than the invalidation of that consent in the first place. </p><p>A governmental leader's consent may be invalidated if there was an erroneous understanding of a fact or situation at the time of conclusion, which formed the "essential basis" of the state's consent. Consent will not be invalidated if the misunderstanding was due to the state's own conduct, or if the truth should have been evident. </p><p>Consent will also be invalidated if it was induced by the fraudulent conduct of another party, or by the direct or indirect "corruption" of its representative by another party to the treaty. Coercion of either a representative or the state itself through the threat or use of force, if used to obtain the consent of that state to a treaty, will invalidate that consent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contrary_to_peremptory_norms">Contrary to peremptory norms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Contrary to peremptory norms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A treaty is null and void if it is in violation of a <a href="/wiki/Peremptory_norm" title="Peremptory norm">peremptory norm</a>. These norms, unlike other principles of customary law, are recognized as permitting no violations and so cannot be altered through treaty obligations. These are limited to such universally accepted prohibitions as those against the aggressive use of force, <a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">genocide</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crimes against humanity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Piracy" title="Piracy">piracy</a>, hostilities directed at civilian population, <a href="/wiki/Racial_discrimination" title="Racial discrimination">racial discrimination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">torture</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> meaning that no state can legally assume an obligation to commit or permit such acts.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treaties_under_domestic_national_law">Treaties under domestic national law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Treaties under domestic national law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monism_and_dualism_in_international_law" title="Monism and dualism in international law">Monism and dualism in international law</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Australian_treaties" title="List of Australian treaties">List of Australian treaties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia#International_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">Law of Australia § International law</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia" title="Constitution of Australia">constitution of Australia</a> allows the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">executive government</a> to enter into treaties, but the practice is for treaties to be tabled in <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Australia" title="Parliament of Australia">both houses of parliament</a> at least 15 days before signing. Treaties are considered a source of <a href="/wiki/Australian_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian law">Australian law</a> but sometimes require an act of parliament to be passed depending on their nature. Treaties are administered and maintained by the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Foreign_Affairs_and_Trade_(Australia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (Australia)">Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade</a>, which advised that the "general position under Australian law is that treaties which Australia has joined, apart from those terminating a state of war, are not directly and automatically incorporated into Australian law. Signature and ratification do not, of themselves, make treaties operate domestically. In the absence of legislation, treaties cannot impose obligations on individuals nor create rights in domestic law. Nevertheless, international law, including treaty law, is a legitimate and important influence on the development of the common law and may be used in the interpretation of statutes."<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Treaties can be implemented by executive action, and often, existing laws are sufficient to ensure a treaty is honored. </p><p>Australian treaties generally fall under the following categories: extradition, postal agreements and money orders, trade and international conventions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Brazil">Brazil</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Brazil"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The federal <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Brazil" title="Constitution of Brazil">constitution of Brazil</a> states that the power to enter into treaties is vested in the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Brazil" title="President of Brazil">president of Brazil</a> and that such treaties must be approved by the <a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Congress of Brazil">Congress of Brazil</a> (Articles 84, Clause VIII, and 49, Clause I). In practice, that has been interpreted as meaning that the executive branch is free to negotiate and sign a treaty but that its ratification by the president requires the prior approval of Congress. Additionally, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Federal_Court" title="Supreme Federal Court">Supreme Federal Court</a> has ruled that after ratification and entry into force, a treaty must be incorporated into domestic law by means of a presidential decree published in the federal register for it to be valid in Brazil and applicable by the Brazilian authorities. </p><p>The court has established that treaties are subject to <a href="/wiki/Judicial_review" title="Judicial review">constitutional review</a> and enjoy the same hierarchical position as ordinary legislation (<i>leis ordinárias</i>, or "ordinary laws", in Portuguese). A more recent ruling by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Supreme Court of Brazil">Supreme Court of Brazil</a> in 2008 has altered that somewhat by stating that treaties containing human rights provisions enjoy a status above that of ordinary legislation, subject to only the constitution itself. Additionally, the 45th Amendment to the constitution makes human rights treaties approved by Congress by a special procedure enjoy the same hierarchical position as a <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_amendment" title="Constitutional amendment">constitutional amendment</a>. The hierarchical position of treaties in relation to domestic legislation is of relevance to the discussion on whether and how the latter can abrogate the former and vice versa. </p><p>The constitution does not have an equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Supremacy_clause" class="mw-redirect" title="Supremacy clause">supremacy clause</a> in <a href="/wiki/US_constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="US constitution">United States Constitution</a>, which is of interest to the discussion on the relation between treaties and legislation of the <a href="/wiki/States_of_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="States of Brazil">states of Brazil</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, subjects are divided into three lists: union, state and concurrent. In the normal legislation process, the subjects on the union list must be legislated by the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_India" title="Parliament of India">Parliament of India</a>. For subjects on the state list, only the respective state legislature can legislate. For subjects on the concurrent list, both governments can make laws. However, to implement international treaties, Parliament can legislate on any subject and even override the general division of subject lists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">Treaty Clause</a></div> <p>In the United States, the term "treaty" has a distinct and more restricted legal definition than in international law. U.S. law distinguishes between "treaties", as <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">defined in the U.S. Constitution</a>, and "<a href="/wiki/Executive_agreements" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive agreements">executive agreements</a>", which are either "congressional-executive agreements" or "sole executive agreements"; although all three classes are equally treaties under international law, they are subject to different political and legal requirements and implications in the U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The distinctions primarily concern the method of approval: Treaties require the "<a href="/wiki/Article_Two_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Two of the United States Constitution">advice and consent"</a> by two-thirds of the Senators present, whereas sole executive agreements are executed by the President acting alone and congressional-executive agreements require majority approval by both the House and the Senate.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three classifications are not mutually exclusive: A treaty may require a simple majority in Congress before or after it is signed by the President or may grant the President authority to fill in the gaps with executive agreements, rather than additional treaties or protocols. </p><p>Currently, international agreements are ten times more likely to be executed by executive agreement, due to their relative ease. Nevertheless, the President still often chooses to pursue the formal treaty process over an executive agreement to gain congressional support on matters that require Congress to pass implementing legislation or appropriate funds as well as for agreements that impose long-term, complex legal obligations on the U.S. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Iran_deal" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran deal">agreement by the United States, Iran, and other countries</a> is not a treaty under U.S. law,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but rather a "political commitment" that does not bind the parties by law.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nuances and ambiguity of how international agreements are effectuated or implemented in U.S. law has been subject to multiple legal cases. The <a href="/wiki/US_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="US Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a> ruled in the <i><a href="/wiki/Head_Money_Cases" title="Head Money Cases">Head Money Cases</a></i> (1884) that "treaties" do not have a privileged position over <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">acts of Congress</a> and can be repealed or modified by legislative action just like any other regular law. In a similar vein, the court's decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Reid_v._Covert" title="Reid v. Covert">Reid v. Covert</a></i> (1957) held that treaty provisions that conflict with the U.S. Constitution are null and void under U.S. law.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the U.S. Supreme Court has also recognized the "supremacy" of treaties in the U.S. Constitution, such as in <i><a href="/wiki/Ware_v._Hylton" title="Ware v. Hylton">Ware v. Hylton</a></i> (1796) and <i><a href="/wiki/Missouri_v._Holland" title="Missouri v. Holland">Missouri v. Holland</a></i> (1920). </p><p>The relative ease by which certain international agreements could be entered into by the President has often prompted congressional pushback, most notably in the proposed <a href="/wiki/Bricker_Amendment#Legal_background" title="Bricker Amendment">Bricker Amendment</a> to the U.S. Constitution, which explicitly sought to reign in executive treatymaking powers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Treaties_and_indigenous_peoples">Treaties and indigenous peoples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Treaties and indigenous peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg/250px-1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg/330px-1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg/500px-1858_Treaty_Delegation_Mdewakanton_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="525" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A treaty delegation of the <a href="/wiki/Mdewakanton" title="Mdewakanton">Mdewakanton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wahpekute" class="mw-redirect" title="Wahpekute">Wahpekute</a> indigenous tribes to Washington, D.C. (1858)</figcaption></figure> <p>Treaties formed an important part of European <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>; in many parts of the world, Europeans attempted to legitimize their sovereignty by signing treaties with <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous people">indigenous peoples</a>. In most cases, these treaties were in extremely disadvantageous terms to the native people, who often did not comprehend the implications of what they were signing.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In some rare cases, such as with <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing China</a>, local governments were able to use the treaties to at least mitigate the impact of European colonization. This involved learning the intricacies of European diplomatic customs and then using the treaties to prevent power from overstepping their agreement or by playing different powers against each other.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In other cases, such as New Zealand with the <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> and Canada with its <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> people, treaties allowed native peoples to maintain a minimum amount of autonomy. Such treaties between colonizers and indigenous peoples are an important part of political discourse in the late 20th and early 21st century, the treaties being discussed have international standing as has been stated in a treaty study by the UN.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia_2">Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_treaties_in_Australia" title="Indigenous treaties in Australia">Indigenous treaties in Australia</a></div> <p>In the case of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>, no treaty was ever entered into with the Indigenous peoples entitling the Europeans to land ownership, mostly adopting the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Terra_nullius" title="Terra nullius">terra nullius</a></i> (with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Letters_Patent_establishing_the_Province_of_South_Australia" title="Letters Patent establishing the Province of South Australia">South Australia</a>). This concept was later overturned by <i><a href="/wiki/Mabo_v_Queensland_(No_2)_(1992)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992)">Mabo v Queensland</a></i>, which established the concept of <a href="/wiki/Native_title_in_Australia" title="Native title in Australia">native title in Australia</a> well after colonization was already a <i>fait accompli</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Victoria">Victoria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Victoria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 10 December 2019,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Victorian <a href="/wiki/First_Peoples%27_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="First Peoples' Assembly">First Peoples' Assembly</a> met for the first time in the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Legislative_Council" title="Victorian Legislative Council">Upper House</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_Victoria" title="Parliament of Victoria">Parliament of Victoria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Melbourne" title="Melbourne">Melbourne</a>. The main aim of the Assembly is to work out the rules by which individual treaties would be negotiated between the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian Government">Victorian Government</a> and individual <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Victorians" title="Aboriginal Victorians">Aboriginal Victorian peoples</a>. It will also establish an independent Treaty Authority, which will oversee the negotiations between the Aboriginal groups and the Victorian Government and ensure fairness.<sup id="cite_ref-fpaelect_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fpaelect-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_2">United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to 1871, the government of the United States regularly entered into treaties with Native Americans but the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a> of 3 March 1871 had a <a href="/wiki/Rider_(legislation)" title="Rider (legislation)">rider</a> attached that effectively ended the President's treaty-making by providing that no Indian nation or tribe shall be acknowledged as an independent nation, tribe, or power with whom the United States may contract by treaty.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The federal government continued to provide similar contractual relations with the Indian tribes after 1871 by agreements, statutes, and executive orders.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colonization in Canada saw a number of treaties signed between European <a href="/wiki/Settler" title="Settler">settlers</a> and Indigenous <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> peoples. Historic Canadian treaties tend to fall into three broad categories: commercial, alliance, and territorial. Commercial treaties first emerged in the 17th century and were agreements made between the European <a href="/wiki/Fur_trade" title="Fur trade">fur trading</a> companies and the local First Nations. The <a href="/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company" title="Hudson's Bay Company">Hudson's Bay Company</a>, a British trading company located in what is now Northern <a href="/wiki/Ontario" title="Ontario">Ontario</a>, signed numerous commercial treaties during this period. Alliance treaties, commonly referred to as "treaties of peace, friendship and alliance" emerged in the late 17th to early 18th century.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Finally, territorial treaties dictating land rights were signed between 1760 and 1923.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763" title="Royal Proclamation of 1763">Royal Proclamation of 1763</a> accelerated the treaty-making process and provided the Crown with access to large amounts of land occupied by the First Nations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Crown and 364 First Nations signed 70 treaties that are recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Canada" title="Government of Canada">Government of Canada</a> and represent over 600,000 First Nation individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaties are as follows: </p> <ul><li>Treaties of Peace and Neutrality (1701–1760)<sup id="cite_ref-auto_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Peace and Friendship Treaties (1725–1779)<sup id="cite_ref-auto_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Upper Canada Land Surrenders (including <a href="/wiki/Toronto_Purchase" title="Toronto Purchase">Toronto Purchase</a>(Treaty 13), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johnson-Butler_Purchase&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johnson-Butler Purchase (page does not exist)">Johnson-Butler Purchase</a> (Gunshot Treaty)) and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Williams_Treaties&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Williams Treaties (page does not exist)">Williams Treaties</a> (1764–1862/1923)<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Robinson Treaties and Douglas Treaties (1850–1854)<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Numbered_Treaties" title="Numbered Treaties">Numbered Treaties</a> (1871–1921)<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaty_perceptions">Treaty perceptions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Treaty perceptions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is evidence that "although both Indigenous and European Nations engaged in treaty-making before contact with each other, the traditions, beliefs, and worldviews that defined concepts such as "treaties" were extremely different".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indigenous understanding of treaties is based on traditional culture and values. Maintaining healthy and equitable relationships with other nations, as well as the environment, is paramount.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gdoo-naaganinaa, a historic treaty between the <a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Nishnaabeg</a> nation and the <a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Haudenosaunee Confederacy</a> is an example of how First Nations approach treaties. Under Gdoo-naaganinaa, also referred-to in English as <a href="/wiki/Dish_With_One_Spoon" title="Dish With One Spoon"><i>Our Dish</i></a>, the neighbouring nations acknowledged that while they were separate nations they shared the same ecosystem or <i>Dish</i>. It was agreed that the nations would respectably share the land, not interfering with the other nation's <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereignty</a> while also not monopolizing environmental resources. First Nations agreements, such as the Gdoo-naaganigaa, are considered "living treaties" that must be upheld continually and renewed over time.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European settlers in Canada had a different perception of treaties. Treaties were not a living, equitable agreement but rather a legal contract over which the future creation of Canadian law would later rely on. As time passed, the settlers did not think it necessary to abide by all treaty agreements. A review of historic treaties reveals that the European settler understanding is the dominant view portrayed in Canadian treaties.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Treaties_today">Treaties today</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Treaties today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Canada today recognizes 25 additional treaties called Modern Treaties. These treaties represent the relationships between 97 Indigenous groups which includes over 89,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaties have been instrumental in strengthening Indigenous stronghold in Canada by providing the following (as organized by the Government of Canada) : </p> <ul><li>Indigenous ownership over 600,000 km² of land (almost the size of <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a>)</li> <li>capital transfers of over $3.2 billion</li> <li>protection of traditional ways of life</li> <li>access to resource development opportunities</li> <li>participation in land and resources management decisions</li> <li>certainty with respect to land rights in round 40% of Canada's land mass</li> <li>associated self-government rights and political recognition<sup id="cite_ref-:1_57-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Friendship">Treaty of Friendship</a></li> <li><i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Foedus" class="mw-redirect" title="Foedus">Foedus</a></i></span></i></li> <li><i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Jus_tractatuum" title="Jus tractatuum">Jus tractatuum</a></i></span></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_intergovernmental_organizations" title="List of intergovernmental organizations">List of intergovernmental organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_treaties" title="List of treaties">List of treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manrent" title="Manrent">Manrent</a> (feudal <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Clan">Scottish Clan</a> treaty)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supranational_union" title="Supranational union">Supranational union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_ratification" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty ratification">Treaty ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" title="Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bianchi, Andrea; Zarbiyev, Fuad (2024). <i>Demystifying Treaty Interpretation</i>. Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:8-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOdering" class="citation web cs1">Odering, Jason. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unimelb.libguides.com/internationallaw/treaties">"Library Guides: Public International Law: Treaties"</a>. <i>unimelb.libguides.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unimelb.libguides.com&rft.atitle=Library+Guides%3A+Public+International+Law%3A+Treaties&rft.aulast=Odering&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funimelb.libguides.com%2Finternationallaw%2Ftreaties&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGovernment_of_Canada2012" class="citation web cs1">Government of Canada, Department of Justice (3 February 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/abt-apd/icg-gci/ihrl-didp/def.html">"Definitions"</a>. <i>www.justice.gc.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.justice.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Definitions&rft.date=2012-02-03&rft.aulast=Government+of+Canada&rft.aufirst=Department+of+Justice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.justice.gc.ca%2Feng%2Fabt-apd%2Ficg-gci%2Fihrl-didp%2Fdef.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/treaty">"Treaty | Definition, Examples, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Treaty+%7C+Definition%2C+Examples%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Ftreaty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In United States constitutional law, the term "treaty" has a special meaning which is more restricted than its meaning in international law; see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#United_States_law">United States law</a> below.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nussbaum, Arthur (1954). <i>A concise history of the law of nations</i>. pp. 1–2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomacy/History-of-diplomacy">"diplomacy - History of diplomacy | Britannica"</a>. <i>www.britannica.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220110032945/https://www.britannica.com/topic/diplomacy/History-of-diplomacy">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 January</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=diplomacy+-+History+of+diplomacy+%7C+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fdiplomacy%2FHistory-of-diplomacy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMalgosia2010" class="citation book cs1">Malgosia, Fitzmaurice (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1481">"Treaties"</a>. <i>Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Flaw%3Aepil%2F9780199231690%2Fe1481">10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/e1481</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923169-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923169-0"><bdi>978-0-19-923169-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200325150521/https://opil.ouplaw.com/view/10.1093/law:epil/9780199231690/law-9780199231690-e1481">Archived</a> from the original on 25 March 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Treaties&rft.btitle=Max+Planck+Encyclopedia+of+Public+International+Law&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Flaw%3Aepil%2F9780199231690%2Fe1481&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923169-0&rft.aulast=Malgosia&rft.aufirst=Fitzmaurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopil.ouplaw.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Flaw%3Aepil%2F9780199231690%2Flaw-9780199231690-e1481&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:12_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOrakhelashvili2018" class="citation book cs1">Orakhelashvili, Alexander (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9780429439391/akehurst-modern-introduction-international-law-alexander-orakhelashvili"><i>Akehurst's Modern Introduction to International Law</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saint+Louis+University+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=Opening+the+Machinery+of+Private+Order%3A+Public+International+Law+as+a+Form+of+Private+Ordering&rft.volume=58&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E452-%3C%2Fspan%3E456&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Druzin&rft.aufirst=Bryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworks.bepress.com%2Fbryan_druzin%2F10%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty">"Definition of TREATY"</a>. <i>www.merriam-webster.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200601044927/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/treaty">Archived</a> from the original on 1 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.law.ox.ac.uk&rft.atitle=The+Distinction+Between+Self-Executing+and+Non-Self-Executing+Treaties+in+International+Law+%7C+Faculty+of+Law&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.ox.ac.uk%2Fevents%2Fdistinction-between-self-executing-and-non-self-executing-treaties-international-law%23%3A~%3Atext%3DAt%2520a%2520general%2520level%2C%2520a%2Cdomestic%2520law-applying%2520officials%29.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://constitution.congress.gov/browse/essay/artII-S2-C2-1-4/ALDE_00012955/">Self-Executing and Non-Self-Executing Treaties | Constitution Annotated</a> | Congress.gov | Library of Congress</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:7_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:7_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Gardiner, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/files/RelatedRecords/CR2018_04585.PDF">Part II Interpretation Applying the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, A. 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United Nations. 2003. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-133572-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-133572-9"><bdi>978-92-1-133572-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160331070613/https://treaties.un.org/doc/source/publications/FC/English.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 31 March 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 July</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Final+Clauses+in+Multilateral+Treaties%3A+Handbook&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-92-1-133572-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftreaties.un.org%2Fdoc%2Fsource%2Fpublications%2FFC%2FEnglish.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 60 of the <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" class="extiw" title="s:Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGomaa1997" class="citation book cs1">Gomaa, Mohammed M. (1997). <i>Suspension or termination of treaties on grounds of breach</i>. The Hague: M. Nijhoff. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0226-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0226-3"><bdi>978-90-411-0226-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suspension+or+termination+of+treaties+on+grounds+of+breach&rft.place=The+Hague&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=M.+Nijhoff&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-90-411-0226-3&rft.aulast=Gomaa&rft.aufirst=Mohammed+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Laurence_R._Helfer" class="mw-redirect" title="Laurence R. Helfer">Laurence R. Helfer</a>, Terminating Treaties, in <i>The Oxford Guide to Treaties</i> 634–649 (Duncan Hollis ed., Oxford University Press, 2012)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore, John Bassett (1906) <i>A Digest of International Law as embodied in diplomatic discussions, treaties and other international agreements</i>. Washington.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maxey, Edwin (1906) <i>International law with illustrative cases</i>. (F.H. Thomas Law Book Co.).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Upton, Francis Henry (1863) <i>The law of nations affecting commerce during war: with a review of the jurisdiction, practice and proceedings of prize courts</i>. (J.S. Voorhies), pp.25-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Holm_Arno_Leonhardt" title="Holm Arno Leonhardt">Holm Arno Leonhardt</a>: <i>Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien</i>, Hildesheim 2013, p. 55-56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cartel flags, Joe McMillan, 14 December 2001, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/xf-crtl.html">https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/xf-crtl.html</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901054151/https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/xf-crtl.html">Archived</a> 1 September 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Holm_Arno_Leonhardt" title="Holm Arno Leonhardt">Holm Arno Leonhardt</a>: <i>Kartelltheorie und Internationale Beziehungen. Theoriegeschichtliche Studien</i>, Hildesheim 2013, p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). <i>Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament,</i> pp. 1–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_on_Basic_Relations_between_Japan_and_the_Republic_of_Korea" class="extiw" title="s:Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea">" Treaty on Basic Relations between Japan and the Republic of Korea"</a>; excerpt, "It is confirmed that all treaties or agreements concluded between the Empire of Japan and the Empire of Korea on or before August 22, 1910, are already null and void."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 3, Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts Adopted by ILC 53 session 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Article 27, Vienna Convention on the Law of treaties, Vienna 23 May 1969 jfr. P 2, World T.R. 2007, 6(1), 45–87</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWoodPronto2010" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Michael; Pronto, Arnold (2010). <i>The International Law Commission 1999–2009</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 764. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957897-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-957897-9"><bdi>978-0-19-957897-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Law+Commission+1999%E2%80%932009.&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=764&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-957897-9&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Pronto%2C+Arnold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Articles 53 and 64 of the <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Vienna_Convention_on_the_Law_of_Treaties" class="extiw" title="s:Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties">Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx">"Treaty making process"</a>. <i>Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170918160503/http://dfat.gov.au/international-relations/treaties/treaty-making-process/pages/treaty-making-process.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 18 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 April</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Foreign+Affairs+and+Trade&rft.atitle=Treaty+making+process&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdfat.gov.au%2Finternational-relations%2Ftreaties%2Ftreaty-making-process%2Fpages%2Ftreaty-making-process.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CPRT-106SPRT66922/pdf/CPRT-106SPRT66922.pdf">Treaties and Other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate</a> Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress (January 2001), <b>p. 5-6.</b></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treaties and Other International Agreements: the Role of the United States Senate Congressional Research Service, Library of Congress (January 2001), <b>p. 4-6.</b> <i>Under international law, a </i>treaty<i> is any legally binding agreement between nations. In the United States, the word treaty is reserved for an agreement that is made </i>by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate<i> (Article II, Section 2, Clause 2 of the Constitution). International agreements not submitted to the Senate are known as </i>executive agreements<i> in the United States, but they are considered treaties and therefore binding under international law. For various reasons, Presidents have increasingly concluded executive agreements. Many agreements are previously authorized or specifically approved by legislation, and such </i>congressional executive<i> or statutory agreements have been treated almost interchangeably with treaties in several important court cases. Others, often referred to as </i>sole executive agreements,<i> are made pursuant to inherent powers claimed by the President under Article II of the Constitution. Neither the Senate nor the Congress as a whole is involved in concluding sole executive agreements, and their status in domestic law is not fully resolved.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/65728.pdf">International documents of a non-legally binding character</a>" (PDF). <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opiniojuris.org/2015/03/11/dealing-with-iran-a-primer-on-the-presidents-options-for-a-nuclear-agreement/">Dealing with Iran: A Primer on the President's Options for a Nuclear Agreement</a>". <i>Opinio Juris</i>. 11 March 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Reid v. Covert, 354 U.S. 1, 18 (1957) ("This Court has . . . repeatedly taken the position that an Act of Congress, which must comply with the Constitution, is on a full parity with a treaty, and that when a statute which is subsequent in time is inconsistent with a treaty, the statute to the extent of conflict renders the treaty null. It would be completely anomalous to say that a treaty need not comply with the Constitution when such an agreement can be overridden by a statute that must conform to that instrument.").</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlfonso_Martínez1999" class="citation web cs1">Alfonso Martínez, Miguel (22 June 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/276353?ln=en">"Study on treaties, agreements and other constructive arrangements between States and indigenous populations"</a>. <i>United Nations</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200714185530/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/276353?ln=en">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations&rft.atitle=Study+on+treaties%2C+agreements+and+other+constructive+arrangements+between+States+and+indigenous+populations&rft.date=1999-06-22&rft.aulast=Alfonso+Mart%C3%ADnez&rft.aufirst=Miguel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdigitallibrary.un.org%2Frecord%2F276353%3Fln%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHelmut_K._AnheierMark_JuergensmeyerVictor_Faessel2012" class="citation book cs1">Helmut K. Anheier; Mark Juergensmeyer; Victor Faessel, eds. (2012). <i>Encyclopedia of Global Studies</i>. United States of America: SAGE Publications, Inc. p. 1679. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6429-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-6429-6"><bdi>978-1-4129-6429-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Global+Studies&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=1679&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-6429-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/news/4404-historic-day-for-first-peoples-assembly#:~:text=The%20First%20Peoples'%20Assembly%20of%20Victoria%20is%20the%20voice%20of,will%20be%20independent%20of%20government">"Historic day for First Peoples' Assembly"</a>. <i>Parliament of Victoria</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604072621/https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/about/news/4404-historic-day-for-first-peoples-assembly#:~:text=The%20First%20Peoples'%20Assembly%20of%20Victoria%20is%20the%20voice%20of,will%20be%20independent%20of%20government">Archived</a> from the original on 4 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Parliament+of+Victoria&rft.atitle=Historic+day+for+First+Peoples%27+Assembly&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.vic.gov.au%2Fabout%2Fnews%2F4404-historic-day-for-first-peoples-assembly%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520First%2520Peoples%27%2520Assembly%2520of%2520Victoria%2520is%2520the%2520voice%2520of%2Cwill%2520be%2520independent%2520of%2520government&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fpaelect-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fpaelect_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDunstan2019" class="citation web cs1">Dunstan, Joseph (5 November 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-05/victorian-aboriginal-treaty-assembly-elected-what-happens-next/11650520">"Victorian Aboriginal voters have elected a treaty assembly. So what's next?"</a>. <i>ABC News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191108052441/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-05/victorian-aboriginal-treaty-assembly-elected-what-happens-next/11650520">Archived</a> from the original on 8 November 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Victorian+Aboriginal+voters+have+elected+a+treaty+assembly.+So+what%27s+next%3F&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft.aulast=Dunstan&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2019-11-05%2Fvictorian-aboriginal-treaty-assembly-elected-what-happens-next%2F11650520&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_25_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 25 of the United States Code">25 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/25/71">§ 71</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Page 12 of the introduction to <i>Forest Service National Resource Guide to American Indian and Alaska Native Relations</i> Author: Joe Mitchell, Publish date: 12/5/97 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fs.fed.us/people/tribal/tribint.pdf">US Forest Service – Caring for the land and serving people.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080922044501/http://www.fs.fed.us/people/tribal/tribint.pdf">Archived</a> 22 September 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2009" class="citation book cs1">Miller, James Rodger (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12"><i>Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5"><bdi>978-0-8020-9741-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220923131622/https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compact%2C+Contract%2C+Covenant%3A+Aboriginal+Treaty-making+in+Canada&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-9741-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=James+Rodger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9v3HZDKUlG4C%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Btreaties%2Bin%2BCanada%26pg%3DPR12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMiller2009" class="citation book cs1">Miller, James Rodger (1 January 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12"><i>Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada</i></a>. University of Toronto Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">4–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5"><bdi>978-0-8020-9741-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220923131622/https://books.google.com/books?id=9v3HZDKUlG4C&q=history+of+treaties+in+Canada&pg=PR12">Archived</a> from the original on 23 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Compact%2C+Contract%2C+Covenant%3A+Aboriginal+Treaty-making+in+Canada&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E4-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2009-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-9741-5&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=James+Rodger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9v3HZDKUlG4C%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Btreaties%2Bin%2BCanada%26pg%3DPR12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_57-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1100100028574/1529354437231">"Treaties and agreements"</a>. <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications Branch. 3 November 2008. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110828165101/http://www.ainc-inac.gc.ca/al/hts/index-eng.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 28 August 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Treaties+and+agreements&rft.date=2008-11-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1100100028574%2F1529354437231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360866174787/1544619566736">"Treaties of Peace and Neutrality (1701-1760)"</a>. <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. 14 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210608034156/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360866174787/1544619566736">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Treaties+of+Peace+and+Neutrality+%281701-1760%29&rft.date=2013-02-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1360866174787%2F1544619566736&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887">"Upper Canada Land Surrenders and the Williams Treaties (1764-1862/1923)"</a>. <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. 15 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210608034154/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360941656761/1544619778887">Archived</a> from the original on 8 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Upper+Canada+Land+Surrenders+and+the+Williams+Treaties+%281764-1862%2F1923%29&rft.date=2013-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1360941656761%2F1544619778887&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360945974712/1544619909155">"Robinson Treaties and Douglas Treaties (1850-1854)"</a>. <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. 15 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210515223455/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360945974712/1544619909155">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca&rft.atitle=Robinson+Treaties+and+Douglas+Treaties+%281850-1854%29&rft.date=2013-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1360945974712%2F1544619909155&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549">"The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921)"</a>. <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada. 15 February 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210615142023/https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1360948213124/1544620003549">Archived</a> from the original on 15 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca&rft.atitle=The+Numbered+Treaties+%281871-1921%29&rft.date=2013-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca%2Feng%2F1360948213124%2F1544620003549&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Leanne (2008). "Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships". <i>Wíčazo Ša Review</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 31. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001">10.1353/wic.0.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1533-7901">1533-7901</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159947259">159947259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=W%C3%AD%C4%8Dazo+%C5%A0a+Review&rft.atitle=Looking+after+Gdoo-naaganinaa%3A+Precolonial+Nishnaabeg+Diplomatic+and+Treaty+Relationships&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159947259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1533-7901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Leanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Leanne (2008). "Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships". <i>Wíčazo Ša Review</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">29–</span>42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001">10.1353/wic.0.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1533-7901">1533-7901</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159947259">159947259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=W%C3%AD%C4%8Dazo+%C5%A0a+Review&rft.atitle=Looking+after+Gdoo-naaganinaa%3A+Precolonial+Nishnaabeg+Diplomatic+and+Treaty+Relationships&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E42&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159947259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1533-7901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Leanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimpson2008" class="citation journal cs1">Simpson, Leanne (2008). "Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships". <i>Wíčazo Ša Review</i>. <b>23</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">36–</span>38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001">10.1353/wic.0.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1533-7901">1533-7901</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159947259">159947259</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=W%C3%AD%C4%8Dazo+%C5%A0a+Review&rft.atitle=Looking+after+Gdoo-naaganinaa%3A+Precolonial+Nishnaabeg+Diplomatic+and+Treaty+Relationships&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E36-%3C%2Fspan%3E38&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159947259%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1533-7901&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fwic.0.0001&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=Leanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATreaty" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Branch, Government of Canada; Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada; Communications (2008-11-03). "Treaties and agreements". <i>www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca</i>. Retrieved 2021-02-05.</li> <li>Korean Mission to the Conference on the Limitation of Armament, Washington, D.C., 1921–1922. (1922). <i>Korea's Appeal to the Conference on Limitation of Armament.</i> Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/12923609">12923609</a></li> <li>Miller, James Rodger (2009-01-01). <i>Compact, Contract, Covenant: Aboriginal Treaty-making in Canada</i>. University of Toronto Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-9741-5">978-0-8020-9741-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Nicolson" title="Harold Nicolson">Nicolson, Harold</a>. (1936). <i>Diplomacy,</i> 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/502863836">502863836</a></li> <li>Seah, Daniel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=9709226&fileId=S2044251315000016">"Problems Concerning the International Law-Making Practice of ASEAN: A Reply to Chen Zhida"</a> Asian Journal of International Law (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_Shaw_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Malcolm Shaw (academic)">Shaw, Malcolm Nathan</a>. (1977). <i>International Law,</i> 1st ed. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/637940121">637940121</a></li> <li>Simpson, Leanne (2008). "Looking after Gdoo-naaganinaa: Precolonial Nishnaabeg Diplomatic and Treaty Relationships". <i>Wíčazo Ša Review</i>. <b>23</b> (2): 29–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:10.1353/wic.0.0001. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> 1533-7901</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.law.uga.edu/profile/timothy-l-meyer">Timothy L. Meyer</a>, "From Contract to Legislation: The Logic of Modern International Lawmaking" 14 Chicago Journal of International Law 559 (2014), available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ssrn.com/abstract=2378870">From Contract to Legislation: The Logic of Modern International Lawmaking</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Treaty&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 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title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Treaties" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:Treaties">Treaties</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735" /><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" 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style="width:1%">Present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BRICS" title="BRICS">BRICS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_Security_Treaty_Organization" title="Collective Security Treaty Organization">Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Criminal_Court" title="International Criminal Court">International Criminal Court (ICC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Aligned_Movement" title="Non-Aligned Movement">Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Cooperation_Organisation" title="Shanghai Cooperation Organisation">Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations (UN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Past</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warsaw_Pact" title="Warsaw Pact">Warsaw Pact</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1648%E2%80%931814)" title="International relations (1648–1814)">1648–1814</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">1814–1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">1919–1939</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_II" title="Diplomatic history of World War II">Diplomatic history of World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_since_1989" title="International relations since 1989">International relations since 1989</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entente_(alliance)" title="Entente (alliance)">Entente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalition" title="Coalition">Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_alliance" title="Military alliance">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">Appeasement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-belligerence" title="Co-belligerence">Co-belligerence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">Collective security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis" title="Crisis">Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deterrence_theory" title="Deterrence theory">Deterrence theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansionism" title="Expansionism">Expansionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-zone_(international_relations)" title="Grey-zone (international relations)">Grey-zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_community" title="International community">International community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">Internationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internationality" title="Internationality">Internationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(politics)" title="Interventionism (politics)">Interventionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolationism" title="Isolationism">Isolationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">National interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_country" title="Neutral country">Neutral country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-belligerent" title="Non-belligerent">Non-belligerent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-state_actor" title="Non-state actor">Non-state actor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(international_relations)" title="Power (international relations)">Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(international_relations)" title="Regionalism (international relations)">Regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_of_conquest" title="Right of conquest">Right of conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suzerainty" title="Suzerainty">Suzerainty</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Treaty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_treaty" title="Bilateral treaty">Bilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_friendship" title="Treaty of friendship">Friendship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateral_treaty" title="Multilateral treaty">Multilateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">Non-aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-of-society" title="Whole-of-society">Whole-of-society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">Theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations 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title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_sociology" title="International political sociology">International political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_studies" title="Security studies">Security studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319" /><link 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