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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Origins_of_the_modern_conservation_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_of_the_modern_conservation_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Origins of the modern conservation movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_modern_conservation_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Conservation in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Since_1970" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1970"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Since 1970</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1970-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_five_elements_of_convivial_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_five_elements_of_convivial_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1.1</span> <span>The five elements of convivial conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_five_elements_of_convivial_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racism_and_the_Conservation_Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racism_and_the_Conservation_Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Racism and the Conservation Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racism_and_the_Conservation_Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conservation_in_Costa_Rica"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Conservation in Costa Rica</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>World Wide Fund for Nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Conservation_Far"_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Conservation_Far"_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.1</span> <span>"Conservation Far" approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Conservation_Far"_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Conservation_near"_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Conservation_near"_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6.2</span> <span>"Conservation near" approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Conservation_near"_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evidence-based_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evidence-based_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Evidence-based conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-based_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Areas_of_concern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Areas_of_concern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Areas of concern</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas_of_concern-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas of concern subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Areas_of_concern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Boreal_forest_and_the_Arctic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Boreal_forest_and_the_Arctic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Boreal forest and the Arctic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Boreal_forest_and_the_Arctic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America_(Bolivia)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America_(Bolivia)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Latin America (Bolivia)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America_(Bolivia)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa_(Botswana)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_(Botswana)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Africa (Botswana)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_(Botswana)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>World</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Regional studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia-Pacific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia-Pacific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>Asia-Pacific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-Pacific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Latin America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_and_Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_and_Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.4</span> <span>Europe and Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_and_Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.5</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Historiography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" 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type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B8_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9" title="حركة الحفاظ على البيئة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حركة الحفاظ على البيئة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loodushoid" title="Loodushoid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Loodushoid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%AF%CE%BD%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1_%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%81%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82" title="Κίνημα Διατήρησης – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κίνημα Διατήρησης" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservaci%C3%B3n_ambiental" title="Conservación ambiental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Conservación ambiental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikonservado" title="Medikonservado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Medikonservado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingurumenaren_kontserbazio" title="Ingurumenaren kontserbazio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingurumenaren kontserbazio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A8%D8%B4_%D8%AD%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B8%D8%AA" title="جنبش حفاظت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جنبش حفاظت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_de_la_nature" title="Conservation de la nature – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Conservation de la nature" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%B4%EC%A0%84%EC%9A%B4%EB%8F%99" title="보전운동 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="보전운동" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3_%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%A8" title="संरक्षण आंदोलन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संरक्षण आंदोलन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerakan_konservasi" title="Gerakan konservasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gerakan konservasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservazionismo" title="Conservazionismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Conservazionismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harakati_za_uhifadhi" title="Harakati za uhifadhi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Harakati za uhifadhi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerakan_konservasionisme" title="Gerakan konservasionisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Gerakan konservasionisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AE%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%AE%D9%88%DA%81%DA%9A%D8%AA" title="د خونديتابه خوځښت – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د خونديتابه خوځښت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservacionismo" title="Conservacionismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Conservacionismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Conservation movement" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luonnonsuojelu" title="Luonnonsuojelu – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Luonnonsuojelu" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturskydd" title="Naturskydd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Naturskydd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B9%8C" title="กระแสอนุรักษ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="กระแสอนุรักษ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phong_tr%C3%A0o_b%E1%BA%A3o_t%E1%BB%93n" title="Phong trào bảo tồn – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Phong trào bảo tồn" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BF%9D%E8%82%B2%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="保育運動 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="保育運動" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social and political advocacy for protecting natural resources</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For specific types of conservation, see <a 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government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">National unity government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotation_government" title="Rotation government">Rotation government</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_political_parties" title="Lists of political parties">Lists of political parties</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ruling_political_parties_by_country" title="List of ruling political parties by country">Ruling parties by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_by_region" title="List of political parties by region">Political parties by region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banned_political_parties" title="List of banned political parties">Banned political parties</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" 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.navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Party_politics" title="Template:Party politics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Party_politics" title="Template talk:Party politics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Party_politics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Party politics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>conservation movement</b>, also known as <b><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">nature conservation</a></b>, is a political, environmental, and social movement that seeks to manage and protect <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plant_species" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant species">plant species</a> as well as their habitat for the future. Conservationists are concerned with leaving the environment in a better state than the condition they found it in.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a> seeks to use high quality scientific evidence to make conservation efforts more effective. </p><p>The early conservation movement evolved out of necessity to maintain natural resources such as <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">wildlife management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Conservation_(ethic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation (ethic)">conservation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forestry" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forestry">sustainable forestry</a>. The contemporary conservation movement has broadened from the early movement's emphasis on use of sustainable yield of natural resources and preservation of <a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">wilderness</a> areas to include preservation of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>. Some say the conservation movement is part of the broader and more far-reaching <a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">environmental movement</a>, while others argue that they differ both in ideology and practice. Conservation is seen as differing from <a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">environmentalism</a> and it is generally a conservative school of thought which aims to preserve natural resources expressly for their continued <a href="/wiki/Sustainable" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable">sustainable</a> use by humans.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_environmental_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of environmental events">Timeline of environmental events</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sylva_paper_1662.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sylva_paper_1662.jpg/220px-Sylva_paper_1662.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="357" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sylva_paper_1662.jpg/330px-Sylva_paper_1662.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Sylva_paper_1662.jpg/440px-Sylva_paper_1662.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1403" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption> <i>Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesty's Dominions,</i> title page of the first edition (1664)</figcaption></figure> <p>The conservation movement can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a>'s work <i><a href="/wiki/Sylva,_or_A_Discourse_of_Forest-Trees_and_the_Propagation_of_Timber" title="Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber">Sylva</a></i>, which was presented as a paper to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a> in 1662. Published as a book two years later, it was one of the most highly influential texts on <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> ever published.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Timbre resources in England were becoming dangerously depleted at the time, and Evelyn advocated the importance of conserving the forests by managing the rate of depletion and ensuring that the cut down trees get replenished. </p><p>The field developed during the 18th century, especially in <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and France where scientific forestry methods were developed. These methods were first applied rigorously in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> from the early 19th century. The government was interested in the use of <a href="/wiki/Forest_produce" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest produce">forest produce</a> and began managing the forests with measures to reduce the risk of wildfire in order to protect the "household" of nature, as it was then termed. This early ecological idea was in order to preserve the growth of delicate <a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a> trees, which was an important resource for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>. </p><p>Concerns over teak depletion were raised as early as 1799 and 1805 when the Navy was undergoing a massive expansion during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic War">Napoleonic Wars</a>; this pressure led to the first formal conservation Act, which prohibited the felling of small teak trees. The first forestry officer was appointed in 1806 to regulate and preserve the trees necessary for shipbuilding.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This promising start received a setback in the 1820s and 30s, when <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire" title="Laissez-faire">laissez-faire</a> economics and complaints from private landowners brought these early conservation attempts to an end. </p><p>In 1837, American poet <a href="/wiki/George_Pope_Morris" title="George Pope Morris">George Pope Morris</a> published "Woodman, Spare that Tree!", a <a href="/wiki/Romantic_poetry" title="Romantic poetry">Romantic</a> poem urging a lumberjack to avoid an <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak tree</a> that has sentimental value. The poem was set to music later that year by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Russell_(musician)" title="Henry Russell (musician)">Henry Russell</a>. Lines from the song have been quoted by environmentalists.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_of_the_modern_conservation_movement">Origins of the modern conservation movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins of the modern conservation movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Conservation was revived in the mid-19th century, with the first practical application of scientific conservation principles to the forests of India. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that human activity damaged the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">environment</a>, that there was a <a href="/wiki/Civic_duty" class="mw-redirect" title="Civic duty">civic duty</a> to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. Sir <a href="/wiki/James_Ranald_Martin" title="James Ranald Martin">James Ranald Martin</a> was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in <a href="/wiki/British_India" class="mw-redirect" title="British India">British India</a> through the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Indian_Forest_Service" title="Indian Forest Service">Forest Departments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Percy_Stebbing" title="Edward Percy Stebbing">Edward Percy Stebbing</a> warned of <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a> of India. The <a href="/wiki/Madras" class="mw-redirect" title="Madras">Madras</a> Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Gibson_(botanist)" title="Alexander Gibson (botanist)">Alexander Gibson</a>, a professional <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botanist</a> who systematically adopted a forest conservation program based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These local attempts gradually received more attention by the British government as the unregulated felling of trees continued unabated. In 1850, the <a href="/wiki/British_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="British Association">British Association</a> in Edinburgh formed a committee to study forest destruction at the behest of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Francis_Cleghorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Hugh Francis Cleghorn">Hugh Cleghorn</a> a pioneer in the nascent conservation movement. </p><p>He had become interested in <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">forest conservation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mysore" title="Mysore">Mysore</a> in 1847 and gave several lectures at the Association on the failure of agriculture in India. These lectures influenced the government under <a href="/wiki/Governor-General_of_India" title="Governor-General of India">Governor-General</a> <a href="/wiki/James_Broun-Ramsay,_1st_Marquess_of_Dalhousie" title="James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie">Lord Dalhousie</a> to introduce the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation program in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to <a href="/wiki/British_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="British empire">other colonies</a>, as well the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. In the same year, Cleghorn organised the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu_Forest_Department" title="Tamil Nadu Forest Department">Madras Forest Department</a> and in 1860 the department banned the use <a href="/wiki/Shifting_cultivation" title="Shifting cultivation">shifting cultivation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cleghorn's 1861 manual, <i>The forests and gardens of South India</i>, became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.<sup id="cite_ref-Cleghorn_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cleghorn-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1861, the Forest Department extended its remit into the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_(British_India)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (British India)">Punjab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg/300px-Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg/450px-Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg/600px-Sir_William_Schlich07.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="790" /></a><figcaption>Schlich, in the middle of the seated row, with students from the forestry school at Oxford, on a visit to the forests of Saxony in the year 1892</figcaption></figure> <p>Sir <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Brandis" title="Dietrich Brandis">Dietrich Brandis</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a> forester, joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Burma</a>. During that time Burma's <a href="/wiki/Teak" title="Teak">teak</a> forests were controlled by militant <a href="/wiki/Karen_people" title="Karen people">Karen</a> tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which Karen villagers provided labor for clearing, planting and weeding teak plantations. After seven years in Burma, Brandis was appointed Inspector General of Forests in India, a position he served in for 20 years. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Forest_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Forest School">Imperial Forest School</a> at <a href="/wiki/Dehradun" title="Dehradun">Dehradun</a> was founded by him.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Germans were prominent in the forestry administration of British India. As well as Brandis, <a href="/wiki/Berthold_Ribbentrop" title="Berthold Ribbentrop">Berthold Ribbentrop</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_P.D._Schlich" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William P.D. Schlich">Sir William P.D. Schlich</a> brought new methods to Indian conservation, the latter becoming the Inspector-General in 1883 after Brandis stepped down. Schlich helped to establish the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Indian_Forester" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Forester">Indian Forester</a></i> in 1874, and became the founding director of the first <a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">forestry</a> school in England at <a href="/wiki/Royal_Indian_Engineering_College" title="Royal Indian Engineering College">Cooper's Hill</a> in 1885.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He authored the five-volume <i>Manual of Forestry</i> (1889–96) on <a href="/wiki/Silviculture" title="Silviculture">silviculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">forest protection</a>, and forest utilization, which became the standard and enduring textbook for forestry students. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation_in_the_United_States">Conservation in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Conservation in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellowstone_1871b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Yellowstone_1871b.jpg/250px-Yellowstone_1871b.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Yellowstone_1871b.jpg/375px-Yellowstone_1871b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Yellowstone_1871b.jpg/500px-Yellowstone_1871b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3486" data-file-height="3700" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_Vandeveer_Hayden" title="Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden">F. V. Hayden</a>'s map of <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park" title="Yellowstone National Park">Yellowstone National Park</a>, 1871</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">Conservation in the United States</a></div> <p>The American movement received its inspiration from 19th century works that exalted the inherent value of nature, quite apart from human usage. Author <a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Henry David Thoreau</a> (1817–1862) made key philosophical contributions that exalted nature. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book <i><a href="/wiki/Walden" title="Walden">Walden</a>,</i> which argued that people should become intimately close with nature.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ideas of <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Brandis" title="Dietrich Brandis">Sir Brandis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_P.D._Schlich" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William P.D. Schlich">Sir William P.D. Schlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_A._Schenck" title="Carl A. Schenck">Carl A. Schenck</a> were also very influential—<a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, the first chief of the <a href="/wiki/USDA_Forest_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="USDA Forest Service">USDA Forest Service</a>, relied heavily upon Brandis' advice for introducing professional forest management in the U.S. and on how to structure the Forest Service.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both conservationists and preservationists appeared in political debates during the <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a> (the 1890s–early 1920s). There were three main positions. </p> <ul><li><b>Laissez-faire:</b> The laissez-faire position held that owners of private property, including lumber and mining companies, should be allowed to do anything they wished on their properties. Environmental protection therefore becomes their choice.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Businesses are pressured somewhat by the incentive of occupational preservation which requires that they not wholly destroy or consume the resources they rely upon. Said businesses need to innovate or pivot in the event that the exhaustion of a resource is imminent.</li> <li><b>Conservationists:</b> The conservationists, led by future President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> and his close ally <a href="/wiki/George_Bird_Grinnell" title="George Bird Grinnell">George Bird Grinnell</a>, were motivated by the wanton waste that was taking place at the hand of market forces, including logging and hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice resulted in placing a large number of North American game species on the edge of extinction. Roosevelt believed that the laissez-faire approach of the U.S. Government was too wasteful and inefficient. In any case, they noted, most of the natural resources in the western states were already owned by the federal government. The best course of action, they argued, was a long-term plan devised by national experts to maximize the long-term economic benefits of natural resources. To accomplish the mission, Roosevelt and Grinnell formed the <a href="/wiki/Boone_and_Crockett_Club" title="Boone and Crockett Club">Boone and Crockett Club</a>, whose members were some of the best minds and influential men of the day. Its contingency of conservationists, scientists, politicians, and intellectuals became Roosevelt's closest advisers during his march to preserve wildlife and habitat across North America.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Preservationists:</b> Preservationists, led by <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a> (1838–1914), argued that the conservation policies were not strong enough to protect the interest of the natural world because they continued to focus on the natural world as a source of economic production.</li></ul> <p>The debate between conservation and preservation reached its peak in the public debates over the construction of California's <a href="/wiki/O%27Shaughnessy_Dam_(California)" title="O'Shaughnessy Dam (California)">Hetch Hetchy dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park" title="Yosemite National Park">Yosemite National Park</a> which supplies the water supply of San Francisco. Muir, leading the <a href="/wiki/Sierra_Club" title="Sierra Club">Sierra Club</a>, declared that the valley must be preserved for the sake of its beauty: "No holier temple has ever been consecrated by the heart of man." </p><p>President <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Roosevelt</a> put conservationist issues high on the national agenda.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He worked with all the major figures of the movement, especially his chief advisor on the matter, <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a> and was deeply committed to conserving natural resources. He encouraged the <a href="/wiki/Newlands_Reclamation_Act" title="Newlands Reclamation Act">Newlands Reclamation Act</a> of 1902 to promote federal construction of dams to irrigate small farms and placed 230 million acres (360,000 sq mi; 930,000 km<sup>2</sup>) under federal protection. Roosevelt set aside more federal land for <a href="/wiki/National_park" title="National park">national parks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nature_preserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature preserve">nature preserves</a> than all of his predecessors combined.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:TR-Enviro.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/TR-Enviro.JPG/250px-TR-Enviro.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/TR-Enviro.JPG/375px-TR-Enviro.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/TR-Enviro.JPG/500px-TR-Enviro.JPG 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="1096" /></a><figcaption>Roosevelt was a leader in conservation, fighting to end the waste of natural resources.</figcaption></figure> <p>Roosevelt established the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service" title="United States Forest Service">United States Forest Service</a>, signed into law the creation of five national parks, and signed the year 1906 <a href="/wiki/Antiquities_Act" title="Antiquities Act">Antiquities Act</a>, under which he proclaimed 18 new <a href="/wiki/National_monument_(United_States)" title="National monument (United States)">national monuments</a>. He also established the first 51 <a href="/wiki/Bird_reserve" title="Bird reserve">bird reserves</a>, four <a href="/wiki/Game_preserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Game preserve">game preserves</a>, and 150 <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Forest">national forests</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Shoshone_National_Forest" title="Shoshone National Forest">Shoshone National Forest</a>, the nation's first. The area of the United States that he placed under public protection totals approximately 230,000,000 acres (930,000 km<sup>2</sup>). </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a> had been appointed by McKinley as chief of Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture. In 1905, his department gained control of the national forest reserves. Pinchot promoted private use (for a fee) under federal supervision. In 1907, Roosevelt designated 16 million acres (65,000 km<sup>2</sup>) of new national forests just minutes before a deadline.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In May 1908, Roosevelt sponsored the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Governors" title="Conference of Governors">Conference of Governors</a> held in the White House, with a focus on natural resources and their most efficient use. Roosevelt delivered the opening address: "Conservation as a National Duty". </p><p>In 1903 Roosevelt toured the Yosemite Valley with <a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a>, who had a very different view of conservation, and tried to minimize commercial use of water resources and forests. Working through the Sierra Club he founded, Muir succeeded in 1905 in having Congress transfer the <a href="/wiki/Mariposa_Grove" title="Mariposa Grove">Mariposa Grove</a> and Yosemite Valley to the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Muir wanted nature preserved for its own sake, Roosevelt subscribed to Pinchot's formulation, "to make the forest produce the largest amount of whatever crop or service will be most useful, and keep on producing it for generation after generation of men and trees."<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theodore Roosevelt's view on conservationism remained dominant for decades; <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> authorised the building of many large-scale dams and water projects, as well as the expansion of the National Forest System to buy out sub-marginal farms. In 1937, the <a href="/wiki/Pittman%E2%80%93Robertson_Federal_Aid_in_Wildlife_Restoration_Act" title="Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act">Pittman–Robertson Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Act</a> was signed into law, providing funding for state agencies to carry out their conservation efforts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg/220px-Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg/330px-Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg/440px-Theodore_Roosevelt_with_dead_lion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1104" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>Theodore Roosevelt with trophy killing</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Since_1970">Since 1970</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Since 1970"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental reemerged on the national agenda in 1970, with Republican <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nixon" title="Richard Nixon">Richard Nixon</a> playing a major role, especially with his creation of the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a>. The debates over the public lands and environmental politics played a supporting role in the decline of liberalism and the rise of modern environmentalism. Although Americans consistently rank environmental issues as "important", polling data indicates that in the voting booth voters rank the environmental issues low relative to other political concerns. </p><p>The growth of the Republican party's political power in the inland West (apart from the Pacific coast) was facilitated by the rise of popular opposition to public lands reform. Successful Democrats in the inland West and Alaska typically take more conservative positions on environmental issues than Democrats from the Coastal states. Conservatives drew on new organizational networks of think tanks, industry groups, and citizen-oriented organizations, and they began to deploy new strategies that affirmed the rights of individuals to their property, protection of extraction rights, to hunt and recreate, and to pursue happiness unencumbered by the federal government at the expense of resource conservation.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019, convivial conservation was an idea proposed by Bram Büscher and Robert Fletcher. Convivial conservation draws on social movements and concepts like <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> and structural change to create a post-capitalist approach to conservation.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convivial conservation rejects both human-nature dichotomies and capitalistic political economies. Built on a politics of equity, structural change and  environmental  justice, convivial conservation is considered a radical theory as it focuses on the structural political-economy of modern nation states and the need to create structural change.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convivial conservation creates a more integrated approach which reconfigures the nature-human configuration to create a world in which humans are recognized as a part of nature. The emphasis on nature as for and by humans creates a human responsibility to care for the environment as a way of caring for themselves. It also redefines nature as not only being pristine and untouched, but cultivated by humans in everyday formats. The theory is a long-term process of structural change to move away from capitalist valuation in favor of a system emphasizing everyday and local living.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Convivial conservation creates a nature which includes humans rather than excluding them from the necessity of conservation. While other conservation theories integrate some of the elements of convivial conservation, none move away from both dichotomies and capitalist valuation principles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_five_elements_of_convivial_conservation">The five elements of convivial conservation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The five elements of convivial conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Source:<sup id="cite_ref-:4_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The promotion of nature for, to and by humans</li> <li>The movement away from the concept of conservation as saving only nonhuman nature</li> <li>Emphasis on the long-term democratic engagement with nature rather than elite access and tourism,</li> <li>The movement away from the spectacle of nature and instead focusing on the mundane ‘everyday nature’</li> <li>The democratic management of nature, with nature as commons and in context</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racism_and_the_Conservation_Movement">Racism and the Conservation Movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Racism and the Conservation Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early years of the environmental and conservation movements were rooted in the safeguarding of game to support the recreation activities of elite white men, such as <a href="/wiki/Trophy_hunting" title="Trophy hunting">sport hunting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to an economy to support and perpetuate these activities as well as the continued wilderness conservation to support the corporate interests supplying the hunters with the equipment needed for their sport.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Game parks in England and the United States allowed wealthy hunters and fishermen to <a href="/wiki/Overhunting" class="mw-redirect" title="Overhunting">deplete wildlife</a>, while hunting by Indigenous groups, laborers and the working class, and poor citizens - especially for the express use of sustenance - was vigorously monitored.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars have shown that the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._national_park" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. national park">U.S. national parks</a>, while setting aside land for preservation, was also a continuation of preserving the land for the recreation and enjoyment of elite white hunters and nature enthusiasts.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While Theodore Roosevelt was one of the leading activists for the conservation movement in the United States, he also believed that the threats to the natural world were equally threats to white Americans. Roosevelt and his contemporaries held the belief that the cities, industries and factories that were overtaking the wilderness and threatening the native plants and animals were also consuming and threatening the racial vigor that they believed white Americans held which made them superior.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Roosevelt was a big believer that white male virility depended on wildlife for its vigor, and that, consequently, depleting wildlife would result in a racially weaker nation.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This lead Roosevelt to support the passing of many immigration restrictions, <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> legislations and wildlife preservation laws.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, Roosevelt established the first national parks through the Antiquities Act of 1906 while also endorsing the removal of Indigenous Americans from their tribal lands within the parks.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This move was promoted and endorsed by other leaders of the conservation movement, including <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Law_Olmsted" title="Frederick Law Olmsted">Frederick Law Olmsted</a>, a leading landscape architect, conservationist, and supporter of the national park system, and <a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Gifford Pinchot</a>, a leading eugenicist and conservationist.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthering the economic exploitation of the environment and national parks for wealthy whites was the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">ecotourism</a> in the parks, which included allowing some Indigenous Americans to remain so that the tourists could get what was to be considered the full "wilderness experience".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another long-term supporter, partner, and inspiration to Roosevelt, <a href="/wiki/Madison_Grant" title="Madison Grant">Madison Grant</a>, was a well known American eugenicist and conservationist.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Grant worked alongside Roosevelt in the American conservation movement and was even secretary and president of the Boone and Crockett Club.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1916, Grant published the book "The Passing of the Great Race, or The Racial Basis of European History", which based its premise on eugenics and outlined a hierarchy of races, with white, "Nordic" men at the top, and all other races below.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The German translation of this book was used by Nazi Germany as the source for many of their beliefs<sup id="cite_ref-:3_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was even proclaimed by Hitler to be his "Bible".<sup id="cite_ref-:6_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the first established conservation agencies in the United States is the <a href="/wiki/National_Audubon_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="National Audubon Society">National Audubon Society</a>. Founded in 1905, its priority was to protect and conserve various waterbird species.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the first state-level Audubon group was created in 1896 by Harriet Hemenway and Minna B. Hall to convince women to refrain from buying hats made with bird feathers- a common practice at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organization is named after <a href="/wiki/John_Audubon" class="mw-redirect" title="John Audubon">John Audubon</a>, a naturalist and legendary bird painter.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Audubon was also a slaveholder who also included many <a href="/wiki/Racist" class="mw-redirect" title="Racist">racist</a> tales in his books.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite his views of racial inequality, Audubon did find black and Indigenous people to be scientifically useful, often using their local knowledge in his books and relying on them to collect specimens for him.<sup id="cite_ref-:12_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ideology of the conservation movement in Germany paralleled that of the U.S. and England.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early German naturalists of the 20th century turned to the wilderness to escape the industrialization of cities. However, many of these early conservationists became part of and influenced the <a href="/wiki/NSDAP" class="mw-redirect" title="NSDAP">Nazi party</a>. Like elite and influential Americans of the early 20th century, they embraced eugenics and racism and promoted the idea that Nordic people are <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">superior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conservation_in_Costa_Rica">Conservation in Costa Rica</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Conservation in Costa Rica"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg/220px-Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg/330px-Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg/440px-Areas_Conservacion_CR.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1580" data-file-height="1492" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1. Costa Rica divided into different areas of conservation</figcaption></figure><div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Conservation in Costa Rica">Conservation in Costa Rica</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Conservation_in_Costa_Rica&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tapanti.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tapanti.jpg/220px-Tapanti.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tapanti.jpg/330px-Tapanti.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tapanti.jpg/440px-Tapanti.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2080" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Tapant%C3%AD_National_Park" title="Tapantí National Park">Tapantí National Park</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although the conservation movement developed in Europe in the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Costa_Rica" title="Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a> as a country has been heralded its champion in the current times.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Costa Rica hosts an astonishing number of species, given its size, having more animal and plant species than the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> combined<sup id="cite_ref-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica_:2_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica_:2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hosting over 500,000 species of plants and animals. Despite this, Costa Rica is only 250 miles long and 150 miles wide. A widely accepted theory for the origin of this unusual density of species is the free mixing of species from both North and South America occurring on this "inter-oceanic" and "inter-continental" landscape.<sup id="cite_ref-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica_:2_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conservation_in_Costa_Rica_:2-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Preserving the natural environment of this fragile landscape, therefore, has drawn the attention of many international scholars and scientists. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Environment,_Energy_and_Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications">MINAE</a> (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications) and its responsible for many conservation efforts in Costa Rica it achieves through its many agencies, including SINAC (National System of Conservation Areas), FONAFIFO (national forest fund), and CONAGEBIO (National Commission for Biodiversity Management). </p><p>Costa Rica has made conservation a national priority, and has been at the forefront of preserving its natural environment with 28% of its land protected in the form of national parks, reserves, and wildlife refuges, which is under the administrative control of <a href="/wiki/National_System_of_Conservation_Areas" title="National System of Conservation Areas">SINAC</a> (National System of Conservation Areas) <sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a division of <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Environment,_Energy_and_Telecommunications" class="mw-redirect" title="Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications">MINAE</a> (Ministry of Environment, Energy and Telecommunications). SINAC has subdivided the country into various zones depending on the ecological diversity of that region - as seen in figure 1. The country has used this ecological diversity to its economic advantage in the form of a thriving <a href="/wiki/Ecotourism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Ecotourism in Costa Rica">ecotourism industry</a>, putting its commitment to nature, on display to visitors from across the globe. The tourism market in Costa Rica is estimated to grow by USD 1.34 billion from 2023 to 2028, growing at a CAGR of 5.76%. </p> It is also the only country in the world that generates more than 99% of its electricity from renewable sources, relying on hydropower (72%), wind (13%), geothermal energy (15%), biomass and solar (1%). Critics have pointed out however, that in achieving this milestone, the country has built several dams (providing the bulk of its electricity) some of which have negatively impacted indigenous communities as well as the local flora and fauna.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: World Wide Fund for Nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>You know, when we first set up WWF, our objective was to save endangered species from extinction. But we have failed completely; we haven't managed to save a single one. If only we had put all that money into condoms, we might have done some good.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Sir_Peter_Scott" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Peter Scott">Sir Peter Scott</a>, Founder of the <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a>, <i>Cosmos Magazine</i>, 2010<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The <a href="/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature" title="World Wide Fund for Nature">World Wide Fund for Nature</a> (WWF) is an <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">international</a> <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organization</a> founded in 1961, working in the field of the wilderness preservation, and the reduction of <a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">human impact on the environment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was formerly named the "World Wildlife Fund", which remains its official name in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>WWF is the world's largest <a href="/wiki/Environmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental organization">conservation organization</a> with over five million supporters worldwide, working in more than 100 countries, supporting around 1,300 conservation and environmental projects.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They have invested over $1 billion in more than 12,000 conservation initiatives since 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-WorldWildLife_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WorldWildLife-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> WWF is a <a href="/wiki/Foundation_(nonprofit)" title="Foundation (nonprofit)">foundation</a> with 55% of funding from individuals and bequests, 19% from government sources (such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Department_for_International_Development" title="Department for International Development">DFID</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_Agency_for_International_Development" title="United States Agency for International Development">USAID</a>) and 8% from corporations in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WWF-INT_Annual_Review_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-INT_Annual_Review-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>WWF aims to "stop the degradation of the planet's natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Living_Planet_Report" title="Living Planet Report">Living Planet Report</a> is published every two years by WWF since 1998; it is based on a <a href="/wiki/Living_Planet_Index" title="Living Planet Index">Living Planet Index</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">ecological footprint</a> calculation.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, WWF has launched several notable worldwide campaigns including <a href="/wiki/Earth_Hour" title="Earth Hour">Earth Hour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Debt-for-Nature_Swap" class="mw-redirect" title="Debt-for-Nature Swap">Debt-for-Nature Swap</a>, and its current work is organized around these six areas: food, climate, freshwater, wildlife, forests, and oceans.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-WorldWildLife_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WorldWildLife-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Conservation_Far"_approach"><span id=".22Conservation_Far.22_approach"></span>"Conservation Far" approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: "Conservation Far" approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Institutions such as the WWF have historically been the cause of the displacement and divide between Indigenous populations and the lands they inhabit. The reason is the organization's historically colonial, paternalistic, and neoliberal approaches to conservation. Claus, in her article "Drawing the Sea Near: Satoumi and Coral Reef Conservation in Okinawa", expands on this approach, called "conservation far", in which access to lands is open to external foreign entities, such as researchers or tourists, but prohibited to local populations. The conservation initiatives are therefore taking place "far" away. This entity is largely unaware of the customs and values held by those within the territory surrounding nature and their role within it.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id=""Conservation_near"_approach"><span id=".22Conservation_near.22_approach"></span>"Conservation near" approach</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: "Conservation near" approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Japan, the town of Shiraho had traditional ways of tending to nature that were lost due to colonization and militarization by the United States. The return to traditional sustainability practices constituted a “conservation near” approach. This engages those near in proximity to the lands in the conservation efforts and holds them accountable for their direct effects on its preservation. While conservation-far drills visuals and sight as being the main interaction medium between people and the environment, conservation near includes a hands-on, full sensory experience permitted by conservation-near methodologies.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An emphasis on observation only stems from a deeper association with intellect and observation. The alternative to this is more of a bodily or "primitive" consciousness, which is associated with lower-intelligence and people of color. A new, integrated approach to conservation is being investigated in recent years by institutions such as WWF.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The socionatural relationships centered on the interactions based in reciprocity and empathy, making conservation efforts being accountable to the local community and ways of life, changing in response to values, ideals, and beliefs of the locals. Japanese seascapes are often integral to the identity of the residents and includes historical memories and spiritual engagements which need to be recognized and considered.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_48-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The involvement of communities gives residents a stake in the issue, leading to a long-term solution which emphasizes sustainable resource usage and the empowerment of the communities. Conservation efforts are able to take into consideration cultural values rather than the foreign ideals that are often imposed by foreign activists. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence-based_conservation">Evidence-based conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Evidence-based conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence-based_conservation&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence-based_practices" title="Category:Evidence-based practices">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practices</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_assessment" title="Evidence-based assessment">Assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_design" title="Evidence-based design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_management" title="Evidence-based management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_scheduling" title="Evidence-based scheduling">Scheduling</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_dentistry" title="Evidence-based dentistry">Dentistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medical_ethics" title="Evidence-based medical ethics">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_nursing" title="Evidence-based nursing">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_pharmacy_in_developing_countries" title="Evidence-based pharmacy in developing countries">Pharmacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_toxicology" title="Evidence-based toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_education" title="Evidence-based education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_legislation" title="Evidence-based legislation">Legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_library_and_information_practice" title="Evidence-based library and information practice">Library and information practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policing" title="Evidence-based policing">Policing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_prosecution" title="Evidence-based prosecution">Prosecution</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Evidence-based_practices" title="Template:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Evidence-based_practices" title="Template talk:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based_practices" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Evidence-based practices"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a> is the application of evidence in conservation biology and environmental management actions and policy making. It is defined as systematically assessing scientific information from published, <a href="/wiki/Peer-review" class="mw-redirect" title="Peer-review">peer-reviewed</a> publications and texts, practitioners' experiences, independent expert assessment, and local and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous (ecology)">indigenous</a> knowledge on a specific conservation topic. This includes assessing the current effectiveness of different management interventions, threats and emerging problems and economic factors.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evidence-based conservation was organized based on the observations that decision making in conservation was based on <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/intuition" class="extiw" title="wikt:intuition">intuition</a> and or practitioner experience often disregarding other forms of evidence of successes and failures (e.g. scientific information). This has led to costly and poor outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Evidence-based_conservation_Sutherland_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Evidence-based_conservation_Sutherland-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence-based conservation provides access to information that will support decision making through an evidence-based framework of "what works" in conservation.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> The evidence-based approach to conservation is based on evidence-based practice which started in <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">medicine</a> and later spread to <a href="/wiki/Evidence_Based_Nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence Based Nursing">nursing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evidence_based_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence based education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> and other fields. It is part of the larger movement towards <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practices" class="mw-redirect" title="Evidence-based practices">evidence-based practices</a>.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas_of_concern">Areas of concern</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Areas of concern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Suojelutaulu.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Suojelutaulu.JPG/220px-Suojelutaulu.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Suojelutaulu.JPG/330px-Suojelutaulu.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Suojelutaulu.JPG/440px-Suojelutaulu.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A conservation area's sign in the <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finnish</a> forest. It says, "A conservation area protected by law".</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_overpopulation" title="Human overpopulation">overpopulation</a> are issues affecting all regions of the world. The consequent destruction of wildlife habitat has prompted the creation of conservation groups in other countries, some founded by local hunters who have witnessed declining wildlife populations first hand. Also, it was highly important for the conservation movement to solve problems of living conditions in the cities and the overpopulation of such places. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Boreal_forest_and_the_Arctic">Boreal forest and the Arctic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Boreal forest and the Arctic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The idea of incentive conservation is a modern one but its practice has clearly defended some of the sub Arctic wildernesses and the wildlife in those regions for thousands of years, especially by indigenous peoples such as the Evenk, Yakut, Sami, Inuit and Cree. The fur trade and hunting by these peoples have preserved these regions for thousands of years. Ironically, the pressure now upon them comes from non-renewable resources such as oil, sometimes to make synthetic clothing which is advocated as a humane substitute for fur. (See <a href="/wiki/Raccoon_dog" class="mw-redirect" title="Raccoon dog">Raccoon dog</a> for case study of the conservation of an animal through fur trade.) Similarly, in the case of the beaver, hunting and fur trade were thought to bring about the animal's demise, when in fact they were an integral part of its conservation. For many years children's books stated and still do, that the decline in the beaver population was due to the fur trade. In reality however, the decline in beaver numbers was because of habitat destruction and deforestation, as well as its continued persecution as a pest (it causes flooding). In Cree lands, however, where the population valued the animal for meat and fur, it continued to thrive. The Inuit defend their relationship with the seal in response to outside critics.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_America_(Bolivia)"><span id="Latin_America_.28Bolivia.29"></span>Latin America (Bolivia)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Latin America (Bolivia)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Izoce%C3%B1o_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Izoceño people">Izoceño</a>-<a href="/wiki/Guaran%C3%AD_people" title="Guaraní people">Guaraní</a> of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Department_(Bolivia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)">Santa Cruz Department</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a>, is a tribe of hunters who were influential in establishing the Capitania del Alto y Bajo Isoso (CABI). CABI promotes economic growth and survival of the Izoceno people while discouraging the rapid destruction of habitat within Bolivia's <a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco" title="Gran Chaco">Gran Chaco</a>. They are responsible for the creation of the 34,000 square kilometre Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Area (KINP). The KINP protects the most biodiverse portion of the Gran Chaco, an ecoregion shared with Argentina, Paraguay and Brazil. In 1996, the <a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Conservation_Society" title="Wildlife Conservation Society">Wildlife Conservation Society</a> joined forces with CABI to institute wildlife and hunting monitoring programs in 23 Izoceño communities. The partnership combines traditional beliefs and local knowledge with the political and administrative tools needed to effectively manage habitats. The programs rely solely on voluntary participation by local hunters who perform self-monitoring techniques and keep records of their hunts. The information obtained by the hunters participating in the program has provided CABI with important data required to make educated decisions about the use of the land. Hunters have been willing participants in this program because of pride in their traditional activities, encouragement by their communities and expectations of benefits to the area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa_(Botswana)"><span id="Africa_.28Botswana.29"></span>Africa (Botswana)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Africa (Botswana)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to discourage illegal South African hunting parties and ensure future local use and sustainability, indigenous hunters in <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> began lobbying for and implementing conservation practices in the 1960s. The Fauna Preservation Society of Ngamiland (FPS) was formed in 1962 by the husband and wife team: Robert Kay and June Kay, environmentalists working in conjunction with the Batawana tribes to preserve wildlife habitat. </p><p>The FPS promotes habitat conservation and provides local education for preservation of wildlife. Conservation initiatives were met with strong opposition from the Botswana government because of the monies tied to big-game hunting. In 1963, BaTawanga Chiefs and tribal hunter/adventurers in conjunction with the FPS founded <a href="/wiki/Moremi_Wildlife_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Moremi Wildlife Reserve">Moremi National Park and Wildlife Refuge</a>, the first area to be set aside by tribal people rather than governmental forces. Moremi National Park is home to a variety of wildlife, including lions, giraffes, elephants, buffalo, zebra, cheetahs and antelope, and covers an area of 3,000 square kilometers. Most of the groups involved with establishing this protected land were involved with hunting and were motivated by their personal observations of declining wildlife and habitat. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/19px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/29px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/38px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" 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title="Portal:Trees">Trees</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/19px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/29px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png/38px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17_with_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="2790" data-file-height="2776" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Earth_sciences" title="Portal:Earth sciences">Earth sciences</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Crystal_energy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/20px-Crystal_energy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/30px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Crystal_energy.svg/40px-Crystal_energy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="124" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Energy" title="Portal:Energy">Energy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wind-turbine-icon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/19px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/29px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Wind-turbine-icon.svg/38px-Wind-turbine-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Renewable_energy" title="Portal:Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Grains_Genebank" title="Australian Grains Genebank">Australian Grains Genebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation ethic">Conservation ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecology movement">Ecology movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_conservation" title="Energy conservation">Energy conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_Conservation_Movement,_1850%E2%80%931920" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920">Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850–1920</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_organizations" title="List of environmental organizations">List of environmental organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environment_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environment topics">List of environment topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_landscape" title="Natural landscape">Natural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">U.S. National Park Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Water conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Wetland conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">Wildlife conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">Wildlife management</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHarding" class="citation web cs1">Harding, Russ. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mackinac.org/9852">"Conservationist or Environmentalist?"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Mackinac_Center_for_Public_Policy" title="Mackinac Center for Public Policy">Mackinac Center for Public Policy</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081203181206/http://www.mackinac.org/9852">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-12-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-05-02</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mackinac+Center+for+Public+Policy&rft.atitle=Conservationist+or+Environmentalist%3F&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Russ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mackinac.org%2F9852&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGifford1945" class="citation book cs1">Gifford, John C. (1945). <i>Living by the Land</i>. Coral Gables, Florida: Glade House. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ASIN (identifier)">ASIN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0006EUXGQ">B0006EUXGQ</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+by+the+Land&rft.place=Coral+Gables%2C+Florida&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Glade+House&rft.date=1945&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.amazon.com%2Fdp%2FB0006EUXGQ%23id-name%3DASIN&rft.aulast=Gifford&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_Evelyn" title="John Evelyn">John Evelyn</a>, <i>Sylva, Or A Discourse of Forest Trees ... with an Essay on the Life and Works of the Author by John Nisbet</i>, Fourth Edition (1706), reprinted London: Doubleday & Co., 1908, V1, p. lxv; online edn, March 2007 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20778/20778-h/20778-h.htm">[1]</a>, accessed 29 Dec 2012. This source (John Nisbet) states: "There can be no doubt that John Evelyn, both during his own lifetime and throughout the two centuries which have elapsed since his death in 1706, has exerted more individual influence, through his charming <i>Sylva</i>, ... than can be ascribed to any other individual." Nisbet adds that "Evelyn was by no means the first [author] who wrote on [forestry]. That honour belongs to Master <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Fitzherbert" title="Anthony Fitzherbert">Fitzherbert</a>, whose <i>Boke of Husbandrie</i> was published in 1534" (V1, p. lxvi).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180904091500/http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm">"History of forests in India"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/history.htm">the original</a> on 2018-09-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-10-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+forests+in+India&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedugreen.teri.res.in%2Fexplore%2Fforestry%2Fhistory.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/26401592"><i>Best remembered poems</i></a>. Martin Gardner. New York: Dover Publications. 1992. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-27165-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-486-27165-X"><bdi>0-486-27165-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26401592">26401592</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Best+remembered+poems&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26401592&rft.isbn=0-486-27165-X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F26401592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stebbing, E.P. (1922)<i>The forests of India</i> vol. 1, pp. 72-81</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2002" class="citation book cs1">Barton, Greg (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WDYlNljAP5AC"><i>Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139434607" title="Special:BookSources/9781139434607"><bdi>9781139434607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empire+Forestry+and+the+Origins+of+Environmentalism&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9781139434607&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=Greg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWDYlNljAP5AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMUTHIAH2007" class="citation news cs1">MUTHIAH, S. (Nov 5, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071108213227/http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm">"A life for forestry"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Hindu" title="The Hindu">The Hindu</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hindu.com/mp/2007/11/05/stories/2007110550080500.htm">the original</a> on November 8, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hindu&rft.atitle=A+life+for+forestry&rft.date=2007-11-05&rft.aulast=MUTHIAH&rft.aufirst=S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindu.com%2Fmp%2F2007%2F11%2F05%2Fstories%2F2007110550080500.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cleghorn-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Cleghorn_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCleghorn1861" class="citation book cs1">Cleghorn, Hugh Francis Clarke (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldcat.org/wcpa/oclc/301345427?page=frame&url=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%26checksum%3D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3&title=&linktype=digitalObject&detail="><i>The Forests and Gardens of South India</i></a> (Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized Feb 10, 2006 ed.). London: W. H. Allen. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/301345427">301345427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forests+and+Gardens+of+South+India&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Original+from+the+University+of+Michigan%2C+Digitized+Feb+10%2C+2006&rft.pub=W.+H.+Allen&rft.date=1861&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F301345427&rft.aulast=Cleghorn&rft.aufirst=Hugh+Francis+Clarke&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Fwcpa%2Foclc%2F301345427%3Fpage%3Dframe%26url%3Dhttp%253A%252F%252Fbooks.google.com%252Fbooks%253Fid%253D_ZbC9FY1JqIC%2526checksum%253D374d90c92770a514a51708f07461f0b3%26title%3D%26linktype%3DdigitalObject%26detail%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOliver1901" class="citation book cs1">Oliver, J.W. (1901). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2U8YAAAAYAAJ&q=%22Douglas+Hamilton%22+madras++-johnson+-elephant+-whale+-william+1862&pg=PA623">"Forestry in India"</a>. <i>The Indian Forester</i>. Vol. v.27 (Original from Harvard University, Digitized Apr 4, 2008 ed.). Allahabad: R. P. Sharma, Business Manager, Indian Forester. pp. 617–623.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Forestry+in+India&rft.btitle=The+Indian+Forester&rft.place=Allahabad&rft.pages=617-623&rft.edition=Original+from+Harvard+University%2C+Digitized+Apr+4%2C+2008&rft.pub=R.+P.+Sharma%2C+Business+Manager%2C+Indian+Forester&rft.date=1901&rft.aulast=Oliver&rft.aufirst=J.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2U8YAAAAYAAJ%26q%3D%2522Douglas%2BHamilton%2522%2Bmadras%2B%2B-johnson%2B-elephant%2B-whale%2B-william%2B1862%26pg%3DPA623&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King KFS (1968). "Agro-silviculture (the taungya system)". University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry, Bulletin no. 1, 109</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeil2006" class="citation journal cs1">Weil, Benjamin (1 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233861694">"Conservation, Exploitation, and Cultural Change in the Indian Forest Service, 1875-1927"</a>. <i>Environmental History</i>. <b>11</b> (2): 319–343. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fenvhis%2F11.2.319">10.1093/envhis/11.2.319</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+History&rft.atitle=Conservation%2C+Exploitation%2C+and+Cultural+Change+in+the+Indian+Forest+Service%2C+1875-1927&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=319-343&rft.date=2006-04-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fenvhis%2F11.2.319&rft.aulast=Weil&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F233861694&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Madhav Gadgil and Ramachandra Guha, <i>This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India</i> (1993)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burley, Jeffery, et al. 2009. "A History of Forestry at Oxford", <i>British Scholar</i>, Vol. 1, No. 2., pp.236-261. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WWF&rft.atitle=WWF%27s+Mission%2C+Guiding+Principles+and+Goals&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwwf.panda.org%2Fmission_principles_goals.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_48-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_48-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClaus2020" class="citation book cs1">Claus, C. 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Minneapolis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-5947-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4529-5947-4"><bdi>978-1-4529-5947-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1156432505">1156432505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drawing+the+sea+near+%3A+Satoumi+and+coral+reef+conservation+in+Okinawa&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1156432505&rft.isbn=978-1-4529-5947-4&rft.aulast=Claus&rft.aufirst=C.+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1156432505&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.conservationevidence.com/faq/index">"The Basics"</a>. Conservation Evidence<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-03-07</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Basics&rft.pub=Conservation+Evidence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.conservationevidence.com%2Ffaq%2Findex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Evidence-based_conservation_Sutherland-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Evidence-based_conservation_Sutherland_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherlandPullinDolmanKnight2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sutherland, William J; Pullin, Andrew S.; Dolman, Paul M.; Knight, Teri M. (June 2004). "The need for evidence-based conservation". <i>Trends in Ecology and Evolution</i>. <b>19</b> (6): 305–308. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tree.2004.03.018">10.1016/j.tree.2004.03.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16701275">16701275</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Ecology+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=The+need+for+evidence-based+conservation&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=305-308&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tree.2004.03.018&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16701275&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=William+J&rft.au=Pullin%2C+Andrew+S.&rft.au=Dolman%2C+Paul+M.&rft.au=Knight%2C+Teri+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSutherland2003" class="citation journal cs1">Sutherland, William J. (July 2003). "Evidence-based Conservation". <i>Conservation in Practice</i>. <b>4</b> (3): 39–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x">10.1111/j.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+in+Practice&rft.atitle=Evidence-based+Conservation&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=39-42&rft.date=2003-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1526-4629.2003.tb00068.x&rft.aulast=Sutherland&rft.aufirst=William+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070628204105/http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf">"Inuit Ask Europeans to Support Its Seal Hunt and Way of Life"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 6 March 2006. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icc.gl/UserFiles/File/sealskin/2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 28 June 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Inuit+Ask+Europeans+to+Support+Its+Seal+Hunt+and+Way+of+Life&rft.date=2006-03-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.icc.gl%2FUserFiles%2FFile%2Fsealskin%2F2006-03-07_icc_saelskind_pressemeddelse_eng.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World">World</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: World"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Barton, Gregory A. <i>Empire, Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism,</i> (2002), covers British Empire</li> <li>Clover, Charles. <i>The End of the Line: How overfishing is changing the world and what we eat</i>. (2004) Ebury Press, London. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-09-189780-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-09-189780-7">0-09-189780-7</a></li> <li>Haq, Gary, and Alistair Paul. <i>Environmentalism since 1945</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li> <li>Jones, Eric L. "The History of Natural Resource Exploitation in the Western World," <i>Research in Economic History,</i> 1991 Supplement 6, pp 235–252</li> <li>McNeill, John R. <i>Something New Under the Sun: An Environmental History of the Twentieth Century</i> (2000).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_studies">Regional studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Regional studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africa">Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. <i>Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation without Illusion</i> (1992) 266p; covers 1900 to 1980s</li> <li>Anderson, David; Grove, Richard. <i>Conservation in Africa: People, Policies & Practice</i> (1988), 355pp</li> <li>Bolaane, Maitseo. "Chiefs, Hunters & Adventurers: The Foundation of the Okavango/Moremi National Park, Botswana". <i>Journal of Historical Geography.</i> 31.2 (Apr. 2005): 241–259.</li> <li>Carruthers, Jane. "Africa: Histories, Ecologies, and Societies," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 379–406;</li> <li>Showers, Kate B. <i>Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho</i> (2005) 346pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia-Pacific">Asia-Pacific</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Asia-Pacific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bolton, Geoffrey. <i>Spoils and Spoilers: Australians Make Their Environment, 1788-1980</i> (1981) 197pp</li> <li>Economy, Elizabeth. <i>The River Runs Black: The Environmental Challenge to China's Future</i> (2010)</li> <li>Elvin, Mark. <i>The Retreat of the Elephants: An Environmental History of China</i> (2006)</li> <li>Grove, Richard H.; Damodaran, Vinita Jain; Sangwan, Satpal. <i>Nature and the Orient: The Environmental History of South and Southeast Asia</i> (1998) 1036pp</li> <li>Johnson, Erik W., Saito, Yoshitaka, and Nishikido, Makoto. "Organizational Demography of Japanese Environmentalism," <i>Sociological Inquiry,</i> Nov 2009, Vol. 79 Issue 4, pp 481–504</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valmik_Thapar" title="Valmik Thapar">Thapar, Valmik</a>. <i>Land of the Tiger: A Natural History of the Indian Subcontinent</i> (1998) 288pp</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin_America">Latin America</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Latin America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Boyer, Christopher. <i>Political Landscapes: Forests, Conservation, and Community in Mexico</i>. Duke University Press (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Dean" title="Warren Dean">Dean, Warren</a>. <i>With Broadax and Firebrand: The Destruction of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest</i> (1997)</li> <li>Evans, S. <i>The Green Republic: A Conservation History of Costa Rica</i>. University of Texas Press. (1999)</li> <li>Funes Monzote, Reinaldo. <i>From Rainforest to Cane Field in Cuba: An Environmental History since 1492</i> (2008)</li> <li>Melville, Elinor G. K. <i>A Plague of Sheep: Environmental Consequences of the Conquest of Mexico</i> (1994)</li> <li>Miller, Shawn William. <i>An Environmental History of Latin America</i> (2007)</li> <li>Noss, Andrew and Imke Oetting. "Hunter Self-Monitoring by the Izoceño -Guarani in the Bolivian Chaco". <i>Biodiversity & Conservation</i>. 14.11 (2005): 2679–2693.</li> <li>Simonian, Lane. <i>Defending the Land of the Jaguar: A History of Conservation in Mexico</i> (1995) 326pp</li> <li>Wakild, Emily. <i>An Unexpected Environment: National Park Creation, Resource Custodianship, and the Mexican Revolution</i>. University of Arizona Press (2011).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe_and_Russia">Europe and Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Europe and Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorenzo_Arnone_Sipari" title="Lorenzo Arnone Sipari">Arnone Sipari, Lorenzo</a>, <i>Scritti scelti di Erminio Sipari sul Parco Nazionale d'Abruzzo (1922–1933)</i> (2011), 360pp.</li> <li>Barca, Stefania, and Ana Delicado. "Anti-nuclear mobilisation and environmentalism in Europe: A view from Portugal (1976–1986)." <i>Environment and History</i> 22.4 (2016): 497–520. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/download/41270815/advance_access.pdf">online</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged July 2022">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li>Bonhomme, Brian. <i>Forests, Peasants and Revolutionaries: Forest Conservation & Organization in Soviet Russia, 1917–1929</i> (2005) 252pp.</li> <li>Cioc, Mark. <i>The Rhine: An Eco-Biography, 1815–2000</i> (2002).</li> <li>Dryzek, John S., et al. <i>Green states and social movements: environmentalism in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany, and Norway</i> (Oxford UP, 2003).</li> <li>Jehlicka, Petr. "Environmentalism in Europe: an east-west comparison." in <i>Social change and political transformation</i> (Routledge, 2018) pp. 112–131.</li> <li>Simmons, I.G. <i>An Environmental History of Great Britain: From 10,000 Years Ago to the Present</i> (2001).</li> <li>Uekotter, Frank. <i>The greenest nation?: A new history of German environmentalism</i> (MIT Press, 2014).</li> <li>Weiner, Douglas R. <i>Models of Nature: Ecology, Conservation and Cultural Revolution in Soviet Russia</i> (2000) 324pp; covers 1917 to 1939.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bates, J. Leonard. "Fulfilling American Democracy: The Conservation Movement, 1907 to 1921", <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review,</i> (1957), 44#1 pp. 29–57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/1898667">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Brinkley, Douglas G. <i>The Wilderness Warrior: Theodore Roosevelt and the Crusade for America,</i> (2009) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0060565314/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Cawley, R. McGreggor. <i>Federal Land, Western Anger: The Sagebrush Rebellion and Environmental Politics</i> (1993), on conservatives</li> <li>Flippen, J. Brooks. <i>Nixon and the Environment</i> (2000).</li> <li>Hays, Samuel P. <i>Beauty, Health, and Permanence: Environmental Politics in the United States, 1955–1985</i> (1987), the standard scholarly history <ul><li>Hays, Samuel P. <i>A History of Environmental Politics since 1945</i> (2000), shorter standard history</li></ul></li> <li>Hays, Samuel P. <i>Conservation and the Gospel of Efficiency</i> (1959), on Progressive Era.</li> <li>King, Judson. <i>The Conservation Fight, From Theodore Roosevelt to the Tennessee Valley Authority</i> (2009)</li> <li>Nash, Roderick. <i>Wilderness and the American Mind,</i> (3rd ed. 1982), the standard intellectual history</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinchot1922" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gifford_Pinchot" title="Gifford Pinchot">Pinchot, Gifford</a> (1922). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Conservation Policy"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Conservation_Policy">"Conservation Policy" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (12th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Conservation+Policy&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=12th&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Pinchot&rft.aufirst=Gifford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AConservation+movement" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Rothmun, Hal K. <i>The Greening of a Nation? Environmentalism in the United States since 1945</i> (1998)</li> <li>Scheffer, Victor B. <i>The Shaping of Environmentalism in America</i> (1991).</li> <li>Sellers, Christopher. <i>Crabgrass Crucible: Suburban Nature and the Rise of Environmentalism in Twentieth-Century America</i> (2012)</li> <li>Strong, Douglas H. <i>Dreamers & Defenders: American Conservationists.</i> (1988) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071201192945/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=8516594">Archived</a> 2007-12-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, good biographical studies of the major leaders</li> <li>Taylor, Dorceta E. <i>The Rise of the American Conservation Movement: Power, Privilege, and Environmental Protection</i> (Duke U.P. 2016) x, 486 pp.</li> <li>Turner, James Morton, "The Specter of Environmentalism": Wilderness, Environmental Politics, and the Evolution of the New Right. <i>The Journal of American History</i> 96.1 (2009): 123-47 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090703095241/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/96.1/turner.html">online at History Cooperative</a></li> <li>Vogel, David. <i>California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader</i> (2018) 280 pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eh.net/?s=vogel+david">online review</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Historiography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Cioc, Mark, <a href="/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn-Ola_Linn%C3%A9r" title="Björn-Ola Linnér">Björn-Ola Linnér</a>, and Matt Osborn, "Environmental History Writing in Northern Europe," <i>Environmental History,</i> 5 (2000), pp. 396–406</li> <li>Bess, Michael, Mark Cioc, and James Sievert, "Environmental History Writing in Southern Europe," <i>Environmental History,</i> 5 (2000), pp. 545–56;</li> <li>Coates, Peter. "Emerging from the Wilderness (or, from Redwoods to Bananas): Recent Environmental History in the United States and the Rest of the Americas," Environment and History, 10 (2004), pp. 407–38</li> <li>Hay, Peter. <i>Main Currents in Western Environmental Thought</i> (2002), standard scholarly history <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0253215110/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>McNeill, John R. "Observations on the Nature and Culture of Environmental History," <i>History and Theory,</i> 42 (2003), pp. 5–43.</li> <li>Robin, Libby, and Tom Griffiths, "Environmental History in Australasia," <i>Environment and History,</i> 10 (2004), pp. 439–74</li> <li>Worster, Donald, ed. <i>The Ends of the Earth: Perspectives on Modern Environmental History</i> (1988)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Conservation_movement&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080830075158/http://www.teara.govt.nz/TheBush/Conservation/ConservationAHistory/en">A history of conservation in New Zealand</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nfb.ca/film/For_Future_Generations/"><i>For Future Generations</i>, a Canadian documentary on conservation and national parks</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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title="Sustainability">Principles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_governance" title="Global governance">Global governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_development" title="Sustainable development">Development</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Consumption</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropization" title="Anthropization">Anthropization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-consumerism" title="Anti-consumerism">Anti-consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durable_good" title="Durable good">Durable good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_consumption" title="Green consumption">Green consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro-sustainability" title="Micro-sustainability">Micro-sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Over-consumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-consumption">Over-consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_living" title="Simple living">Simple living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_return_on_investment" title="Social return on investment">Social return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steady-state_economy" title="Steady-state economy">Steady-state economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_advertising" title="Sustainability advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_brand" title="Sustainability brand">Brand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_marketing_myopia" title="Sustainability marketing myopia">Marketing myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumer_behaviour" title="Sustainable consumer behaviour">Consumer behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_systemic_change_resistance" title="Sustainability and systemic change resistance">Systemic change resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">World population</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_transition" title="Demographic transition">Demographic transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_population_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Human population control">Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_population" title="Sustainable population">Sustainable population</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appropriate_technology" title="Appropriate technology">Appropriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_technology" title="Environmental technology">Environmental technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_building" title="Natural building">Natural building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">Sustainable architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_design" title="Sustainable design">Sustainable design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_industries" title="Sustainable industries">Sustainable industries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_packaging" title="Sustainable packaging">Sustainable packaging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology" title="Conservation biology">Conservation biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">Endangered species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">Carbon footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_energy" title="Sustainable energy">Sustainable energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_food_system" title="Sustainable food system">Food</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civic_agriculture" title="Civic agriculture">Civic agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate-smart_agriculture" title="Climate-smart agriculture">Climate-smart agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-supported_agriculture" title="Community-supported agriculture">Community-supported agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_agriculture" title="Sustainable agriculture">Sustainable agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_diet" title="Sustainable diet">Sustainable diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fishery" title="Sustainable fishery">Sustainable fishery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Water</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_well_(condenser)" title="Air well (condenser)">Air well (condenser)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioretention" title="Bioretention">Bioretention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioswale" title="Bioswale">Bioswale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_roof" title="Blue roof">Blue roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catchwater" title="Catchwater">Catchwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_pond" title="Dew pond">Dew pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_footprint" title="Water footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydropower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_tank" title="Irrigation tank">Irrigation tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_hydro" title="Micro hydro">Micro hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Ocean thermal energy conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pico_hydro" title="Pico hydro">Pico hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain_garden" title="Rain garden">Rain garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">Rainwater harvesting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_tank" title="Rainwater tank">Rainwater tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Reclaimed water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retention_basin" title="Retention basin">Retention basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-of-the-river_hydroelectricity" title="Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity">Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_hydro" title="Small hydro">Small hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_drainage_system" title="Sustainable drainage system">Sustainable drainage system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_stream_generator" title="Tidal stream generator">Tidal stream generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_box_filter" title="Tree box filter">Tree box filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Water conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_recycling_shower" title="Water recycling shower">Water recycling shower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water-sensitive_urban_design" title="Water-sensitive urban design">Water-sensitive urban design</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accountability</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_accounting" title="Environmental accounting">Environmental accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting" title="Environmental full-cost accounting">Environmental full-cost accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">Environmental planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_accounting" title="Sustainability accounting">Accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_measurement" title="Sustainability measurement">Measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices" title="Sustainability metrics and indices">Metrics and indices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_reporting" title="Sustainability reporting">Reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification" title="Sustainability standards and certification">Standards and certification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_yield" title="Sustainable yield">Sustainable yield</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_advertising" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_art" title="Sustainable art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_business" title="Sustainable business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_city" title="Sustainable city">City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_community" title="Sustainable community">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-cities" title="Eco-cities">Eco-cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-investing" title="Eco-investing">Eco-investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecovillage" title="Ecovillage">Ecovillage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_finance" title="Environmental finance">Environmental finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_in_construction" title="Sustainability in construction">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_fashion" title="Sustainable fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_finance" title="Sustainable finance">Finance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_gardening" title="Sustainable gardening">Gardening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopark" title="Geopark">Geopark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">Green</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Green_development" title="Green development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_infrastructure" title="Green infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_marketing" title="Green marketing">Marketing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_roof" title="Green roof">Green roof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greening" title="Greening">Greening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_landscape_architecture" title="Sustainable landscape architecture">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_livelihood" title="Sustainable livelihood">Livelihood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_living" title="Sustainable living">Living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_market" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable market">Market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_movement" title="Organic movement">Organic movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainability organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_procurement" title="Sustainable procurement">Procurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_refurbishment" title="Sustainable refurbishment">Refurbishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_business" title="Socially responsible business">Socially responsible business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing" title="Socially responsible marketing">Socially responsible marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sanitation" title="Sustainable sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_sourcing" title="Sustainable sourcing">Sourcing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sustainability" title="Space sustainability">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_tourism" title="Sustainable tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_transport" title="Sustainable transport">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_drainage_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable urban drainage systems">Urban drainage systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_urban_infrastructure" title="Sustainable urban infrastructure">Urban infrastructure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_management" title="Sustainable management">Sustainable management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_and_environmental_management" title="Sustainability and environmental management">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">Fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_capitalism" title="Humanistic capitalism">Humanistic capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_landscape_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated landscape management">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_materials_management" title="Sustainable materials management">Materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_management" title="Planetary management">Planetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agreements and <br />conferences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_the_Human_Environment" title="United Nations Conference on the Human Environment"><span class="wrap">UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brundtland_Commission" title="Brundtland Commission">Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Common_Future" title="Our Common Future"><i>Our Common Future</i> (1987)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit" title="Earth Summit">Earth Summit (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Declaration_on_Environment_and_Development" title="Rio Declaration on Environment and Development">Rio Declaration on Environment and Development</a> (1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agenda_21" title="Agenda 21">Agenda 21 (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Biological_Diversity" title="Convention on Biological Diversity">Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisbon_Principles" title="Lisbon Principles">Lisbon Principles</a> (1997)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Charter" title="Earth Charter">Earth Charter</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration">UN Millennium Declaration (2000)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Summit_2002" title="Earth Summit 2002">Earth Summit 2002</a> (Rio+10, Johannesburg)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_Sustainable_Development" title="United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development">UN Conference on Sustainable Development</a> (Rio+20, 2012)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> (2015)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Sustainability_lists" title="Category:Sustainability lists">Lists</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">Science</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">Studies</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmentalism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmentalism" title="Template:Environmentalism"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmentalism" title="Template talk:Environmentalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmentalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmentalism"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmentalism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #ADD8E6; text-decoration: inherit;">Environmentalism</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_environmentalism" title="Outline of environmentalism"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #ADD8E6; text-decoration: inherit;">Outline of environmentalism</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">Climate justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">Environmental conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement" title="Environmental movement">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_history_of_environmentalism" title="Timeline of history of environmentalism">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_conflicts" title="List of environmental conflicts">List of environmental conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental organization">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_psychology" title="Environmental psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_environmentalism" title="Religion and environmentalism">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Views</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Philosophical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocentrism_(ethics)" title="Biocentrism (ethics)">Biocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_ecology" title="Deep ecology">Deep ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_jurisprudence" title="Earth jurisprudence">Earth jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocentrism" title="Ecocentrism">Ecocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resacralization_of_nature" title="Resacralization of nature">Resacralization of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioconservatism" title="Bioconservatism">Bioconservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bright_green_environmentalism" title="Bright green environmentalism">Bright green environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinvestment" title="Disinvestment">Disinvestment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-capitalism" title="Eco-capitalism">Eco-capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofascism" title="Ecofascism">Ecofascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-nationalism" title="Eco-nationalism">Eco-nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-terrorism" title="Eco-terrorism">Eco-terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecomodernism" title="Ecomodernism">Ecomodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-market_environmentalism" title="Free-market environmentalism">Free-market environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_anarchism" title="Green anarchism">Green anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_conservatism" title="Green conservatism">Green conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_left" title="Green left">Green left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_liberalism" title="Green liberalism">Green liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_libertarianism" title="Green libertarianism">Green libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_syndicalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Green syndicalism">Green syndicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_coal" title="War on coal">War on coal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Religious</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecotheology" title="Ecotheology">Ecotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evangelical_environmentalism" title="Evangelical environmentalism">Evangelical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_environmentalism" title="Islamic environmentalism">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism_and_environmentalism" title="Judaism and environmentalism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">Stewardship (theology)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Opposition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-environmentalism" title="Anti-environmentalism">Anti-environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_skepticism" title="Environmental skepticism">Environmental skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_killings" title="List of environmental killings">List of environmental killings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biophilia_hypothesis" title="Biophilia hypothesis">Biophilia hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_of_the_poor" title="Environmentalism of the poor">Environmentalism of the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_stewardship" title="Environmental stewardship">Environmental stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardline_(subculture)" title="Hardline (subculture)">Hardline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_environmentalism" title="Radical environmentalism">Radical environmentalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Offshoots</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fracking_movement" title="Anti-fracking movement">Anti-fracking movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-nuclear_movement" title="Anti-nuclear movement">Anti-nuclear movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Car-free_movement" title="Car-free movement">Car-free movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_movement" title="Climate movement">Climate movement</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Degrowth" title="Degrowth">Degrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Optimism" title="Earth Optimism">Earth Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-anxiety" title="Eco-anxiety">Eco-anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_grief" title="Ecological grief">Ecological grief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_banking" title="Ethical banking">Ethical banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_consumerism" title="Ethical consumerism">Ethical consumerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_shame" title="Flight shame">Flight shame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_stewardship" title="Product stewardship">Product stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_movement_(culture)" title="Slow movement (culture)">Slow movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_organization" title="Sustainability organization">Sustainability organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Goals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circular_economy" title="Circular economy">Circular economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_action" title="Climate action">Climate action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_community" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation community">Conservation community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_civilization" title="Ecological civilization">Ecological civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_personhood" title="Environmental personhood">Environmental personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">Environmental policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_corporate_governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental, social, and corporate governance">Environmental, social, and corporate governance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentally_friendly" title="Environmentally friendly">Environmentally friendly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greening" title="Greening">Greening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_economy" title="Green economy">Green economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenwashing" title="Greenwashing">Greenwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Natural resource management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resource_management" title="Environmental resource management">Environmental resource management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_nature" title="Rights of nature">Rights of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Short-haul_flight_ban" title="Short-haul flight ban">Short-haul flight ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_vegetarianism" title="Environmental vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environmental protests">Protests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tree_sitting" title="Tree sitting">Tree sitting</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental movement in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Australia" title="Environmental movement in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental movement in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_Rio_Grande_do_Sul" title="Environmentalism in Rio Grande do Sul">Rio Grande do Sul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_China" title="Environmentalism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-incinerator_movement_in_China" title="Anti-incinerator movement in China">Anti-incinerator movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental movement in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chipko_movement" title="Chipko movement">Chipko movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental movement in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_New_Zealand" title="Environmental movement in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_Philippines" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental movement in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_South_Africa" title="Environmental movement in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_Switzerland" title="Environmental movement in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_direct_action_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental direct action in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">In culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_art" title="Environmental art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_books" title="List of environmental books">Books</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofiction" title="Ecofiction">Ecofiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_conservation" title="Conspicuous conservation">Conspicuous conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filmography_of_environmentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Filmography of environmentalism">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_films" title="List of environmental films">list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_film_festivals" title="List of environmental film festivals">festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_eco-horror_films" title="List of eco-horror films">horror</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_journalism" title="Environmental journalism">Journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_The_Lord_of_the_Rings" title="Environmentalism in The Lord of the Rings"><i>The Lord of the Rings</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_music" title="Environmentalism in music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecomusicology" title="Ecomusicology">Ecomusicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_in_motorsport" title="Environmentalism in motorsport">Motorsport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sculpture" title="Environmental sculpture">Sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfing_and_environmentalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Surfing and environmentalism">Surfing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotourism" title="Ecotourism">Tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eco_hotel" title="Eco hotel">Eco hotel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_environmental_publications" title="Lists of environmental publications">Publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalist" title="Environmentalist">Environmentalist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_protector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water protector">Water protector</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Notable_people" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunderlal_Bahuguna" title="Sunderlal Bahuguna">Sunderlal Bahuguna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Brower" title="David Brower">David Brower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachel_Carson" title="Rachel Carson">Rachel Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ng_Cho-nam" title="Ng Cho-nam">Ng Cho-nam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Flannery" title="Tim Flannery">Tim Flannery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_activism_of_Al_Gore" title="Environmental activism of Al Gore">Al Gore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aldo_Leopold" title="Aldo Leopold">Aldo Leopold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wangari_Maathai" class="mw-redirect" title="Wangari Maathai">Wangari Maathai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chico_Mendes" title="Chico Mendes">Chico Mendes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Muir" title="John Muir">John Muir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dz%C5%8D_Tanaka" title="Shōzō Tanaka">Shōzō Tanaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greta_Thunberg" title="Greta Thunberg">Greta Thunberg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_pro-environmental_behaviour" title="Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour">Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land ethic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifeboat_ethics" title="Lifeboat ethics">Lifeboat ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">Tragedy of the commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/32px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/48px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg/64px-Aegopodium_podagraria1_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="700" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Conservation_of_species" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Conservation_of_species" title="Template:Conservation of species"><abbr title="View this 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navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity#Conservation" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captive_breeding" title="Captive breeding">Captive breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassionate_conservation" title="Compassionate conservation">Compassionate conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_behavior" title="Conservation behavior">Conservation behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-dependent_species" title="Conservation-dependent species">Conservation-dependent species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_genetics" title="Conservation genetics">Conservation genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation-induced_extinction" title="Conservation-induced extinction">Conservation-induced extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_status" title="Conservation status">Conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-situ_conservation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex-situ conservation">Ex-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_threshold" title="Extinction threshold">Extinction threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-situ_conservation" title="In-situ conservation">In-situ conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_extinction_risk" title="Latent extinction risk">Latent extinction risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualisms_and_conservation" title="Mutualisms and conservation">Mutualisms and conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_conservation" title="Nature conservation">Nature conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology_of_parasites" title="Conservation biology of parasites">Conservation biology of parasites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_translocation" title="Species translocation">Species translocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_welfare" title="Conservation welfare">Conservation welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threatened_species" title="Threatened species">Threatened species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulnerability_and_susceptibility_in_conservation_biology" title="Vulnerability and susceptibility in conservation biology">Vulnerability and susceptibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_agriculture" title="Conservation agriculture">Conservation agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_development" title="Conservation development">Conservation development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_finance" title="Conservation finance">Conservation finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_grazing" title="Conservation grazing">Conservation grazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_management_system" title="Conservation management system">Conservation management system</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conservation movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_psychology" title="Conservation psychology">Conservation psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conspicuous_conservation" title="Conspicuous conservation">Conspicuous conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community-based_conservation" title="Community-based conservation">Community-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion_conservation_status" title="Ecoregion conservation status">Ecoregion conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">Environmental protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_conservation" title="Evidence-based conservation">Evidence-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">Forest management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_protection" title="Forest protection">Forest protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest_conservation" title="Tropical rainforest conservation">Tropical rainforest conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Conservation_and_Development_Project" title="Integrated Conservation and Development Project">Integrated Conservation and Development Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_effective_area-based_conservation_measures" title="Other effective area-based conservation measures">Other effective area-based conservation measures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_buffer" title="Riparian buffer">Riparian buffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadless_area_conservation" title="Roadless area conservation">Roadless area conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roadside_conservation" title="Roadside conservation">Roadside conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Site-based_conservation" title="Site-based conservation">Site-based conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland_conservation" title="Wetland conservation">Wetland conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Protected_area" title="Protected area">Protected<br />areas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_designation" title="Conservation designation">Conservation designation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation district">Conservation district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_easement" title="Conservation easement">Conservation easement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_reserve" title="Conservation reserve">Conservation reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gap_analysis_(conservation)" title="Gap analysis (conservation)">Gap analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">Habitat conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_conservation_value_area" class="mw-redirect" title="High conservation value area">High conservation value area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape-scale_conservation" title="Landscape-scale conservation">Landscape-scale conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxan" title="Marxan">Marxan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">Open space reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_corridor" title="Wildlife corridor">Wildlife corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/30_by_30" title="30 by 30">30 by 30 target</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Key issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_refugee" title="Conservation refugee">Conservation refugee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortress_conservation" title="Fortress conservation">Fortress conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93wildlife_conflict" title="Human–wildlife conflict">Human–wildlife conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assisted_natural_regeneration" title="Assisted natural regeneration">Assisted natural regeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_restoration" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem restoration">Ecosystem restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island_restoration" title="Island restoration">Island restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afforestation" title="Afforestation">afforestation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rewilding" title="Rewilding">Rewilding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_rewilding" title="Sea rewilding">marine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_reintroduction" title="Species reintroduction">Species reintroduction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By taxon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insect_hotel" title="Insect hotel">Arthropod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_conservation" title="Bird conservation">Bird</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_honeycreeper_conservation" title="Hawaiian honeycreeper conservation">Hawaiian honeycreeper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raptor_conservation" title="Raptor conservation">Raptor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Status_and_conservation_of_the_golden_eagle" title="Status and conservation of the golden eagle">Golden eagle</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_fungi" title="Conservation of fungi">Fungi</a></li> <li>Land mammal <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_American_bison" title="Conservation of American bison">American bison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_oryx_reintroduction" title="Arabian oryx reintroduction">Arabian oryx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bear_conservation" title="Bear conservation">Bear</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polar_bear_conservation" title="Polar bear conservation">Polar bear</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheetah_reintroduction_in_India" title="Cheetah reintroduction in India">Cheetah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_elephants" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation of elephants">Elephant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Elephant" title="Project Elephant">Indian elephant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_slow_lorises" title="Conservation of slow lorises">Slow loris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_conservation" title="Tiger conservation">Tiger</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Tiger" title="Project Tiger">Bengal Tiger</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wolf_reintroduction" title="Wolf reintroduction">Wolf</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Project_Dolphin_(India)" title="Project Dolphin (India)">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey_nurse_shark_conservation" title="Grey nurse shark conservation">Gray nurse shark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manatee_conservation" title="Manatee conservation">Manatee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_of_painted_turtles" title="Conservation of painted turtles">Painted turtle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_conservation" title="Salmon conservation">Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_otter_conservation" title="Sea otter conservation">Sea otter</a></li></ul></li> <li>Plant <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_cryopreservation" title="Plant cryopreservation">Cryopreservation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Angola" title="Conservation in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Australia" title="Conservation in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Belize" title="Conservation in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Brazil" title="Conservation in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Central_African_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Costa_Rica" title="Conservation in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Hong_Kong" title="Conservation in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Iceland" title="Conservation in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_India" title="Conservation in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Indonesia" title="Conservation in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Conservation in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Italy" title="Conservation in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Malaysia" title="Conservation in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Mauritius" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communal_Wildlife_Conservancies_in_Namibia" class="mw-redirect" title="Communal Wildlife Conservancies in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_New_Zealand" title="Conservation in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Pakistan" title="Conservation in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Conservation in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_South_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Conservation in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Uganda" title="Conservation in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Conservation in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_Scotland" title="Conservation in Scotland">Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Conservation in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_conservation_in_the_United_States" title="Forest conservation in the United States">forests</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_officer" title="Conservation officer">Conservation officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-extinction" title="De-extinction">De-extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IUCN_Red_List" title="IUCN Red List">IUCN Red List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NatureServe_conservation_status" title="NatureServe conservation status">NatureServe conservation status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Area_of_Conservation" title="Special Area of Conservation">Special Area of Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">Soil conservation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservation_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="List of conservation issues">List of conservation issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_nature_conservation_organizations" title="List of nature conservation organizations">List of organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conservationists" title="List of conservationists">List of people</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Conservation_biology" title="Category:Conservation biology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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