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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Political career</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_career-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Political career subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Political_career-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_Ba'ath_Movement:_1940–1947" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Ba'ath_Movement:_1940–1947"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Arab Ba'ath Movement: 1940–1947</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_Ba'ath_Movement:_1940–1947-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Founding_and_early_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_and_early_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Founding and early years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_and_early_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_politics:_1954–1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_politics:_1954–1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Power politics: 1954–1963</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_politics:_1954–1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_beginning:_1963–1964" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_beginning:_1963–1964"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>The beginning: 1963–1964</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_beginning:_1963–1964-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_schism:_1964–1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_schism:_1964–1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>The schism: 1964–1965</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_schism:_1964–1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Downfall:_1966–1968" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Downfall:_1966–1968"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Downfall: 1966–1968</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Downfall:_1966–1968-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iraqi-led_Ba'ath_Party:_1968–1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iraqi-led_Ba'ath_Party:_1968–1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party: 1968–1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iraqi-led_Ba'ath_Party:_1968–1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_life_and_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_life_and_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Later life and death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_life_and_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alleged_conversion_to_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alleged_conversion_to_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Alleged conversion to Islam</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alleged_conversion_to_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Funeral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Funeral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Funeral</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Funeral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Thought</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Thought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Thought subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Unity,_liberty,_socialism"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Unity,_liberty,_socialism""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>"Unity, liberty, socialism"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Unity,_liberty,_socialism"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Views_on_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Views_on_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Views on religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Views_on_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Reception and legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reception_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Selected_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selected_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Selected works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selected_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notes and references subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Michel Aflaq</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%84%D9%82" title="ميشيل عفلق – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ميشيل عفلق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%9Fel_%C6%8Ffl%C9%99q" title="Mişel Əfləq – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mişel Əfləq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%84%D9%82" title="میشل عفلق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میشل عفلق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95" title="মিশেল আফলাক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মিশেল আফলাক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%90%D1%84%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Мишел Афлак – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Мишел Афлак" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflak" title="Michel Aflak – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Michel Aflak" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflak" title="Michel Aflak – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Michel Aflak" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%84%D9%82" title="میشل عفلق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="میشل عفلق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflak" title="Michel Aflak – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Michel Aflak" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EC%85%B8_%EC%95%84%ED%94%8C%EB%9D%BC%ED%81%AC" title="미셸 아플라크 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미셸 아플라크" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%B7%D5%A5%D5%AC_%D4%B1%D6%86%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%AF" title="Միշել Աֆլակ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միշել Աֆլակ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95" title="मिशेल अफ्लाक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मिशेल अफ्लाक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%A2%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A7" title="מישל עפלק – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מישל עפלק" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%81%D9%84%D9%82" title="ميشيل عفلق – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ميشيل عفلق" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9F%E3%82%B7%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AB%E3%83%BB%E3%82%A2%E3%83%95%E3%83%A9%E3%82%AF" title="ミシェル・アフラク – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ミシェル・アフラク" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflak" title="Michel Aflak – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Michel Aflak" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%84%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%BA,_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C" title="Афляк, Мишель – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Афляк, Мишель" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%B9%DB%95%D9%81%D9%84%DB%95%D9%82" title="میشیل عەفلەق – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="میشیل عەفلەق" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Michel Aflaq" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C5%9Fel_Eflak" title="Mişel Eflak – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mişel Eflak" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%84_%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84%D9%82" title="میشیل عقلق – Urdu" 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Syrian philosopher, sociologist and Arab nationalist (1910–1989)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Aflak" redirects here. For the village, see <a href="/wiki/Aflak,_Y%C3%BCre%C4%9Fir" class="mw-redirect" title="Aflak, Yüreğir">Aflak, Yüreğir</a>. For the insurance company, see <a href="/wiki/Aflac" title="Aflac">Aflac</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%;"><div class="fn" style="font-size:125%;">Michel Aflaq</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:125%; font-weight:bold;"><div class="nickname" lang="ar"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1227789315">.mw-parser-output .script-arabic{font-family:"Scheherazade New","SF Arabic",Amiri,"Noto Naskh Arabic","Droid Arabic Naskh","Noto Sans Arabic","Sakkal Majalla","Harmattan","Arabic Typesetting","Arabic Transparent","Times New Roman",Arial,Calibri,"Microsoft Sans Serif","Segoe UI",serif,sans-serif;font-weight:normal}</style><span class="script-arabic script-Arab" dir="rtl" style="font-size: 125%;">ميشيل عفلق</span>‎</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/220px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/330px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg/440px-Michel_Aflaq_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="789" data-file-height="1110" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="line-height:normal;padding-top:0.2em;">Michel Aflaq in 1963</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Secretary_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary General">Secretary General</a> of the National Command of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraq-based Ba'ath Party</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />8 February 1968 – 23 June 1989</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Deputy</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Secretary General of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party">National Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />June 1954 – April 1965</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Preceded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data">Position established</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left"><span class="nowrap">Succeeded by</span></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Munif_al-Razzaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Munif al-Razzaz">Munif al-Razzaz</a></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">Member of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party">National Command</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none"><span class="nowrap"><b>In office</b></span><br />6 April 1947 – 23 February 1966</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:lavender">Personal details</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">9 January 1910<br /><a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria Vilayet">Syria Vilayet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">23 June 1989 (aged 79)<br /><a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Political party</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a> (1940–1947)<br /><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> (1947–1966)<br /><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraq-based Ba'ath Party</a> (1968–1989)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Alma_mater" title="Alma mater">Alma mater</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Michel Aflaq</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">ميشيل عفلق</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">Mīšīl ʿAflaq</i></span>‎, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Arabic pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ar-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Arabic" title="Help:IPA/Arabic">[miˈʃel<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʕaflaq]</a></span>; 9 January 1910 – 23 June 1989) was a Syrian philosopher, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalist</a>. His ideas played a significant role in the development of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a> and its political movement; he is considered by several Ba'athists to be the principal founder of Ba'athist thought. He published various books during his lifetime, such as <i>The Road to Renaissance</i> (1940), <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i> (1958) and <i>The Struggle Against Distorting the Movement of Arab Revolution</i> (1975). </p><p>Born into a middle-class family in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Syria, Aflaq studied at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a>, where he met his future political companion <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>. He returned to Syria, then part of the French-ruled <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a>, in 1932, beginning his political career in <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist politics</a>. Aflaq became a communist activist, but broke his ties with the communist movement when the <a href="/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Lebanese_Communist_Party" title="Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party">Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party</a> supported colonial policies through the <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_(France)" title="Popular Front (France)">Popular Front</a> under the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Syria">French Mandate of Syria</a>. Later in 1940 Aflaq and al-Bitar established the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ihya_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Ihya Movement">Arab Ihya Movement</a> (later renaming itself the <i>Arab Ba'ath Movement</i>, taking the name from <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a>'s group by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">same name</a>). The movement proved successful, and in 1947 the Arab Ba'ath Movement merged with al-Arsuzi's Arab Ba'ath organisation to establish the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Ba'ath Party</a>. Aflaq was elected to the party's executive committee and was elected "'Amid" (meaning the party's leader). </p><p>The Arab Ba'ath Party merged with <a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram al-Hawrani</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Party">Arab Socialist Party</a> to establish the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1952; Aflaq was elected the party's leader in 1954. During the mid-to-late 1950s the party began developing relations with <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Egypt" title="President of Egypt">President of Egypt</a>, which eventually led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> (UAR). Nasser forced Aflaq to dissolve the party, which he did, but without consulting with party members. Shortly after the UAR's dissolution, Aflaq was reelected as Secretary General of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party. Following the <a href="/wiki/8th_of_March_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="8th of March Revolution">8th of March Revolution</a>, Aflaq's position within the party was weakened to such an extent that he was forced to resign as the party's leader in 1965. Aflaq was ousted during the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a>, which led to a schism within the Ba'ath Party. He escaped to <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>, but later went to Iraq. In 1968 Aflaq was elected Secretary General of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-led_faction)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-led faction)">Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party</a>; during his tenure he held no <i>de facto</i> power. He held the post until his death on 23 June 1989. </p><p>Aflaq's theories about society, economics, and politics, which are collectively known as Ba'athism, hold that the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a> needs to be unified into one <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Nation">Arab Nation</a> in order to achieve an advanced state of development. He was critical of both capitalism and communism, and critical of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>'s view of <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a> as the only truth. Ba'athist thought placed much emphasis on liberty and <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a> – a socialism with Arab characteristics, which was not part of the international socialist movement as defined by the West. Aflaq believed in the separation of state and religion, and was a strong believer in <a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">secularisation</a>, but was against <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>. Although a Christian, he believed <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> to be proof of "Arab genius". In the aftermath of the 1966 Ba'ath Party split, the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Syrian-led Ba'ath Party</a> accused Aflaq of stealing al-Arsuzi's ideas, calling him a "thief" and later sentenced him to "death <i>via absentia</i>" in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party</a> rejects this, and does not believe that al-Arsuzi contributed to Ba'athist thought. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_life">Early life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Born on 9 January 1910 in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> to a middle class <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Syria" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Syria">Orthodox Christian</a> family,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHelms1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJQ6jPM38qCwCpgPA64_64–65]_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelms1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJQ6jPM38qCwCpgPA64_64–65]-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his father, Joseph, worked as a <a href="/wiki/Grain_trade" title="Grain trade">grain merchant</a>. Aflaq was first educated in the Westernised schools of the French-ruled <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1929, he left Syria to study philosophy abroad at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> in Paris. During his stay, Aflaq was influenced by the works of <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> and met his longtime collaborator <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>, a fellow Syrian nationalist.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq founded an Arab Student Union at the Sorbonne and discovered the writings of <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>. He returned to Syria in 1932, and became active in communist politics, but left the movement when the government of <a href="/wiki/L%C3%A9on_Blum" title="Léon Blum">Léon Blum</a>, supported by the <a href="/wiki/French_Communist_Party" title="French Communist Party">French Communist Party</a> (PCF), continued France's old politics towards its colonies. Aflaq, and others, had believed that the PCF followed pro-independence policies towards the <a href="/wiki/French_colonies" class="mw-redirect" title="French colonies">French colonies</a>. It did not help that the <a href="/wiki/Syrian%E2%80%93Lebanese_Communist_Party" title="Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party">Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party</a> (SLCP) supported the PCF's decision. From then on Aflaq saw the communist movement as a tool of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was impressed by the organisation and ideology of <a href="/wiki/Antun_Saadeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Antun Saadeh">Antun Saadeh</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_career">Political career</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Political career"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_Ba'ath_Movement:_1940–1947"><span id="Arab_Ba.27ath_Movement:_1940.E2.80.931947"></span>Arab Ba'ath Movement: 1940–1947</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Arab Ba'ath Movement: 1940–1947"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg/220px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="304" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg/330px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg/440px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_in_the_late_1930s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="707" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq in the late 1930s</figcaption></figure> <p>Upon their return to Syria, Aflaq and al-Bitar became teachers at Tajhiz all'-Ula, "the most prestigious secondary school in Syria". Aflaq taught history, while al-Bitar taught math and physics. By 1940, Aflaq and al-Bitar had managed to set up a student circle, which usually met on Fridays. That year, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ihya Movement</a>, a political party, was established by Aflaq and al-Bitar. They used most of their spare time in 1941 to agitate for the party. It was in 1942 that Aflaq showed his skills as "a compelling speaker" who was able to utilize the "theatrical pause" to great effect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party changed its name to <i>Arab Ba'ath Movement</i> to signify the radical changes which were sweeping the Middle East; <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Iraq" title="Prime Minister of Iraq">Prime Minister of Iraq</a>, had challenged Britain's domination over Iraq. The replacement of the word "Revival" with "Ba'ath" (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">بعث</span>, literally means <i>resurrection</i>/<i>rebirth</i>) signified that Arab revival had been replaced ideologically by the need for an Arab rebirth. The change of name led <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Ba'ath Party">Arab Ba'ath Party</a>, to accuse Aflaq and al-Bitar of stealing his party's name from him. Though both men were promoting a party platform based on an <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab nationalist">Arab nationalist</a> stance, Aflaq and al-Arsuzi became bitter rivals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA30_30]_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA30_30]-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 24 October 1942, both Aflaq and al-Bitar resigned from their teaching positions, now determined to devote themselves fully to the political struggle.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941 the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a> was established to support the Iraqi Government led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani against the British invasion during the <a href="/wiki/Anglo%E2%80%93Iraqi_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo–Iraqi War">Anglo–Iraqi War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Arsuzi, the leader of the other Arab Ba'ath movement, was skeptical of the new committee, and opposed helping the Iraqis on the ground that they would lose anyway.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1941 the movement began publishing documents under the name the "Arab Ihya Movement". Later, in 1945, Aflaq and al-Bitar asked the French Mandate authorities to grant the movement a party license. The Arab Ba'ath Movement did not become an official party until 1947, when it merged with al-Arsuzi's Arab Ba'ath Movement to found the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Ba'ath Party</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabil2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM18Jj0bMMl0CpgPA17_17]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabil2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM18Jj0bMMl0CpgPA17_17]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arab Ba'ath Movement, led by Aflaq and al-Bitar, drew supporters from al-Arsuzi's Ba'ath Movement; during the 1940s, al-Arsuzi started to seclude himself from the public eye; he developed a deep distrust of others and became, according to some of his associates, <a href="/wiki/Paranoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Paranoid">paranoid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138–139]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138–139]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the two Ba'ath movements merged and established the Arab Ba'ath Party in 1947, the only subject discussed was how much socialism to include; <a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jalal_al-Sayyid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jalal al-Sayyid (page does not exist)">Jalal al-Sayyid</a> from the al-Arsuzi-led Ba'ath movement wanted Aflaq and al-Bitar to adopt more radical socialist policies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (December 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_and_early_years">Founding and early years</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Founding and early years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Arab Ba'ath Party's first congress was held in Damascus in 1947.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabinovich1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIL-A_YxL2m4CpgPA228_228]_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERabinovich1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIL-A_YxL2m4CpgPA228_228]-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq took the pre-eminent position of <i>Amid</i> (sometimes translated as 'doyen' or as 'leader')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJabel1966[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIx2NAAAAMAAJq22Aflaq22amid_31]_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJabel1966[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIx2NAAAAMAAJq22Aflaq22amid_31]-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was elected to a four-member executive committee. Under the constitution adopted at the congress, this made him effective leader of the party, with sweeping powers within the organisation; al-Bitar was elected Secretary General of the National Command. Zaki al-Arsuzi, the leader of the Arab Ba'ath, was not given any position, or membership in the party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq as <i>Amid</i> was responsible for ideological affairs and became the party's mentor, while al-Bitar controlled the party's day-to-day management.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The merger would prove problematic; several members of the al-Arsuzi-led Ba'ath Party were more left-leaning, and would become, later in Aflaq's tenure as leader, highly critical of his leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA27_27]_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA27_27]-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the late 1940s, Aflaq and al-Bitar gave free lessons on Ba'athist thought, and in 1948 they established the newspaper <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Ba%27ath" title="Al-Ba'ath">al-Ba'ath</a></i>. Aflaq tested the Ba'ath Party's strength during the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a>: after early Syrian defeats, he led several demonstrations against the government led by President <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a>. He personally led demonstrations and claimed that al-Quwatli, a <a href="/wiki/Landowner" class="mw-redirect" title="Landowner">landowner</a>, was a corrupt and capitalistic politician, who was to blame for the Syrian army's defeat. Aflaq called for al-Quwatli's resignation, and wrote several <i>al-Ba'ath</i> articles criticising his presidency and his prime minister, <a href="/wiki/Jamil_Mardam_Bey" title="Jamil Mardam Bey">Jamil Mardam Bey</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq was later arrested on the orders of Prime Minister Mardam Bey.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131–132]_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131–132]-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Quwatli's government was brought down in a coup d'état led by military officer <a href="/wiki/Husni_al-Za%27im" title="Husni al-Za'im">Husni al-Za'im</a>. Al-Za'im banned all parties, claiming that Syria was not ready to establish a <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracy</a> yet. Aflaq, who had been set free, was rearrested during al-Zai'm's presidency and sent to the notorious <a href="/wiki/Mezzeh_Prison" class="mw-redirect" title="Mezzeh Prison">Mezzeh Prison</a>. Al-Za'im's rule did not last for long, and in August 1949, he was toppled, and <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a>, who was democratically elected, took his place. Al-Atassi established a <a href="/wiki/National_unity_government" title="National unity government">national unity government</a>, and Aflaq was appointed to the post of <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Education_(Syria)" title="Ministry of Education (Syria)">Minister of Education</a>, the only government post he would ever hold; he held it from August to December 1949. Al-Attasi's presidency did not last for very long either, and in 1951 <a href="/wiki/Adib_Shishakli" title="Adib Shishakli">Adib Shishakli</a> took power in a military coup.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq at first extended his support to the new government, believing that he and the Ba'ath Party could collaborate with Shishakli because they shared the same Arab nationalist sentiments. His analysis of Shishakli proved to be wrong, and one of Shishakli's first decisions as ruler was to ban all political parties, including the Ba'ath Party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ba'ath Party leadership, and several leading members, escaped to Lebanon in the wake of increased government repression. In Lebanon Aflaq and al-Bitar agreed to a merger of the Arab Ba'ath Party and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Party">Arab Socialist Party</a> (ASP), led by <a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram al-Hawrani</a>, to establish the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party in 1952.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddFdbVVcKsSICpgPA66_66–67]_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddFdbVVcKsSICpgPA66_66–67]-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The newly formed party worked as a base of operation against Shishali's rule. Aflaq and the rest cooperated with non-Ba'athist opposition forces too. Shishakli was toppled in February 1954.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Power_politics:_1954–1963"><span id="Power_politics:_1954.E2.80.931963"></span>Power politics: 1954–1963</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Power politics: 1954–1963"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg/220px-Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg/330px-Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg/440px-Leaders_of_July_14_1958_Revolution.jpg 2x" data-file-width="591" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq (front row, first from right) with the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July 1958 revolution</a> in Iraq, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Khaled_al-Naqshabendi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Khaled al-Naqshabendi (page does not exist)">Khaled al-Naqshabendi</a> (front row, left), <a href="/wiki/Abd_as-Salam_Arif" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd as-Salam Arif">Abd as-Salam Arif</a> (back row, second from left), <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Karim Qasim">Abd al-Karim Qasim</a> (back row, third from left), and <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Najib_ar-Ruba%27i" title="Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i">Muhammad Najib ar-Ruba'i</a> (back row, fifth from left)</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the overthrow of al-Shishakli, Syria held its <a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_parliamentary_election" title="1954 Syrian parliamentary election">first democratic elections</a> in five years. The Ba'ath Party, led by Aflaq, al-Bitar and al-Hawrani, had 22 members elected to parliament.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This increase in influence can largely be attributed to al-Hawrani – several old ASP strongholds voted for the Ba'ath Party because of al-Hawrani's presence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA66_66]_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA66_66]-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By this time Aflaq was losing much of his power to al-Hawrani and his supporters, who were in a majority in the party. Proof of this was the decision of the Ba'ath Party to collaborate openly with the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> (SCP), a move Aflaq opposed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA28_28]_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA28_28]-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq was elected the party's Secretary General of the newly established National Command, a title equivalent to 'party leader', by the party's Second National Congress.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When, under the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> (UAR), Aflaq was forced by Nasser to dissolve the party, he disbanded the party by himself, instead of convening a congress on the matter.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA98_98]_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA98_98]-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UAR proved to be disastrous for the Ba'ath Party – the party was sidelined to a great extent by Nasser's government. The Ba'ath movement, which in 1958 was on the verge of becoming the dominant Arab nationalist movement, found itself in disarray after three years of <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserist</a> rule.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA65_65]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA65_65]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a handful of Ba'athists were given public office in the UAR's government; al-Hawrani became vice president and al-Bitar became Minister of Culture and Guidance.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several members, mostly young, blamed Aflaq for this situation; it was he who dissolved the party in 1958 without consulting the National Congress. <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> amongst others, eventually established the Military Committee to save the Syrian Ba'ath movement from annihilation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA61_61–62]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA61_61–62]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The party's Third National Congress in 1959 supported Aflaq's decision to dissolve the party, but a 1960 National Congress, in which Jadid was a delegate representing the then-unknown Military Committee, reversed the decision and called for the Ba'ath Party's reestablishment. The Congress also decided to improve relations with Nasser by democratising the UAR from within. A faction within the party, led by al-Hawrani, called for Syria's secession.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA66_66]_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA66_66]-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the UAR broke up in 1961, some members applauded the dissolution, such as al-Bitar.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg/220px-Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg/330px-Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg/440px-Hawrani_Aflaq_1957.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq (right) with <a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram al-Hawrani">al-Hawrani</a> in 1957</figcaption></figure> <p>The Ba'ath Party captured 20 seats, down from 22, in the <a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_parliamentary_election" title="1961 Syrian parliamentary election">1961 election</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENohlenFlorianHartmann2001221_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENohlenFlorianHartmann2001221-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1962, after four years, Aflaq convened the Fifth Congress in <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a>. Al-Hawrani was not invited; cells that had stayed active and defied Aflaq's orders, and Ba'athists who became Nasserists during the period of the UAR, were not invited to the congress. Aflaq was reelected as the National Command's secretary general, and ordered the reestablishment of the Syrian-regional Ba'ath organisation. During the congress, Aflaq and the Military Committee, through <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a>, made contact for the first time; the committee asked for permission to initiate a coup d'état; Aflaq supported the conspiracy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA75_75]_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA75_75]-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the success of the <a href="/wiki/February_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a>, led by the Ba'ath Party's <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraqi Regional Branch</a>, the Military Committee hastily convened to hatch a coup against <a href="/wiki/Nazim_al-Kudsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazim al-Kudsi">Nazim al-Kudsi</a>'s presidency. The <a href="/wiki/8th_of_March_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="8th of March Revolution">8th of March Revolution</a>, a military coup launched in 1963, proved successful, and a Ba'athist government in Syria was established.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA76_76–78]_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA76_76–78]-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plotters' first order was to establish the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_the_Revolutionary_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council of the Revolutionary Command">National Council of the Revolutionary Command</a> (NCRC), consisting entirely of Ba'athists and Nasserists, and controlled by military personnel rather than civilians from the very beginning.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA78_78]_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA78_78]-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_beginning:_1963–1964"><span id="The_beginning:_1963.E2.80.931964"></span>The beginning: 1963–1964</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The beginning: 1963–1964"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/220px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/330px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg/440px-Michel_Aflaq_and_Salah_Jadid_in_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1006" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq and <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a> in 1963, shortly after taking power</figcaption></figure> <p>The relationship between the Ba'athists and the Nasserists was at best, uncomfortable. The Ba'ath Party's rise to power in Iraq and Syria put Nasser, as he put it, "between the hammer and the anvil". The establishment of a union between Iraq and Syria would weaken his credentials as a pan-Arab leader.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81]_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81]-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nasser started launching bitter propaganda attacks against the party; Aflaq was dismissed as an ineffectual theorist who was mocked as a puppet "<a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a>" and accused of being a "Cypriot Christian".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81–82]_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81–82]-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In several Ba'ath Party meetings, Aflaq responded with pure anger, and became an anti-Nasserist. Because of the position he took, Aflaq had a falling out with al-Bitar who still believed there was a chance to reestablish good ties with Nasser.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA82_82]_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA82_82]-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The break with Nasser weakened the original leaders of the Ba'ath Party, which in turn gave the Military Committee room to expand. After taking power, the Military Committee looked for theoretical guidance, but instead of going to Aflaq to solve problems (which was usual before), they contacted the party's Marxist faction led by <a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA86_86]_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA86_86]-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the Syrian Ba'athist Regional Congress, the Military Committee "proved" that it was rebelling equally against Aflaq and the traditional leadership, as against their moderate social and economic policies. The Military Committee was bent on removing Aflaq from a position of power, believing that he had become old and frail. At the Sixth National Congress held in October 1963, Aflaq was barely able to hold on to his post as Secretary General – the Marxist factions led by al-Shufi and <a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a>, in Syria and Iraq respectively, were the majority group. Another problem facing Aflaq was that several of his colleagues were not elected to party office; for instance, al-Bitar was not reelected to a seat in the National Command. Instead of the traditional civilian leadership, a new leadership consisting of military officers was gradually growing; Jadid and <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a> from Syria and <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Salih Mahdi Ammash">Salih Mahdi Ammash</a> from Iraq were elected to the National Command. While the Military Committee was in fact taking control over the Ba'ath Party from the civilian leadership, they were sensitive to such criticism, and stated, in an ideological pamphlet, that civilian-military symbiosis was of major importance if socialist reconstruction was to be achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA88_88]_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA88_88]-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the outside world, Aflaq seemed to be in charge. The <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisian</a> newspaper <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=L%27Action_tunisienne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="L'Action tunisienne (page does not exist)">L'Action tunisienne</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%27Action_tunisienne" class="extiw" title="fr:L'Action tunisienne">fr</a>]</span></i> referred to him as "The philosopher who made two coups [Iraqi and Syrian coups] in a month".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90]_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90]-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Ba'ath movement was not running as smoothly as the rest of the world believed; the Iraqi Regional Branch was already starting to lose membership. The Iraqi military and the party's militant arm, the <a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(Iraq)" title="National Guard (Iraq)">National Guard</a>, detested each other. Al-Sadi, the Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Regional Branch, was eventually exiled to <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a>, Spain on 11 November by several military officers and moderate Ba'athists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90–91]_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90–91]-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An anxious Aflaq hastily traveled from Syria and dissolved the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a> of the Iraqi Regional Branch, exclaiming that the National Command would rule Iraq in its place until a new Regional Command was elected. This was not greeted warmly by the majority of Iraqi military officers and Ba'athists – the idea that a Christian was to rule over a Muslim country was considered "insensitive". </p><p>The situation in Iraq did not improve, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a>, the <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">President of Iraq</a> and a Nasserist, plotted a coup against the Ba'ath Party on 18 November, which succeeded. The dream of cornering Nasser's pan-Arab project was over; instead, it was Nasser and the Nasserists who were cornering the Ba'ath movement. On hearing the news, Aflaq and several Ba'athists fled Iraq for Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA91_91]_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA91_91]-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_schism:_1964–1965"><span id="The_schism:_1964.E2.80.931965"></span>The schism: 1964–1965</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The schism: 1964–1965"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After a falling out with the Military Committee, of which he was a member, Muhammad Umran told Aflaq about the committee's secret plans to oust the civilian leadership, led by Aflaq, and take over the Ba'ath Party. Shortly after, Umran was sent into exile as Ambassador to Spain for supporting the Aflaq faction.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq responded to the threat posed to his leadership by invoking his office as secretary general, and calling for the National Command to dissolve the <a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Regional Command</a>. He was forced to withdraw his request when the majority of Ba'ath Party members proved to oppose such a move. A contest for power between Aflaq and the Military Committee ensued in the open; but it was a struggle Aflaq was losing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was plain from the very beginning that the initiative lay with the anti-Aflaq forces.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter the military threat, Aflaq invoked party rules and regulations against them. To counter this, the Military Committee befriended a staunchly anti-Aflaq civilian faction calling themselves the "Regionalists" – this group had not dissolved their party organisations as ordered by Aflaq in the 1950s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Regional Congress of the Syrian Regional Branch, in March 1965, devolved power from the center, the National Command, to the Regional Command. From then on, the Regional Secretary of the Regional Command was considered Syria's <i><a href="/wiki/Ex_officio" class="mw-redirect" title="Ex officio">ex officio</a></i> head of state. The Regional Secretary had the power to appoint the prime minister, the cabinet, the chief of staff and top military commanders. Aflaq was unsettled by the way things were moving, and in May he convened the Eighth National Congress to get a showdown between his followers and those of the Military Committee. However, this never came to fruition. Several civilian members of the National Command, such as the Lebanese <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jibran_Majdalani&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jibran Majdalani (page does not exist)">Jibran Majdalani</a> and the Saudi <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ali_Ghannam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ali Ghannam (page does not exist)">Ali Ghannam</a>, advised caution, believing that if he pressed the Military Committee too hard the military would take over the Syrian Regional Branch, and then the Ba'ath Party – as had happened in Iraq following the ousting of the Iraqi Regional Branch. Because of their concerns, Aflaq kept quiet. But to his astonishment, keeping quiet caused him to lose his post as Secretary General – Aflaq was succeeded as Secretary General of the National Command by <a href="/wiki/Munif_al-Razzaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Munif al-Razzaz">Munif al-Razzaz</a>, a Jordanian of Syrian origin. However, the power between the two camps was unexpectedly reshuffled when <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a> defected to Aflaq's camp. In contrast to other military officers al-Hafiz had very little influence within or outside the party.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA99_99]_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA99_99]-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Hafiz's defection led to a resurgence of activity within Aflaq's faction. Al-Bitar and Umran were brought back from Spain to form a new government.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA100_100–101]_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA100_100–101]-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Downfall:_1966–1968"><span id="Downfall:_1966.E2.80.931968"></span>Downfall: 1966–1968</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Downfall: 1966–1968"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg/220px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg/330px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg/440px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Ahmad_Hasan_al-Bakr_in_Baghdad_in_1968.jpg 2x" data-file-width="592" data-file-height="427" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> (left), the Regional Secretary of the Iraqi Ba'ath branch, shaking hands with Aflaq in 1968</figcaption></figure> <p>Al-Razzaz, Aflaq's successor as secretary general, came from the pro-Aflaq faction. With the defection of al-Hafez, he ordered that the National Command was the <i>de jure</i> ruling body of the Ba'ath Party. He appointed al-Bitar prime minister, Umran defence minister, <a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a> as Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_the_Revolutionary_Command" class="mw-redirect" title="National Council of the Revolutionary Command">National Council of the Revolutionary Command</a> and al-Hafiz retained his post as <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President of Syria</a>. Salah Jadid, the Military Committee's strongman, responded by arresting several Umran supporters. Umran responded by dismissing a handful of pro-Jadid officials. The most important of these dismissals was the removal of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Suwaydani" title="Ahmad Suwaydani">Ahmad Suwaydani</a> from the post of head of the country's military intelligence to head of the Officer Administration.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 23 February a <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">coup d'état</a> led by Jadid and <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> overthrew the Syrian Government and the Ba'ath Party leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq was exiled from Syria, and ordered never to return to his homeland. Members of the party's other factions fled; Aflaq was captured and detained, along with other pro-Aflaq supporters, in a government guest house.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA102_102]_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA102_102]-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the new rulers launched a purge in August that year, Aflaq managed to make his escape, with the help of <a href="/wiki/Nasim_Al_Safarjalani" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasim Al Safarjalani">Nasim Al Safarjalani</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Malek_Bashour&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Malek Bashour (page does not exist)">Malek Bashour</a>, both closely trusted friends and colleagues, and hence was able to flee to <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, Lebanon,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA111_111]_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA111_111]-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and later to <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA26_26]_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA26_26]-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq's downfall caused a split within the Ba'ath Party; the party was <i>de facto</i> dissolved and two Ba'ath Parties were established, <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraq)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraq)">one Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Syria)">one Syrian-led Ba'ath Party</a>. The Syrian-led party was led by Jadid and his supporters and hailed Zaki al-Arsuzi, the founder of the Arab Ba'ath in 1940, as the father of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athist thought</a>, while the Iraqi-led party led by <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, still proclaimed Aflaq to be the founder of Ba'athist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In February 1966 at the Ninth National Congress, held after the coup which ousted the pro-Aflaq faction, the Iraqi delegation split with the Syrian Ba'athists. The Iraqis held the <i>true</i> Ninth National Congress in February 1968 in Beirut,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKostiner1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYQb1Ilj2U7ECpgPA36_36]_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKostiner1998[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYQb1Ilj2U7ECpgPA36_36]-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and elected Aflaq as Secretary General of the National Command.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq's election to the secretary generalship also proved to be his final break with al-Bitar; before the congress convened al-Bitar announced that he had left the Ba'ath Party and given up on the Ba'athist movement as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA110_110]_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA110_110]-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iraqi-led_Ba'ath_Party:_1968–1989"><span id="Iraqi-led_Ba.27ath_Party:_1968.E2.80.931989"></span>Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party: 1968–1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party: 1968–1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg/220px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg/330px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg/440px-Baath_Party_founder_Michel_Aflaq_with_Iraqi_President_Saddam_Hussein_in_1988.jpg 2x" data-file-width="526" data-file-height="352" /></a><figcaption>Michel Aflaq in conversation with <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> in 1988</figcaption></figure> <p>Aflaq moved to <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> following his reelection to the secretary generalship in February 1968. He stayed there until 1970, when <a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a> happened, he criticized the Ba'ath leadership for doing too little to help the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestine Liberation Organisation">Palestine Liberation Organisation</a> during the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the conflict, Aflaq lobbied extensively for <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> and the PLO. Aflaq wanted Iraqi intervention; al-Bakr, however, refused to get Iraq involved in such a conflict. Because of this, Aflaq returned to Lebanon in self-imposed exile.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The government of Hafez al-Assad, the President of Syria, condemned Aflaq to death in absentia in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Later_life_and_death">Later life and death</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Later life and death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After four years of self-imposed exile Aflaq returned to Iraq in 1974, a year before the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> broke out.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He refrained from taking part in Iraqi politics. He published several works during this period, the most notable being <i>The Struggle Against Distorting the Movement of Arab Revolution</i> in 1975. Aflaq regained some of his influence when he befriended Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq from 1979 until 2003. During the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a> the Iranian leadership accused Hussein of being under the control of a Christian, and Aflaq himself was labelled "a Christian infidel".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Effectively, throughout his tenure as secretary general in Iraq, Aflaq was given all due honour as the founder of the Ba'ath movement, but on policy-making, he was ignored.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq died on 23 June 1989 in Paris, after undergoing heart surgery there.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alleged_conversion_to_Islam">Alleged conversion to Islam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Alleged conversion to Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aflaq_funeral.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Aflaq_funeral.jpg/220px-Aflaq_funeral.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="171" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Aflaq_funeral.jpg/330px-Aflaq_funeral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Aflaq_funeral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="341" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq's coffin carried by Saddam Hussein and <a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Saddam Hussein claimed that Aflaq converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> before his death. According to anonymous Western diplomats, Aflaq's own family disagreed with that claim;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, Aflaq's son, Iyad, confirmed that his father thought about conversion in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon his disputed conversion, he supposedly adopted "<a href="/wiki/Ahmed" class="mw-redirect" title="Ahmed">Ahmed</a>" as a first name.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the German orientalists Martin Robbe and Gerhard Höpp, the conversion happened before 1988.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Regardless of the disagreements about his religion, he was given an Islamic funeral.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]_52-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShair2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA39_39]-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Berkley Center, anonymous members of Aflaq's family claimed that Aflaq's conversion was a "lie" made up by Saddam Hussein which he used as a tool to distance Ba'athism from Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tomb constructed on the orders of Hussein was later used as a military barrack by American soldiers after the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 American invasion of Iraq</a> for troops stationed within the <a href="/wiki/Green_Zone" title="Green Zone">Green Zone</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq's family reported that the tomb was badly damaged during the invasion.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Funeral">Funeral</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Funeral"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Upon his death in 1989 he was given a state funeral. A large <a href="/wiki/Tomb" title="Tomb">tomb</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mausoleum" title="Mausoleum">mausoleum</a> were erected to form a <a href="/wiki/Shrine" title="Shrine">shrine</a> for him. The tomb, widely regarded as a work of great artistic merit, designed by Iraqi architect <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chadagee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chadagee (page does not exist)">Chadagee</a>, was located on the western grounds of the Ba'ath Party Pan-Arab Headquarters, at the intersection of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Kindi_street&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Kindi street (page does not exist)">Al-Kindi street</a> and the Qadisiyyah Expressway overpass. Although there were rumors and accusations that his tomb was destroyed during the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">2003 Iraq War</a>, the burial chamber and building above it were left untouched. Its blue-tiled dome can be seen above the concrete T-walls surrounding the Camp's perimeter.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Thought">Thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Michel Aflaq</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="20th century philosophy">20th century philosophy</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">School</a></th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Main interests</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Politics, philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, nationalism, <a href="/wiki/Philology" title="Philology">philology</a> history</td></tr><tr class="note"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Notable ideas</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Principal founder of <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i>, <i>The Struggle Against Distorting the Movement of Arab Revolution</i></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Unity,_liberty,_socialism""><span id=".22Unity.2C_liberty.2C_socialism.22"></span>"Unity, liberty, socialism"</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: "Unity, liberty, socialism""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Unity,_Freedom,_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity, Freedom, Socialism">Unity, Freedom, Socialism</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1023981488">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .rquote{width:auto!important;float:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote rquote" style="float: left; width: 33%;"><p>What liberty could be wider and greater than binding oneself to the renaissance of one's nation and its revolution? The liberty we seek is not opposed to legislative measures to curb the exploitations of feudalists, capitalists and opportunists. It is a new and strict liberty which stands against pressure and confusion. Dictatorship is a precarious, unsuitable and self-contradictory system which does not allow the consciousness of the people to grow.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Aflaq in a speech, talking about one of the key Ba'athist tenets; "freedom will come to the Arabs through unity [the establishment of the Arab Nation]"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage87_87]_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage87_87]-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party slogan "<a href="/wiki/Unity,_Freedom,_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Unity, Freedom, Socialism">Unity, liberty, socialism</a>" is the key tenet of Aflaq's and Ba'athist thought. Unity meant the unification of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab people">Arab people</a> into one nation, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Nation">Arab Nation</a>. The creation of an Arab Nation would have direct implications on Arab development. The establishment of this new state would lead to an Arab Ba'ath (literally meaning "renaissance").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Arab nations of his time could only progressively "decline" if not unified; these nations had various ailments – "<a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">sectarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Regionalism_(politics)" title="Regionalism (politics)">regionalism</a>, intellectual <a href="/wiki/Reactionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactionism">reactionism</a>". The only way to "cure" the Arab nations was, according to Aflaq, through a revolutionary movement. Aflaq was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> in that he saw the need for a <a href="/wiki/Vanguard_party" class="mw-redirect" title="Vanguard party">vanguard party</a> to rule the Arab Nation for an indefinite period of time (the period would be a transition from the old to the new).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The need for <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> was one of the defining features of Ba'athism;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, this was not liberty in the sense used by <a href="/wiki/Liberal_democracy" title="Liberal democracy">liberal democracies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq was a strong believer in <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism of thought</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but against pluralism in the form of votes. In theory, the Ba'ath Party would rule, and guide the people, in a transitional period of time without consulting the people<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because the party knew what was right.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The last tenet, 'socialism', did not mean socialism as it is defined in the West, but rather a unique form of <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a>, a term coined by Aflaq. Socialism, in its original form in the Arab world had, according to Aflaq, first come into being under the rule of Muhammad. The point of Arab socialism was not to answer questions such as: how much state control was necessary, or economic equality; but instead Arab socialism was a system that freed the Arab people from oppression and enslavement, which in turn created independent individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq opposed Marx's view that <a href="/wiki/Dialectical_materialism" title="Dialectical materialism">dialectical materialism</a> was the only truth, but believed that the "importance of material economic conditions in life" was one of the greatest discoveries in modern history.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even so, Aflaq was critical of both capitalism and communism, and did not want either of the two power blocs to collapse during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, believing that the Cold War was a sort of check and balance on their power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA118_118]_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA118_118]-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For more than 2 decades, Michel Aflaq's essay compilation titled <i>Fi Sabil al-Ba'ath</i> (trans: "The Road to Renaissance") was the primary ideological book of the Ba'ath party. The work was published by Aflaq in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Views_on_religion">Views on religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Views on religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aflaq's advocacy of a national revival conflicted with the problem of reconciling goals of Arab nationalism with the universal Islamic values so engrained in Arab life. His answer was to assert that Islam was the most sublime expression of <a href="/wiki/Arabism" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabism">Arabism</a>: one had grown out of the other and there is no contradiction between them. He argued that Islam, from its inception, revealed in Arabic Qur'an, meets Arab needs, embodies Arab values and launched Arabs on their conquest of the known world. The idea of Islam being a culture rather than a faith took special attention from Arab Christians such as Aflaq. These views, however, were highly unorthodox and controversial when aired in lectures at Damascus University. They garnered significant criticism from devout Muslims, who viewed the suggestion that the Arab genius was the flowering of Islam rather than the revelation of God as offensive. Additionally, Christians accused him of selling out and nicknamed him 'Muhammed Aflaq'.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Being influenced by a mixture of radical <a href="/wiki/Hobbesian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hobbesian">Hobbesian</a> and Marxist ideas, Michel Aflaq viewed religion as the "<a href="/wiki/Opiate_of_the_masses" class="mw-redirect" title="Opiate of the masses">opiate of the masses</a>", which subverted efforts for the advancement of a <a href="/wiki/Socialist_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist revolution">socialist revolution</a>. In 1956, Aflaq asserted that religion was a tool used by the elites of the traditional social order to maintain a corrupt system which facilitated the oppression and exploitation of the weaker classes of the society. He also claimed that religion was regularly exploited by oppressive elites to sedate the people and prevent the outbreak of mass revolutions against the prevailing socio-political order.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq wrote in <i>Fi Sabil al-Ba'ath</i>: </p><blockquote><p>"... the oppressed who see religion in this era a weapon that the oppressors rely upon ... those who exploit the corrupt situation exploit this corruption because it drugs the people and because it prevents the people from a revolution against its oppressors and its enslavers."<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>What Aflaq saw in Islam was a revolutionary movement. In contrast to other nationalities, the Arab awakening and expansion was attributed to a religious message. Because of this, Aflaq believed that the Arabs' spirituality was directly linked to Islam. Therefore, one could never take Islam out of the equation of what is essentially, and essentially is not, Arab. Arab nationalism, just as Islam had been during the lifetime of Muhammad, was a spiritual revolutionary movement, leading the Arabs towards a new renaissance: Arab nationalism was the second revolution to appear in the Arab world. All Arab religious communities should, according to Aflaq, respect and worship the spirituality of Islam, even if they did not worship Islam in a religious sense – Aflaq was a Christian who worshipped Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198]_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198]-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq did not believe it was necessary to worship Muhammad, but believed that all Arabs should strive to emulate Muhammad. In the words of Aflaq himself, Arabs "belong to the nation that gave birth to a Muhammad; or rather, because this Arab individual is a member of the community which Muhammad put all his efforts into creating […] Muhammad was all the Arabs; let us today make all the Arabs Muhammad." The Muslim of Muhammad's days were, according to Aflaq, synonymous with Arabs – the Arabs were the only ones to preach the message of Islam during Muhammad's lifetime. In contrast to Jesus, who was a religious leader, but not a political leader, Muhammad was both – the first leader of Islam and of the Arab world. Therefore, secularisation could not take the same shape in the Arab world as it did in the West.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198–199]_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198–199]-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Aflaq called on all Arabs, both Muslim and non-Muslim alike, to admire the role Islam had played in creating the Arab character. But his view on Islam was purely spiritual, and Aflaq emphasised that Islam "should not be imposed" on state and society. Time and again Aflaq emphasised that the Ba'ath party was against atheism, but also equally against <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">fundamentalism</a>. For him, any fundamentalism represented a "shallow, false faith." According to Ba'athist ideology, all religions were equal. Despite his anti-atheist stance, Aflaq was a strong supporter of secular government, and stated that a Ba'athist state would replace religion with a state "based on a foundation – Arab nationalism, and a moral – freedom."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception_and_legacy">Reception and legacy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Reception and legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maflaq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Maflaq.jpg/220px-Maflaq.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Maflaq.jpg/330px-Maflaq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Maflaq.jpg/440px-Maflaq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>Aflaq's theoretical contributions have been met with mixed reactions.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Fouad_Ajami" title="Fouad Ajami">Fouad Ajami</a> criticised Aflaq for a lack of real substance, stating, "Nearly three hundred pages of text yield no insight, on his part, into what went wrong and what needed to be done; there is only the visible infatuation with words", and "Aflaq summons the party to renounce power and go back to its 'pure essence'. There is some truth in this critique." Aflaq spent much time and energy writing optimistically about the future, and the past, of the Arab Nation, and how the Arab World could be unified. As Kanan Makiya, the author of <i>Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq</i>, notes: for "Aflaq, reality is confined to the inner world of the party." In contrast to other philosophers, such as Karl Marx or <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, Aflaq's ideological view of the world makes no clear stand on the materialistic or socioeconomic behavior of humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201]_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201]-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While other philosophers make distinctions between what is real and what is not real, that is between prescriptive and descriptive analysis, Aflaq did not as a rule define what <i>is</i> and what <i>ought</i> to be. In his thought, both are molded into the same category: that which is <i>attainable</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201–202]_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201–202]-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast to his longtime friend and colleague Salah al-Din al-Bitar, who was more practical when it came to politics, Aflaq was a "visionary, the dreamer rather unfitted for political life".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage88_88]_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage88_88]-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq was described by his associates as an "<a href="/wiki/Ascetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ascetic">ascetic</a>, shy and intense figure living a simple and unpretentious life."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He has been accused of seeking help from other people instead of fulfilling his goal by himself or with others he led; Aflaq collaborated with Gamal Abdel Nasser, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Karim_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Karim Qasim">Abd al-Karim Qasim</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a> in 1958, to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and Ali Salih al-Sadi in 1963 and finally in the 1970s to Saddam Hussein.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are several Ba'athists, mostly from the Syrian-led Ba'ath Party, who believe Aflaq stole Ba'athist ideology from its original founder, Zaki al-Arsuzi. These individuals have denounced, and labelled, Aflaq as a "thief".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138]_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138]-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In his writings, Aflaq had been stridently in favor of <a href="/wiki/Free_speech" class="mw-redirect" title="Free speech">free speech</a> and other human rights and aid for the lower classes. During the Military Committee's gradual takeover of power in Syria, Aflaq rallied against what he saw as the establishment of a military dictatorship, instead of the democracy for which Aflaq had planned.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ideals were never realized by the governments that used his ideology. Most scholars see the Assad government in Syria and Saddam Hussein's government in Iraq to have only employed Aflaq's ideology as a pretense for dictatorship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerRoberts2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYAd8efHdVzICpgPA183_183]_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerRoberts2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYAd8efHdVzICpgPA183_183]-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Selected_works">Selected works</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Selected works"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>في سبيل البعث (English: <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i>, published 1947)</li> <li>اتحاد سوريا و مصر (English: <i>Unity Between Syria and Egypt</i>, published 1958)</li> <li>معركة المصير الوحيد (English: <i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i>, published 1958)</li> <li>نقطة البداية (English: <i>The Starting Point</i>, published 1971)</li> <li>البعث و الوحدة (English: <i>The Ba'ath and Arab Unity</i>, published 1972)</li> <li>البعث و الاشتراكية (English: <i>The Ba'ath and Socialism</i>, published 1973)</li> <li>النضال ضد تشويه حركة الثورة العربية (English: <i>The Struggle Against Distorting the Movement of Arab Revolution</i>, published 1975)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Exactly how many seats the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party won, varies from a low 16 seats to a high 22. <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbdulghani,_Jasim1984" class="citation book cs1">Abdulghani, Jasim (1984). <i>Iraq & Iran: The Years of Crisis</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA28">28</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801825194" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801825194"><bdi>978-0801825194</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+%26+Iran%3A+The+Years+of+Crisis&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0801825194&rft.au=Abdulghani%2C+Jasim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeshara,_Adel2005" class="citation book cs1">Beshara, Adel (2005). <i>Lebanon: The Politics of Frustration – The Failed coup of 1961</i> (1 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2BXdK0Jv1BMC&pg=PA40">40</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415351133" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415351133"><bdi>978-0415351133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+The+Politics+of+Frustration+%E2%80%93+The+Failed+coup+of+1961&rft.pages=40&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0415351133&rft.au=Beshara%2C+Adel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommins,_Dean2004" class="citation book cs1">Commins, Dean (2004). <i>Historical Dictionary of Syria</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Scarecrow Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EhACvcqVXkC&pg=PA66">66</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810849341" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810849341"><bdi>978-0810849341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Syria&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0810849341&rft.au=Commins%2C+Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker,_Spencer2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer (2010). "Aflaq, Michel". <i>The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. 29, 30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851099474" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851099474"><bdi>978-1851099474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aflaq%2C+Michel&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Middle+East+Wars%3A+The+United+States+in+the+Persian+Gulf%2C+Afghanistan%2C+and+Iraq+Conflicts&rft.pages=29%2C+30&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1851099474&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCragg1991" class="citation book cs1">Cragg, Kenneth (1991). "7: Modern Arabs and the Intentions of Arabism". <i>The Arab Christian: A History in the Middle East</i> (1st ed.). Louisville, Kentucky, USA: Westminster John Knox Press. p. 162. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-22182-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-22182-3"><bdi>0-664-22182-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7%3A+Modern+Arabs+and+the+Intentions+of+Arabism&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Christian%3A+A+History+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Louisville%2C+Kentucky%2C+USA&rft.pages=162&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=0-664-22182-3&rft.aulast=Cragg&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFA._Shoup2018" class="citation book cs1">A. Shoup, John (2018). "Notable People in the History of Syria". <i>The History of Syria</i>. Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911, USA: ABC-CLIO, LLC. pp. 151, 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5834-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4408-5834-5"><bdi>978-1-4408-5834-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018020377">2018020377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Notable+People+in+the+History+of+Syria&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Syria&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+California+93116-1911%2C+USA&rft.pages=151%2C+152&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO%2C+LLC&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018020377&rft.isbn=978-1-4408-5834-5&rft.aulast=A.+Shoup&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibi1997" class="citation book cs1">Tibi, Bassam (1997). "11: Pan-Arab Nationalism as Westernised ideology and politics of Arab States: Between Ba'thism and Nasserism until the Six-Day War". <i>Arab Nationalism: Between Islam and the Nation-State</i> (3rd ed.). London, UK: Macmillan Press Ltd. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-63647-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-63647-3"><bdi>978-0-333-63647-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=11%3A+Pan-Arab+Nationalism+as+Westernised+ideology+and+politics+of+Arab+States%3A+Between+Ba%27thism+and+Nasserism+until+the+Six-Day+War&rft.btitle=Arab+Nationalism%3A+Between+Islam+and+the+Nation-State&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=205&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan+Press+Ltd&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-333-63647-3&rft.aulast=Tibi&rft.aufirst=Bassam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDwyer2016" class="citation book cs1">Dwyer, Kevin (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qajOCwAAQBAJ&dq=Aflaq+condemned+to+death+by+absentia&pg=PT214"><i>Arab Voices: The human rights debate in the Middle East</i></a>. 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-19070-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-19070-2"><bdi>978-1-138-19070-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Voices%3A+The+human+rights+debate+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=711+Third+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10017&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-138-19070-2&rft.aulast=Dwyer&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqajOCwAAQBAJ%26dq%3DAflaq%2Bcondemned%2Bto%2Bdeath%2Bby%2Babsentia%26pg%3DPT214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoberts2015" class="citation book cs1">Roberts, David (2015). "11: Hafiz al-Asad - I". <i>The Ba'ath and the creation of modern Syria</i> (Routledge Library Editions: Syria ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-83882-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-83882-5"><bdi>978-0-415-83882-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=11%3A+Hafiz+al-Asad+-+I&rft.btitle=The+Ba%27ath+and+the+creation+of+modern+Syria&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pages=103&rft.edition=Routledge+Library+Editions%3A+Syria&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-415-83882-5&rft.aulast=Roberts&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelms1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJQ6jPM38qCwCpgPA64_64–65]-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHelms1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidJQ6jPM38qCwCpgPA64_64–65]_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHelms1984">Helms 1984</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JQ6jPM38qCwC&pg=PA64">64–65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA61_61]_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA61">61</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA4_4]_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenewickGreen1988">Benewick & Green 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJrCWS4TU1sC&pg=PA4">4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAli2003[httpsarchiveorgdetailsclashoffundament00alitpage110_110]_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAli2003">Ali 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/clashoffundament00alit/page/110">110</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA29_29]_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA29">29</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA30_30]-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA30_30]_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA30">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETucker2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidU05OvsOPeKMCpgPA30_30]_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTucker2010">Tucker 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U05OvsOPeKMC&pg=PA30">30</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA139_139]_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA139">139</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabil2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM18Jj0bMMl0CpgPA17_17]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabil2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidM18Jj0bMMl0CpgPA17_17]_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabil2006">Rabil 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M18Jj0bMMl0C&pg=PA17">17</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138–139]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138–139]_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA138">138–139</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA34_34]_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA34">34</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERabinovich1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIL-A_YxL2m4CpgPA228_228]-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERabinovich1972[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIL-A_YxL2m4CpgPA228_228]_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRabinovich1972">Rabinovich 1972</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IL-A_YxL2m4C&pg=PA228">228</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJabel1966[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIx2NAAAAMAAJq22Aflaq22amid_31]-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJabel1966[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidIx2NAAAAMAAJq22Aflaq22amid_31]_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJabel1966">Jabel 1966</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ix2NAAAAMAAJ&q=%22Aflaq%22+amid">31</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131]_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2006">Moubayed 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sC-xU8QHSooC&pg=PA131">131</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA27_27]-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA27_27]_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbdulghani1984">Abdulghani 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA27">27</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131–132]-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA131_131–132]_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2006">Moubayed 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sC-xU8QHSooC&pg=PA131">131–132</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA132_132]_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2006">Moubayed 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sC-xU8QHSooC&pg=PA132">132</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGeorge2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddFdbVVcKsSICpgPA66_66–67]-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGeorge2003[httpsbooksgooglecombooksiddFdbVVcKsSICpgPA66_66–67]_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGeorge2003">George 2003</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dFdbVVcKsSIC&pg=PA66">66–67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA66_66]-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA66_66]_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCommins2004">Commins 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EhACvcqVXkC&pg=PA66">66</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA28_28]-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAbdulghani1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidAgMOAAAAQAAJpgPA28_28]_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAbdulghani1984">Abdulghani 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AgMOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA28">28</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA98_98]-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA98_98]_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA98">98</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA65_65]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA65_65]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA65">65</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEReich1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid3D5FulN2WqQCpgPA109_109]_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFReich1990">Reich 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3D5FulN2WqQC&pg=PA109">109</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA61_61–62]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA61_61–62]_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA61">61–62</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA66_66]-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA66_66]_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA66">66</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENohlenFlorianHartmann2001221-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENohlenFlorianHartmann2001221_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNohlenFlorianHartmann2001">Nohlen, Florian & Hartmann 2001</a>, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA75_75]-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA75_75]_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA75">75</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA76_76–78]-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA76_76–78]_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA76">76–78</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA78_78]-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA78_78]_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA78">78</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81]-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81]_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA81">81</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81–82]-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA81_81–82]_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA81">81–82</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA82_82]-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA82_82]_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA82">82</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA86_86]-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA86_86]_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA86">86</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA88_88]-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA88_88]_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA88">88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90]-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90]_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA90">90</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90–91]-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA90_90–91]_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA90">90–91</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA91_91]-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA91_91]_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA91">91</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA96_96]_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA96">96</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA97_97]_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA97">97</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA99_99]-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA99_99]_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA99">99</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA100_100–101]-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA100_100–101]_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA100">100–101</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA347_347]_44-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2006">Moubayed 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sC-xU8QHSooC&pg=PA347">347</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoubayed2006[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidsC-xU8QHSooCpgPA134_134]_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoubayed2006">Moubayed 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sC-xU8QHSooC&pg=PA134">134</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA102_102]-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA102_102]_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA102">102</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA111_111]-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeale1990[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6D9EiJKRTHcCpgPA111_111]_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSeale1990">Seale 1990</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6D9EiJKRTHcC&pg=PA111">111</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA26_26]-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECommins2004[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid_EhACvcqVXkCpgPA26_26]_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCommins2004">Commins 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_EhACvcqVXkC&pg=PA26">26</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBengio1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailssaddamswordpolit0000bengpage218_218]-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a 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Ami Isseroff, 14 October 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140315100849/http://carnegieendowment.org/syriaincrisis/?fa=54844">The Miserable Afterlife of Michel Aflaq</a> // Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. By Aron Lund, 10 March 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090925184746/http://blogs.reuters.com/global/2009/09/20/aflaq-symbol-of-iraq-and-syrias-shared-past/">Aflaq, symbol of Iraq and Syria’s shared past</a> // Global News Journal. By Missy Ryan, 20 September 2009</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160811010412/http://blogs.reuters.com/global/files/2009/09/michel-aflaq-025.jpg">The blue-domed memorial</a> to honour <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> founder Michel Aflaq</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage87_87]-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage87_87]_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopwood1988">Hopwood 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syria19451986pol0000hopw/page/87">87</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA62_62]_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA62">62</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA66_66–67]_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA66">66–67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem199467–68]_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. 67–68].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA67_67]_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA67">67</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA69_69–70]_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA69">69–70</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalem1994[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidKZru-kaTZCcCpgPA68_68]_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalem1994">Salem 1994</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZru-kaTZCcC&pg=PA68">68</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA118_118]-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGinat2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidrlxqHiFdFjwCpgPA118_118]_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGinat2010">Ginat 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rlxqHiFdFjwC&pg=PA118">118</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201021035254/https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/michel-aflaq">"Michel Aflaq"</a>. <i>harvard.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rpl.hds.harvard.edu/faq/michel-aflaq">the original</a> on 21 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=harvard.edu&rft.atitle=Michel+Aflaq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frpl.hds.harvard.edu%2Ffaq%2Fmichel-aflaq&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeale1995" class="citation book cs1">Seale, Patrick (1995). <i>Asad of Syria: the struggle for the Middle East</i> (1. paperback print., rev ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: Univ. of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06976-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06976-3"><bdi>978-0-520-06976-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asad+of+Syria%3A+the+struggle+for+the+Middle+East&rft.place=Berkeley%2C+Calif.&rft.edition=1.+paperback+print.%2C+rev&rft.pub=Univ.+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06976-3&rft.aulast=Seale&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Barry (2007). "2: The World's Most Unstable Country, 1946-1970". <i>The Truth About Syria</i>. 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 37, 38. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-8273-5"><bdi>978-1-4039-8273-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2%3A+The+World%27s+Most+Unstable+Country%2C+1946-1970&rft.btitle=The+Truth+About+Syria&rft.place=175+Fifth+Avenue%2C+New+York%2C+NY+10010&rft.pages=37%2C+38&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-8273-5&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location" title="Category:CS1 maint: location">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110723214138/http://www.herzliyaconference.org/_Uploads/2590Bashars.pdf">"Bashar's Syria: The Regime and its Strategic Worldview"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. pp. <span class="nowrap">364–</span>365. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bashar%27s+Syria%3A+The+Regime+and+its+Strategic+Worldview&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E364-%3C%2Fspan%3E365&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.herzliyaconference.org%2F_Uploads%2F2590Bashars.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198]-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198]_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakiya1998">Makiya 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/198">198</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198–199]-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage198_198–199]_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakiya1998">Makiya 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/198">198–199</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHarris1997[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidD3kqgioYJisCpgPA33_33]_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarris1997">Harris 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=D3kqgioYJisC&pg=PA33">33</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201]-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201]_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakiya1998">Makiya 1998</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/201">201</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201–202]-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMakiya1998[httpsarchiveorgdetailsrepublicoffearpo00makipage201_201–202]_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakiya1998">Makiya 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki/page/201">201–202</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage88_88]-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopwood1988[httpsarchiveorgdetailssyria19451986pol0000hopwpage88_88]_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHopwood1988">Hopwood 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syria19451986pol0000hopw/page/88">88</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]_83-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenewickGreen1988[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidqJrCWS4TU1sCpgPA5_5]_83-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBenewickGreen1988">Benewick & Green 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qJrCWS4TU1sC&pg=PA5">5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138]-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECurtis1971[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid1zxOruujp_ICpgPA138_138]_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCurtis1971">Curtis 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zxOruujp_IC&pg=PA138">138</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETuckerRoberts2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYAd8efHdVzICpgPA183_183]-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETuckerRoberts2008[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidYAd8efHdVzICpgPA183_183]_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTuckerRoberts2008">Tucker & Roberts 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YAd8efHdVzIC&pg=PA183">183</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdulghani1984" class="citation book cs1">Abdulghani, Jasim (1984). <i>Iraq & Iran: The Years of Crisis</i>. <a href="/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis" title="Taylor & Francis">Taylor & Francis</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0801825194" title="Special:BookSources/978-0801825194"><bdi>978-0801825194</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq+%26+Iran%3A+The+Years+of+Crisis&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0801825194&rft.au=Abdulghani%2C+Jasim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2003" class="citation book cs1">Ali, Tariq (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/clashoffundament00alit"><i>The Clash of Fundamentalisms: Crusades, Jihads and Modernity</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Verso_Paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Verso Paper">Verso</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1859844571" title="Special:BookSources/978-1859844571"><bdi>978-1859844571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Clash+of+Fundamentalisms%3A+Crusades%2C+Jihads+and+Modernity&rft.pub=Verso&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1859844571&rft.au=Ali%2C+Tariq&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fclashoffundament00alit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenewickGreen1988" class="citation book cs1">Benewick, Robert; Green, Phillip (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/routledgediction0000unse_v6p4"><i>The Routledge Dictionary of Twentieth-century Political Thinkers</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415096232" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415096232"><bdi>978-0415096232</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Dictionary+of+Twentieth-century+Political+Thinkers&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0415096232&rft.au=Benewick%2C+Robert&rft.au=Green%2C+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Froutledgediction0000unse_v6p4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBengio1998" class="citation book cs1">Bengio, Ofra (1998). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/saddamswordpolit0000beng"><i>Saddam's Word: Political Discourse in Iraq</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195151855" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195151855"><bdi>978-0195151855</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Saddam%27s+Word%3A+Political+Discourse+in+Iraq&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0195151855&rft.au=Bengio%2C+Ofra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsaddamswordpolit0000beng&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCommins2004" class="citation book cs1">Commins, Dean (2004). <i>Historical Dictionary of Syria</i>. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Scarecrow Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810849341" title="Special:BookSources/978-0810849341"><bdi>978-0810849341</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Syria&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0810849341&rft.au=Commins%2C+Dean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtis1971" class="citation book cs1">Curtis, Michel (1971). <i>People and Politics in the Middle East: The Arab-Israeli Conflict-Its Background and the Prognosis for Peace</i>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878550005" title="Special:BookSources/978-0878550005"><bdi>978-0878550005</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=People+and+Politics+in+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Arab-Israeli+Conflict-Its+Background+and+the+Prognosis+for+Peace&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0878550005&rft.au=Curtis%2C+Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge2003" class="citation book cs1">George, Alan (2003). <i>Syria: Neither Bread nor Freedom</i>. <a href="/wiki/Zed_Books" title="Zed Books">Zed Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1842772133" title="Special:BookSources/978-1842772133"><bdi>978-1842772133</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+Neither+Bread+nor+Freedom&rft.pub=Zed+Books&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1842772133&rft.au=George%2C+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinat2010" class="citation book cs1">Ginat, Rami (2010). <i>Syria and the Doctrine of Arab Neutralism: From Independence to Dependence</i>. <a href="/wiki/Sussex_Academic_Press" title="Sussex Academic Press">Sussex Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845190088" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845190088"><bdi>978-1845190088</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+and+the+Doctrine+of+Arab+Neutralism%3A+From+Independence+to+Dependence&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1845190088&rft.au=Ginat%2C+Rami&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris1997" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William (1997). <i>Challenges to Democracy in the Middle East</i>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-149-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55876-149-0"><bdi>978-1-55876-149-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Challenges+to+Democracy+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1-55876-149-0&rft.au=Harris%2C+William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHelms1984" class="citation book cs1">Helms, Christine Moss (1984). <i>Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brookings_Institution_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Brookings Institution Press">Brookings Institution Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0815735557" title="Special:BookSources/978-0815735557"><bdi>978-0815735557</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq%3A+Eastern+Flank+of+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=Brookings+Institution+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0815735557&rft.au=Helms%2C+Christine+Moss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHopwood1988" class="citation book cs1">Hopwood, Derek (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/syria19451986pol0000hopw"><i>Syria 1945–1986: Politics and Society</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0044450467" title="Special:BookSources/978-0044450467"><bdi>978-0044450467</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+1945%E2%80%931986%3A+Politics+and+Society&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0044450467&rft.au=Hopwood%2C+Derek&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsyria19451986pol0000hopw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJabel1966" class="citation book cs1">Jabel, Kamel Abu (1966). <i>The Arab Baʻth Socialist Party: History, Ideology, and Organization</i>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arab+Ba%CA%BBth+Socialist+Party%3A+History%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Organization&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rft.au=Jabel%2C+Kamel+Abu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKostiner1998" class="citation book cs1">Kostiner, Joseph (1998). <i>Conflict and Cooperation in the Gulf Region</i>. VS Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3531162058" title="Special:BookSources/978-3531162058"><bdi>978-3531162058</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+Cooperation+in+the+Gulf+Region&rft.pub=VS+Verlag&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-3531162058&rft.au=Kostiner%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakiya1998" class="citation book cs1">Makiya, Kanan (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/republicoffearpo00maki"><i>Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520214392" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520214392"><bdi>978-0520214392</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Republic+of+Fear%3A+The+Politics+of+Modern+Iraq&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0520214392&rft.au=Makiya%2C+Kanan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frepublicoffearpo00maki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoubayed2006" class="citation book cs1">Moubayed, Sami M. (2006). <i>Steel & Silk: Men and Women who shaped Syria 1900–2000</i>. Cune Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1885942418" title="Special:BookSources/978-1885942418"><bdi>978-1885942418</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Steel+%26+Silk%3A+Men+and+Women+who+shaped+Syria+1900%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Cune+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1885942418&rft.au=Moubayed%2C+Sami+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNohlenFlorianHartmann2001" class="citation book cs1">Nohlen, Grotz; Grotz, Florian; Hartmann, Christof (2001). <i>Elections in Asia and the Pacific: a Data Handbook</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199249589" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199249589"><bdi>978-0199249589</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Elections+in+Asia+and+the+Pacific%3A+a+Data+Handbook&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0199249589&rft.au=Nohlen%2C+Grotz&rft.au=Grotz%2C+Florian&rft.au=Hartmann%2C+Christof&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeale1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Seale" title="Patrick Seale">Seale, Patrick</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/asadofsyriastrug00seal"><i>Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520069763" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520069763"><bdi>978-0520069763</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Asad%3A+The+Struggle+for+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0520069763&rft.au=Seale%2C+Patrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fasadofsyriastrug00seal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShair2006" class="citation book cs1">Shair, Kamal (2006). <i>Out of the Middle East: The Emergence of an Arab Global Business</i>. <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845112714" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845112714"><bdi>978-1845112714</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+the+Middle+East%3A+The+Emergence+of+an+Arab+Global+Business&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1845112714&rft.au=Shair%2C+Kamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabil2006" class="citation book cs1">Rabil, Robert (2006). <i>Syria, the United States, and the War on Terror in the Middle East</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275990152" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275990152"><bdi>978-0275990152</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria%2C+the+United+States%2C+and+the+War+on+Terror+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0275990152&rft.au=Rabil%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabinovich1972" class="citation book cs1">Rabinovich, Itamar (1972). <i>Syria under the Baʻth, 1963–66: the Army Party Symbiosis</i>. <a href="/wiki/Transaction_Publishers" title="Transaction Publishers">Transaction Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0878551637" title="Special:BookSources/978-0878551637"><bdi>978-0878551637</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+under+the+Ba%CA%BBth%2C+1963%E2%80%9366%3A+the+Army+Party+Symbiosis&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0878551637&rft.au=Rabinovich%2C+Itamar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReich1990" class="citation book cs1">Reich, Bernard (1990). <i>Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: a Biographical Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0313262135" title="Special:BookSources/978-0313262135"><bdi>978-0313262135</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Political+Leaders+of+the+Contemporary+Middle+East+and+North+Africa%3A+a+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0313262135&rft.au=Reich%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer (2010). <i>The Encyclopedia of Middle East Wars: The United States in the Persian Gulf, Afghanistan, and Iraq Conflicts</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851099474" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851099474"><bdi>978-1851099474</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Middle+East+Wars%3A+The+United+States+in+the+Persian+Gulf%2C+Afghanistan%2C+and+Iraq+Conflicts&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1851099474&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuckerRoberts2008" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer; Roberts, Priscilla Mary (2008). <i>The Encyclopedia of the Arab–Israeli conflict: a political, social, and military history: A–F</i>. Vol. 1. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1851098415" title="Special:BookSources/978-1851098415"><bdi>978-1851098415</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Arab%E2%80%93Israeli+conflict%3A+a+political%2C+social%2C+and+military+history%3A+A%E2%80%93F&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1851098415&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Spencer&rft.au=Roberts%2C+Priscilla+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalem1994" class="citation book cs1">Salem, Paul (1994). <i>Bitter Legacy: Ideology and Politics in the Arab World</i>. <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2628-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8156-2628-2"><bdi>978-0-8156-2628-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bitter+Legacy%3A+Ideology+and+Politics+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-8156-2628-2&rft.au=Salem%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMichel+Aflaq" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Aflaq&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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.mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <b>Michel Aflaq</b> at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects"><span id="sister-projects">sister projects</span></a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Michel_Aflaq" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Michel Aflaq">Media</a> from Commons</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" class="extiw" title="q:Michel Aflaq">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:Michel_Aflaq" class="extiw" title="s:Author:Michel Aflaq">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://albaath.online.fr/English/index-English.htm">Michel Aflak: Choice of Texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.albasrah.net/maqalat/ba3th_2003.htm">Iraqi-led Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> (in Arabic)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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title="Lutfi al-Haffar">Lutfi al-Haffar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabri_al-Asali" title="Sabri al-Asali">Sabri al-Asali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munir_al-Ajlani" title="Munir al-Ajlani">Munir al-Ajlani</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maamun_al-Kuzbari" title="Maamun al-Kuzbari">Maamun al-Kuzbari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Wahhab_Hawmad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Wahhab Hawmad">Abd al-Wahhab Hawmad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashad_Barmada" title="Rashad Barmada">Rashad Barmada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_Droubi" title="Sami Droubi">Sami Droubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party957" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:white">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Template talk:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:white">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27ath_Party" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'ath Party"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:white">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_Socialist_Ba&#039;ath_Party957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;;background:#017B48;color:white;"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraqi-dominated faction</span></a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syrian-dominated faction</span></a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="History957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="History of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">History</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Predecessors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Founders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attempted_assassination_of_Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim">Attempted assassination of Abdul-Karim Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Ba'athist Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Ba%27athist_Syria" title="Politics of Ba'athist Syria">Politics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_the_Revolutionary_Command" title="National Council for the Revolutionary Command">National Council for the Revolutionary Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ar-Rashid_revolt" title="Ar-Rashid revolt">Ar-Rashid revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Hama_riot" title="1964 Hama riot">1964 Hama riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Post-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Command_Council_(Iraq)" title="Revolutionary Command Council (Iraq)">Revolutionary Command Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Revolutionary_Command_Council_under_Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="List of members of the Revolutionary Command Council under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Members</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Belt">Arab Belt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Arabization_campaigns_in_northern_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq">Ba'athist Arabization campaigns in northern Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Ba%27ath_Party_Purge" title="1979 Ba'ath Party Purge">1979 Ba'ath Party Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist%E2%80%93Saddamist_conflict" title="Assadist–Saddamist conflict">Assadist–Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_Campaign" title="Faith Campaign">Faith Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_conflict" title="Iraqi conflict">Iraqi conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="De-Ba'athification in Iraq">De-Ba'athification in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_archives" title="Ba'ath Party archives">Ba'ath Party archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Assad_regime" title="Fall of the Assad regime">Fall of the Assad regime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Leadership957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Leadership</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">General Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Pre-split</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Al-Mukhtar" title="Salah Al-Mukhtar">Salah Al-Mukhtar</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar <small><i>(de facto)</i></small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Regional Secretaries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraq</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Jordan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Homsi" title="Akram al-Homsi">Akram al-Homsi</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assem_Qanso" title="Assem Qanso">Assem Qanso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Majid_al-Rafei" title="Abd al-Majid al-Rafei">Abd al-Majid al-Rafei</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Palestine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isam_al-Qadi" title="Isam al-Qadi">Isam al-Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rakad_Salem" title="Rakad Salem">Rakad Salem</a>*</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Members_of_the_National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Members of the National Command of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Members</span></a> of the <a href="/wiki/National_Command_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="National Command of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">National Command</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elias_Farah" title="Elias Farah">Elias Farah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakem_Al-Fayez" title="Hakem Al-Fayez">Hakem Al-Fayez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akram_al-Hawrani" class="mw-redirect" title="Akram al-Hawrani">Akram al-Hawrani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuheir_Mohsen" title="Zuheir Mohsen">Zuheir Mohsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munif_Razzaz" title="Munif Razzaz">Munif Razzaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khaled_Yashruti" title="Khaled Yashruti">Khaled Yashruti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Members of the Regional Commands</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Humam_Abd_al-Khaliq_Abd_al-Ghafur" title="Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur">Humam Abd al-Khaliq Abd al-Ghafur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanim_Abdul-Jalil" title="Ghanim Abdul-Jalil">Ghanim Abdul-Jalil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saad_Abdul-Majid" title="Saad Abdul-Majid">Saad Abdul-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_Mustafa_Abdullah" title="Jamal Mustafa Abdullah">Jamal Mustafa Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Younis_al-Ahmed" title="Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed">Mohammed Younis al-Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Omar_al-Ali" title="Salah Omar al-Ali">Salah Omar al-Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huda_Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash">Huda Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salih_Mahdi_Ammash" title="Salih Mahdi Ammash">Salih Mahdi Ammash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Al-Awadi" title="Hussein Al-Awadi">Hussein Al-Awadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adil_Abdullah_Mahdi_Al-Douri" title="Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri">Adil Abdullah Mahdi Al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saadoun_Ghaidan" title="Saadoun Ghaidan">Saadoun Ghaidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadil_Mahmud_Gharib" title="Fadil Mahmud Gharib">Fadil Mahmud Gharib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizban_Khadr_al-Hadi" title="Mizban Khadr al-Hadi">Mizban Khadr al-Hadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusay_Hussein" title="Qusay Hussein">Qusay Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latif_Nassif_Jassim" title="Latif Nassif Jassim">Latif Nassif Jassim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Taan_Kazim" title="Rashid Taan Kazim">Rashid Taan Kazim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Khayr_Allah" title="Adnan Khayr Allah">Adnan Khayr Allah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Hassan_al-Majid" title="Ali Hassan al-Majid">Ali Hassan al-Majid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhyi_Abdul-Hussein_Mashhadi" title="Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi">Muhyi Abdul-Hussein Mashhadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Abdul_Aziz_al-Najim" title="Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim">Samir Abdul Aziz al-Najim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aziz_Saleh_Al-Numan" title="Aziz Saleh Al-Numan">Aziz Saleh Al-Numan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_Hamoud_Al-Obaidi" title="Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi">Ghazi Hamoud Al-Obaidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taha_Yassin_Ramadan" title="Taha Yassin Ramadan">Taha Yassin Ramadan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fawzi_Mutlaq_al-Rawi" title="Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi">Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Rifai" title="Rashid al-Rifai">Rashid al-Rifai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Salih_al-Sa%27di" title="Ali Salih al-Sa'di">Ali Salih al-Sa'di</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_Al-Baqi_Abd_Karim_Al-Sadun" title="Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun">Abd Al-Baqi Abd Karim Al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zimam_al-Sadun" title="Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun">Muhammad Zimam al-Sadun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Khaliq_al-Samarra%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i">Abd al-Khaliq al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Sallum_al-Samarra%27i" title="Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i">Abdullah Sallum al-Samarra'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talib_El-Shibib" title="Talib El-Shibib">Talib El-Shibib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nayef_Shindakh_Thamer" title="Nayef Shindakh Thamer">Nayef Shindakh Thamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khamis_Sirhan" title="Khamis Sirhan">Khamis Sirhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hardan_al-Tikriti" title="Hardan al-Tikriti">Hardan al-Tikriti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_Abdallah_al-Ubaydi" title="Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi">Yahya Abdallah al-Ubaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahir_Yahya" title="Tahir Yahya">Tahir Yahya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Hesqel" title="Ibrahim Hesqel">Ibrahim Hesqel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Lebanon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Musa_Shuaib" title="Musa Shuaib">Musa Shuaib</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hadiya_Khalaf_Abbas" title="Hadiya Khalaf Abbas">Hadiya Khalaf Abbas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_al-Ahmar" title="Abdullah al-Ahmar">Abdullah al-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maher_al-Assad" title="Maher al-Assad">Maher al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad" title="Rifaat al-Assad">Rifaat al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shibli_al-Aysami" title="Shibli al-Aysami">Shibli al-Aysami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Abdullah_Ayyoub" title="Ali Abdullah Ayyoub">Ali Abdullah Ayyoub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Saeed_Bekheitan" title="Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan">Mohammed Saeed Bekheitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhsen_Bilal" title="Muhsen Bilal">Muhsen Bilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi_Dakhlallah" title="Mahdi Dakhlallah">Mahdi Dakhlallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Diyab" title="Ahmad Diyab">Ahmad Diyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Duba" title="Ali Duba">Ali Duba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahd_Jassem_al-Freij" title="Fahd Jassem al-Freij">Fahd Jassem al-Freij</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marwan_Habash" title="Marwan Habash">Marwan Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Hadid" title="Ibrahim al-Hadid">Ibrahim al-Hadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Badr_Hassan" title="Adnan Badr Hassan">Adnan Badr Hassan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Hatum" title="Salim Hatum">Salim Hatum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilal_Hilal" title="Hilal Hilal">Hilal Hilal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_al-Hussein" title="Mohammad al-Hussein">Mohammad al-Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hisham_Ikhtiyar" title="Hisham Ikhtiyar">Hisham Ikhtiyar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul-Karim_al-Jundi" title="Abdul-Karim al-Jundi">Abdul-Karim al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Jundi" title="Sami al-Jundi">Sami al-Jundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Jihad_al-Laham" title="Mohammad Jihad al-Laham">Mohammad Jihad al-Laham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Makhous" title="Ibrahim Makhous">Ibrahim Makhous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuhair_Masharqa" title="Zuhair Masharqa">Zuhair Masharqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Qaddura" title="Abdul Qadir Qaddura">Abdul Qadir Qaddura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammouda_Sabbagh" title="Hammouda Sabbagh">Hammouda Sabbagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farouk_al-Sharaa" title="Farouk al-Sharaa">Farouk al-Sharaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hikmat_al-Shihabi" title="Hikmat al-Shihabi">Hikmat al-Shihabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammud_al-Shufi" title="Hammud al-Shufi">Hammud al-Shufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustafa_Tlass" title="Mustafa Tlass">Mustafa Tlass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasan_Turkmani" title="Hasan Turkmani">Hasan Turkmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Umran" title="Muhammad Umran">Muhammad Umran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salim_Yasin" title="Salim Yasin">Salim Yasin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:">Yemen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Ali_Ahmad_Nasser_al-Dhahab" title="Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab">Ali Ahmad Nasser al-Dhahab</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of state</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Iraq" title="List of presidents of Iraq"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Khatib" title="Ahmad al-Khatib">Ahmad al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam <small><i>(interim)</i></small></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;;line-height:1.1em;">Heads of government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Iraq" title="List of prime ministers of Iraq"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Iraq</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27dun_Hammadi" title="Sa'dun Hammadi">Sa'dun Hammadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_Hamza_Zubeidi" title="Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi">Mohammed Hamza Zubeidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Husayn_Khudayir_as-Samarrai" title="Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai">Ahmad Husayn Khudayir as-Samarrai</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:"><a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Syria" title="List of prime ministers of Syria"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Syria</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_Zuayyin" title="Yusuf Zuayyin">Yusuf Zuayyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nureddin_al-Atassi" title="Nureddin al-Atassi">Nureddin al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Khleifawi" title="Abdul Rahman Khleifawi">Abdul Rahman Khleifawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_al-Ayyubi" title="Mahmoud al-Ayyubi">Mahmoud al-Ayyubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_al-Halabi" title="Muhammad Ali al-Halabi">Muhammad Ali al-Halabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rauf_al-Kasm" title="Abdul Rauf al-Kasm">Abdul Rauf al-Kasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahmoud_Al-Zoubi" title="Mahmoud Al-Zoubi">Mahmoud Al-Zoubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Mustafa_Mero" title="Muhammad Mustafa Mero">Muhammad Mustafa Mero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Naji_al-Otari" title="Muhammad Naji al-Otari">Muhammad Naji al-Otari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adel_Safar" title="Adel Safar">Adel Safar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riyad_Farid_Hijab" title="Riyad Farid Hijab">Riyad Farid Hijab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omar_Ibrahim_Ghalawanji" title="Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji">Omar Ibrahim Ghalawanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wael_Nader_al-Halqi" title="Wael Nader al-Halqi">Wael Nader al-Halqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_Arnous" title="Hussein Arnous">Hussein Arnous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Ghazi_al-Jalali" title="Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali">Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div>* = incumbent</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Organization957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organization_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organization of the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Organization</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athist_regional_branches" title="Category:Ba'athist regional branches"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Regional branches</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Iraqi-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Iraq</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Regional Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Regional Command</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Syrian-dominated faction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Vanguard_Party_(South_Yemen)" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Vanguard Party (South Yemen)">South Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Command_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Central Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="History of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Bureau_of_the_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="National Security Bureau of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">National Security Bureau</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Newspapers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ba%27ath" title="Al-Ba'ath">Al-Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawt_al-Jamahir" title="Sawt al-Jamahir">Sawt al-Jamahir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Thawra_(newspaper)" title="Al-Thawra (newspaper)">Al-Thawra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Popular fronts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Progressive Front (Iraq)">National Progressive Front (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front (Syria)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Wings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Paramilitary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Brigades" title="Ba'ath Brigades">Ba'ath Brigades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fedayeen_Saddam" title="Fedayeen Saddam">Fedayeen Saddam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Defense_Battalions_(Iraq)" title="National Defense Battalions (Iraq)">National Defense Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Army_(Iraq)" title="Popular Army (Iraq)">Popular Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Youth</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_Youth_Union" title="Revolutionary Youth Union">Revolutionary Youth Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Associated_organizations957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Organizations_associated_with_the_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Category:Organizations associated with the Ba'ath Party"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Associated organizations</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Armed groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Abud_Network" title="Al-Abud Network">Al-Abud Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Iraqi_Army" title="Free Iraqi Army">Free Iraqi Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeish_Muhammad" title="Jeish Muhammad">Jeish Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionists" title="Rejectionists">Rejectionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_Party" title="Snake Party">Snake Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27ath_Party_breakaway_groups" title="Category:Ba'ath Party breakaway groups"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:white">Breakaway groups</span></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement" title="Arab Socialist Movement">Arab Socialist Movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Movement_(Damascus_branch)" title="Arab Socialist Movement (Damascus branch)">Damascus branch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Toilers%27_Movement" title="Arabic Toilers' Movement">Arabic Toilers' Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_Arab_Front" title="Palestinian Arab Front">Palestinian Arab Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political alliances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Current</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_of_Palestinian_Forces" title="Alliance of Palestinian Forces">Alliance of Palestinian Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forces_of_Freedom_and_Change" title="Forces of Freedom and Change">Forces of Freedom and Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_8_Alliance" title="March 8 Alliance">March 8 Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Consensus_Forces" title="National Consensus Forces">National Consensus Forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Democratic_Alliance_(Sudan)" title="National Democratic Alliance (Sudan)">National Democratic Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_and_Islamic_Forces" title="Palestinian National and Islamic Forces">Palestinian National and Islamic Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48;color:white;line-height:1.1em;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahd_Bloc" title="Ahd Bloc">Ahd Bloc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_of_Patriotic_and_National_Parties" title="Front of Patriotic and National Parties">Front of Patriotic and National Parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Resistance_Front" title="Lebanese National Resistance Front">Lebanese National Resistance Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Alliance_for_the_Liberation_of_Syria" title="National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria">National Alliance for the Liberation of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Union_Front_(Iraq)" title="National Union Front (Iraq)">National Union Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Alliance" title="Palestinian National Alliance">Palestinian National Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_National_Salvation_Front" title="Palestinian National Salvation Front">Palestinian National Salvation Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Political parties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Democratic_Union_Party" title="Arab Democratic Union Party">Arab Democratic Union Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Unionist_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Unionist Party">Democratic Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan_Revolutionary_Party" title="Kurdistan Revolutionary Party">Kurdistan Revolutionary Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_National_Movement" title="Libyan National Movement">Libyan National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Covenant_Party" title="National Covenant Party">National Covenant Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Unity_Party_(Iraq)" title="Popular Unity Party (Iraq)">Popular Unity Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawab_(Mauritania)" title="Sawab (Mauritania)">Sawab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_Democratic_Unionists" title="Social Democratic Unionists">Social Democratic Unionists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Unionist_Party_(Syria)" title="Socialist Unionist Party (Syria)">Socialist Unionist Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party" title="Syrian Communist Party">Syrian Communist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Bakdash)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Bakdash)">Bakdash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Communist_Party_(Unified)" title="Syrian Communist Party (Unified)">Unified</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party_in_Lebanon" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party in Lebanon">in Lebanon</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Other organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Federation_of_Trade_Unions_(Syria)" title="General Federation of Trade Unions (Syria)">General Federation of Trade Unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Peasants" title="General Union of Peasants">General Union of Peasants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Syrian_Women" title="General Union of Syrian Women">General Union of Syrian Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#017B48;color:white;"><div id="Miscellaneous957" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Miscellaneous</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Ba%27athism" title="Neo-Ba'athism">Neo-Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialism" title="Revolutionary socialism">Revolutionary socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanguardism" title="Vanguardism">Vanguardism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#017B48; color:white; line-height:1.1em;">Symbolism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wa%E1%B8%A5da,_%E1%B8%A4urriyya,_Ishtir%C4%81kiyya" title="Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya">Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ardulfurataini" title="Ardulfurataini">Ardulfurataini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_nationalism328" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_nationalism" title="Template talk:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_nationalism328" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine">Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalists" title="Category:Arab nationalists">Personalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jassem_Alwan" title="Jassem Alwan">Jassem Alwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most%C3%A9fa_Merarda" title="Mostéfa Merarda">Mostéfa Merarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_nationalist_parties" title="List of Arab nationalist parties">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">Al-Mourabitoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Action_Party" title="Arab Socialist Action Party">Arab Socialist Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Egypt)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)">Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Iraq)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)">Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Libya)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Libya)">Arab Socialist Union (Libya)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_People%27s_Union" title="Arabian Peninsula People's Union">Arabian Peninsula People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Legion" title="Islamic Legion">Islamic Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalist_symbols" title="Category:Arab nationalist symbols">Symbolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Flag" title="Arab Liberation Flag">Arab Liberation Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic">Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Federation" title="Flag of the Arab Federation">Flag of the Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics">Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Flag of the United Arab Republic">Flag of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk_of_Quraish" title="Hawk of Quraish">Hawk of Quraish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Greater Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Greater Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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