Thirty Years’ War | Summary, Causes, Combatants, Map, & Significance

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[{"p":1,"t":592619},{"p":6,"t":269851},{"p":21,"t":479892},{"p":29,"t":507284},{"p":1,"t":497152},{"p":1,"t":641170},{"p":14,"t":382397},{"p":1,"t":157337},{"p":2,"t":2221989},{"p":1,"t":99796}], "sequence": 1, "topics": {} }); </script> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content " data-topic-id="592619"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Thirty-Years-War">Thirty Years’ War</a> </div> <button 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(Unknown location.)" width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/world-wars" >World Wars</a> </div> </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/quiz/a-history-of-war"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/45/171645-131-FB9DD0D9/D-Day-soldiers-American-rifles-grenades-beachheads-bunker-June-6-1944.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="D-Day. American soldiers fire rifles, throw grenades and wade ashore on Omaha Beach next to a German bunker during D Day landing. 1 of 5 Allied beachheads est. in Normandy, France. The Normandy Invasion of World War II launched June 6, 1944." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/quiz/a-history-of-war" >A History of War</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-related-questions"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 pb-0 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-15"> Related Questions </div> <ul> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/When-did-the-Thirty-Years-War-begin">When did the Thirty Years' War begin?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-was-the-Thirty-Years-War">What was the Thirty Years’ War?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-treaty-ended-the-Thirty-Years-War">What treaty ended the Thirty Years' War?</a> </li> <li class="link-gray-900 mb-15"><a class="" href="/question/What-led-to-the-end-of-Denmark-as-a-European-power">What led to the end of Denmark as a European power?</a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="mb-30 tlr-read-next"> <div class="text-gray-900 p-5 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-10 mb-10"> Read Next </div> <div class="imagelink-with-image-on-the-side card card-horizontal tlr-img-with-side-link ml-15 link-gray-900 mb-10" > <div class="position-relative card-media" style="flex: 0;"> <a class="ilf-image position-relative" href="/list/8-deadliest-wars-of-the-21st-century"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/38/168938-131-2FBA7C21/Soldiers-Iraqi-Army-learning-9th-Mechanized-Division-2011.jpg?w=200&h=200&c=crop" alt="Iraqi Army Soldiers from the 9th Mechanized Division learning to operate and maintain M1A1 Abrams Main Battle Tanks at Besmaya Combat Training Center, Baghdad, Iraq, 2011. 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Valentine's Day St. Valentine's Day February 14 love romance history and society heart In Roman mythology Cupid was the son of Venus, goddess of love (Eros and Aphrodite in the Greek Pantheon)." width="200" height="200" /> </a> </div> <div class="card-body ilf-content"> <a class="font-weight-semi-bold d-block mb-5 font-16 ilf-title" href="/story/why-do-we-give-valentine-cards" >Why Do We Give Valentine Cards?</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <button class="drawerToggle btn position-sticky border btn-xs btn-white btn-circle rounded-sm d-none d-lg-flex " type="button" aria-label="Toggle Drawer"> <em class="material-icons font-18 text-blue" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="h-100 ml-0 pr-lg-0 "> <div class="h-100 grid gx-0 gx-lg-20"> <div class="h-100 col-sm"> <div class="h-100 infinite-pagination-container d-flex flex-column position-relative"> <div class="position-absolute top-0 h-100 w-100"> <div 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(PDF)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ucn.ca/2022/04/article-3-the-thirty-years-war/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">University College of the North - The Thirty Years’ War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.ancient-origins.net/history-important-events/thirty-years-war-008850" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Ancient Origins - Social Consequences of the Thirty Years' War: Was it Worth it?</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://scholarworks.gvsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1153&context=gvjh" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">ScholarWorks at GVSU - A Multi-Causal Approach to the Thirty Years’ War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Mizzou_Academy/AP_European_History/06%3A_Religious_Wars/6.06%3A_The_Thirty_Years%27_War" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Social Sci LibreTexts - The Thirty Years' War</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Thirty-Years-War/390139" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Thirty Years’ War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Thirty-Years-War/277329" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Thirty Years’ War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written and fact-checked by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. 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1648 </dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Participants: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/Austria">Austria</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Denmark">Denmark</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Dutch-Republic">Dutch Republic</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/France">France</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Holy-Roman-Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Poland">Poland</a></dd> <dd><a href="/topic/Protestant-Union">Protestant Union</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Russia">Russia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Spain">Spain</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/Sweden">Sweden</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Major Events: </dt> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Breitenfeld">Battle of Breitenfeld</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Nordlingen-European-history-1634">Battle of Nördlingen</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Rocroi">Battle of Rocroi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-White-Mountain">Battle of White Mountain</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Dessau-1626">Battle of Dessau</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/Christian-IV">Christian IV</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf">Gustavus Adolphus</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Axel-Greve-Oxenstierna-af-Sodermore">Axel, Count Oxenstierna</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Armand-Jean-du-Plessis-cardinal-et-duc-de-Richelieu">Cardinal Richelieu</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Henri-de-La-Tour-dAuvergne-vicomte-de-Turenne">Henri de La Tour d’Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/Thirty-Years-War"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> </div><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>When did the Thirty Years' War begin?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Though the struggles of the Thirty Years War erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria rose up in rebellion." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What was the Thirty Years\u2019 War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The Thirty Years\u2019 War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Who was the Holy Roman Emperor during the first half of the Thirty Years' War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "<a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ferdinand-II-Holy-Roman-emperor\">Ferdinand II<\/a>, the Holy Roman emperor (1619\u201337) and the king of Bohemia, was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and absolutist rule during the Thirty Year's War." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What treaty ended the Thirty Years' War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The Thirty Years' War ended with the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Peace-of-Westphalia\">Treaty of Westphalia<\/a> in 1648, which changed the map of Europe irrevocably. The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of M\u00FCnster and Osnabr\u00FCck. The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648. The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What led to the end of Denmark as a European power?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Near the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1625, King <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Christian-IV\">Christian IV<\/a> of Denmark saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory in Germany to balance his earlier loss of Baltic provinces to Sweden. But Christian was defeated, and the Peace of L\u00FCbeck in 1629 finished Denmark as a European power." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>When did the Thirty Years' War begin?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Though the struggles of the Thirty Years War erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand II attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the Protestant nobles of both Bohemia and Austria rose up in rebellion.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What was the Thirty Years’ War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The Thirty Years’ War was a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of Europe, and, when it ended with the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Who was the Holy Roman Emperor during the first half of the Thirty Years' War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-II-Holy-Roman-emperor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ferdinand II</a>, the Holy Roman emperor (1619–37) and the king of Bohemia, was the leading champion of the Roman Catholic Counter-Reformation and absolutist rule during the Thirty Year's War.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What treaty ended the Thirty Years' War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The Thirty Years' War ended with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Westphalia</a> in 1648, which changed the map of Europe irrevocably. The peace was negotiated, from 1644, in the Westphalian towns of Münster and Osnabrück. The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, 1648. The treaty of October 24, 1648, comprehended the Holy Roman emperor Ferdinand III, the other German princes, France, and Sweden. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty.</p></div></div></div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="5"><h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What led to the end of Denmark as a European power?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3><div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Near the beginning of the Thirty Years' War in 1625, King <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christian-IV" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christian IV</a> of Denmark saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory in Germany to balance his earlier loss of Baltic provinces to Sweden. But Christian was defeated, and the Peace of Lübeck in 1629 finished Denmark as a European power.</p></div></div></div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="1790" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/901-050-939B907A/range-confessions-result-Germany-Thirty-Years-War-1650.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/592619/1790"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/901-050-939B907A/range-confessions-result-Germany-Thirty-Years-War-1650.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/901-050-939B907A/range-confessions-result-Germany-Thirty-Years-War-1650.jpg?w=300" alt="Range of confessions in Germany as a result of the Thirty Years' War, 1650" data-width="1600" data-height="1563" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/01/901-050-939B907A/range-confessions-result-Germany-Thirty-Years-War-1650.jpg" data-href="/media/1/592619/1790">Range of confessions in Germany as a result of the Thirty Years' War, 1650</a><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref118614"></span>Thirty Years’ War</strong>, (1618–48), in European history, a series of wars fought by various nations for various reasons, including religious, dynastic, territorial, and commercial rivalries. Its destructive campaigns and battles occurred over most of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Europe</a>, and, when it ended with the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Peace-of-Westphalia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Treaty of Westphalia</a> in 1648, the map of Europe had been irrevocably changed.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A brief <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="treatment" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/treatment" data-type="EB">treatment</a> of the Thirty Years’ War follows. For full treatment, <em>see</em> <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Europe/The-Thirty-Years-War#ref58351" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Europe, history of: The Thirty Years’ War</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Although the struggles that created it erupted some years earlier, the war is conventionally held to have begun in 1618, when the future Holy <span id="ref118617"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink ">Roman</a> emperor <span id="ref118615"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-II-Holy-Roman-emperor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ferdinand II</a>, in his role as king of <span id="ref118616"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bohemia" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Bohemia</a>, attempted to impose Roman Catholic absolutism on his domains, and the <span id="ref118618"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Protestantism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Protestant</a> nobles of both Bohemia and <span id="ref118619"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Austria" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Austria</a> rose up in rebellion. Ferdinand won after a five-year struggle. In 1625 King <span id="ref118620"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christian-IV" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Christian IV</a> of <span id="ref118621"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Denmark" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Denmark</a> saw an opportunity to gain valuable territory in <span id="ref118622"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Germany" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Germany</a> to balance his earlier loss of Baltic provinces to <span id="ref118624"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Sweden" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Sweden</a>. Christian’s defeat and the <span id="ref118623"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Peace-of-Lubeck" class="md-crosslink ">Peace of Lübeck</a> in 1629 finished Denmark as a European power, but Sweden’s <span id="ref118625"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gustav-II-Adolf" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gustav II Adolf</a>, having ended a four-year war with Poland, invaded Germany and won many German princes to his anti-Roman Catholic, anti-imperial cause.</p><div class="md-timeline module-spacing"> <div class="timeline-title text-blue-dark text-uppercase font-weight-bold ml-20 my-15">Thirty Years’ War events</div> <div class="slick-timeline"> <div class="grid"> <div class="col-auto d-flex align-items-center align-self-center hidden-xs"> <button class="slick-timeline--arrow slick-timeline--arrow-prev material-icons">keyboard_arrow_left</button> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="timeline-slides py-10"> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Eighty-Years-War" title="Eighty Years’ War"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/25/186525-050-047D4376/sack-troops-Antwerp-Spanish-Eighty-Years-War.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="Eighty Years' War" /> </div> <div class="title">Eighty Years’ War</div> <div class="text-black">1568 - 1648</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-White-Mountain" title="Battle of White Mountain"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/08/148008-050-C63F02EE/Reenactment-Battle-of-the-White-Mountain-Czech.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="White Mountain, Battle of" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of White Mountain</div> <div class="text-black">November 8, 1620</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Dessau-1626" title="Battle of Dessau"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/85/254885-050-6AA32230/Battle-of-Dessau-printmaker-Frans-Hogenberg-1626.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="The Battle of Dessau, 1626" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Dessau</div> <div class="text-black">April 25, 1626</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Sack-of-Magdeburg" title="Sack of Magdeburg"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/75/255175-050-21F79DC1/The-Siege-of-Magdeburg.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="The Siege of Magdeburg" /> </div> <div class="title">Sack of Magdeburg</div> <div class="text-black">November 1630 - May 20, 1631</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Breitenfeld" title="Battle of Breitenfeld"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/92/256092-050-F6F4D1B3/Gustav-II-Adolf-of-Sweden-at-the-battle-of-Breitenfeld-by-Jean-Jacques-Walter.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="King Gustav II Adolf of Sweden at the Battle of Breitenfeld" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Breitenfeld</div> <div class="text-black">September 17, 1631</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Lutzen" title="Battle of Lützen"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/images/shared/default-rectangle.jpg?v=3.133.9" class="default " alt="default image" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Lützen</div> <div class="text-black">November 16, 1632</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Nordlingen-European-history-1634" title="Battle of Nördlingen"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/60/360-050-CAFF1905/Thirty-Years-War.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="Europe after the Thirty Years' War, 1648" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Nördlingen</div> <div class="text-black">September 5, 1634 - September 6, 1634</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Wittstock" title="Battle of Wittstock"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/images/shared/default-rectangle.jpg?v=3.133.9" class="default " alt="default image" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Wittstock</div> <div class="text-black">October 4, 1636</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Rocroi" title="Battle of Rocroi"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/07/130307-050-C377EA9E/Louis-II-de-Bourbon-Battle-of-Rocroi.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="The Duke d'Enghien at the Battle of Rocroi, 1643" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Rocroi</div> <div class="text-black">May 19, 1643</div> </a> <a class="timeline-slide " href="/event/Battle-of-Freiburg-1644" title="Battle of Freiburg"> <div class="image-container"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/07/255107-050-568764FE/Battle-of-Freiberg-Henri-Viscount-of-Turenne-Belgium-Duke-of-Enghien.jpg?w=500&h=500" alt="Henri, Viscount of Turenne" /> </div> <div class="title">Battle of Freiburg</div> <div class="text-black">August 3, 1644 - August 9, 1644</div> </a> </div> </div> <div class="col-auto d-flex align-items-center align-self-center hidden-xs"> <button class="slick-timeline--arrow slick-timeline--arrow-next material-icons">keyboard_arrow_right</button> </div> </div> </div> <div class="slick-timeline--dots mb-10"></div> </div><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Meanwhile the conflict widened, fueled by political ambitions of the various powers. <span id="ref118626"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Poland" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Poland</a>, having been drawn in as a Baltic power <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="coveted" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/coveted" data-type="EB">coveted</a> by Sweden, pushed its own ambitions by attacking <span id="ref118627"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Russia" class="md-crosslink ">Russia</a> and establishing a dictatorship in Moscow under <span id="ref118628"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Wladyslaw-IV-Vasa" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Władysław</a>, Poland’s future king. The Russo-Polish Peace of <span id="ref118629"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Treaty-of-Polyanov" class="md-crosslink ">Polyanov</a> in 1634 ended Poland’s claim to the tsarist throne but freed Poland to resume hostilities against its Baltic archenemy, Sweden, which was now deeply embroiled in Germany. Here, in the heartland of Europe, three denominations vied for dominance: <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Roman Catholicism</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Lutheranism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Lutheranism</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Calvinism" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Calvinism</a>. This resulted in a Gordian tangle of alliances as princes and prelates called in foreign powers to aid them. Overall, the struggle was between the <span id="ref118630"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Holy-Roman-Empire" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Holy Roman Empire</a>, which was Roman Catholic and Habsburg, and a network of Protestant towns and principalities that relied on the chief anti-Catholic powers of Sweden and the United <span id="ref118631"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-the-Netherlands" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Netherlands</a>, which had at last thrown off the yoke of <span id="ref118633"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-Spain" class="md-crosslink ">Spain</a> after a struggle lasting 80 years. A parallel struggle involved the rivalry of <span id="ref118632"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history-of-France" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">France</a> with the Habsburgs of the empire and with the Habsburgs of Spain, who had been attempting to construct a cordon of anti-French alliances.</p><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span><span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The principal battlefield for all these <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="intermittent" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/intermittent" data-type="MW">intermittent</a> conflicts was the towns and principalities of Germany, which suffered severely. During the Thirty Years’ War, many of the contending armies were mercenaries, many of whom could not collect their pay. This threw them on the countryside for their supplies, and thus began the “wolf-strategy” that typified this war. The armies of both sides plundered as they marched, leaving cities, towns, villages, and farms ravaged. When the contending powers finally met in the German province of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Westphalia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Westphalia</a> to end the bloodshed, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/balance-of-power" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">balance of power</a> in Europe had been radically changed. Spain had lost not only the Netherlands but its dominant position in western Europe. France was now the chief Western power. Sweden had control of the Baltic. The United Netherlands was recognized as an independent republic. The member states of the Holy Roman Empire were granted full <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/sovereignty" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">sovereignty</a>. The ancient notion of a Roman Catholic empire of Europe, headed spiritually by a pope and temporally by an emperor, was permanently abandoned, and the essential structure of modern Europe as a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="community" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/community" data-type="MW">community</a> of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereign" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereign" data-type="MW">sovereign</a> states was established.</p><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</a></span> <span class="md-signature">This article was most recently revised and updated by <a href="/editor/Adam-Augustyn/6394">Adam Augustyn</a>.</span><span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":1,"pagesTotal":1,"pageId":592619,"pageLength":579,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"MEDIUM","gisted":false,"pageNumber":1,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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Thirty Years’ War | Summary, Causes, Combatants, Map, & Significance | Britannica