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id="toc-Location_and_geography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Foundation_legend" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundation_legend"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Foundation legend</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundation_legend-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Saka" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_the_Saka"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Arrival of the Saka</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_the_Saka-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Early period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern_Han_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Han_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Eastern Han period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Han_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tang_dynasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tang_dynasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Tang dynasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tang_dynasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Turco-Islamic_conquest_of_Buddhist_Khotan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turco-Islamic_conquest_of_Buddhist_Khotan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Turco-Islamic conquest of Buddhist Khotan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turco-Islamic_conquest_of_Buddhist_Khotan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_timeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_timeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Historical timeline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_timeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_rulers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_rulers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>List of rulers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_rulers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Buddhism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_and_economic_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_and_economic_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Social and economic life</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Social_and_economic_life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Social and economic life subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Social_and_economic_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Silk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Silk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Silk</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Silk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Jade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Khotan_coinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Khotan_coinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Khotan coinage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Khotan_coinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetics subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Haplogroups" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haplogroups"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Haplogroups</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haplogroups-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autosomal_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autosomal_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Autosomal DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autosomal_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Book_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Book_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Book references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Book_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web-references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web-references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Web-references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web-references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Kingdom of Khotan</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="مملكة خوتان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة خوتان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinu_de_Jot%C3%A1n" title="Reinu de Jotán – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Reinu de Jotán" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xotan_d%C3%B6vl%C9%99ti" title="Xotan dövləti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xotan dövləti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="خوتان کراللیغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="خوتان کراللیغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="খোটান – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খোটান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9B-thi%C3%A2n" title="Û-thiân – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Û-thiân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B" title="ལི་ཡུལ་ – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ལི་ཡུལ་" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regne_de_Khotan" title="Regne de Khotan – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Regne de Khotan" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chotansk%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1lovstv%C3%AD" title="Chotanské království – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chotanské království" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongeriget_Khotan" title="Kongeriget Khotan – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kongeriget Khotan" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nigreich_von_Hotan" title="Königreich von Hotan – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Königreich von Hotan" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reino_de_Jot%C3%A1n" title="Reino de Jotán – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Reino de Jotán" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khotan_erresuma" title="Khotan erresuma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Khotan erresuma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%86" title="پادشاهی ختن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پادشاهی ختن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royaume_de_Khotan" title="Royaume de Khotan – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Royaume de Khotan" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%98%B8%ED%83%84_%EC%99%95%EA%B5%AD" title="호탄 왕국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="호탄 왕국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="खुतन राज्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खुतन राज्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerajaan_Khotan" title="Kerajaan Khotan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kerajaan Khotan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regno_di_Khotan" title="Regno di Khotan – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Regno di Khotan" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotano_karalyst%C4%97" title="Hotano karalystė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hotano karalystė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koninkrijk_Hotan" title="Koninkrijk Hotan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koninkrijk Hotan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%9B%E3%83%BC%E3%82%BF%E3%83%B3%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" title="ホータン王国 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ホータン王国" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konged%C3%B8mmet_Khotan" title="Kongedømmet Khotan – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kongedømmet Khotan" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="خوتان بادشاہت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="خوتان بادشاہت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_(%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE)" title="Хотан (государство) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хотан (государство)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chotansk%C3%A9_kr%C3%A1%C4%BEovstvo" title="Chotanské kráľovstvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Chotanské kráľovstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraljevstvo_Hotan" title="Kraljevstvo Hotan – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kraljevstvo Hotan" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD_(%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0)" title="Хотан (держава) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Хотан (держава)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DA%BE%D9%88%D9%B9%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%81%D8%AA" title="کھوٹان بادشاہت – Urdu" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Kingdom of Khotan</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">于闐</span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">c. 300 BC–1006</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Khotan.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of the kingdom of Khotan circa 1000."><img alt="Map of the kingdom of Khotan circa 1000." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/300px-Kingdom_of_Khotan.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/450px-Kingdom_of_Khotan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/600px-Kingdom_of_Khotan.png 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="904" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of the kingdom of Khotan circa 1000.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Hotan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Khotanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotanese language">Khotanese</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī</a><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data">Monarchy</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• c. 56 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Yulin: Jianwu period (25–56 AD)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 969 </div></th><td class="infobox-data">Nanzongchang (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Khotan established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">c. 300 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">c. 300 BC</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Yarkant attacks and annexes Khotan. Yulin abdicates and becomes king of Ligui </div></th><td class="infobox-data">56</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> invades and conquers Khotan </div></th><td class="infobox-data">670</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Khotan held by the <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a>, Yūsuf Qadr Khān </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1006</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1006</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Kingdom of Khotan</b> was an ancient <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> kingdom<sup id="ref_a_1" class="reference"><a href="#cnote_a">[a]</a></sup> located on the branch of the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> that ran along the southern edge of the <a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan Desert</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Xinjiang" title="Xinjiang">Xinjiang</a>, China). The ancient capital was originally sited to the west of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Hotan</a> at Yotkan.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> until at least the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> it was known in Chinese as <b>Yutian</b>. This <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">largely Buddhist</a> kingdom existed for over a thousand years until it was conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> in 1006, during the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_settlement_of_the_Tarim_Basin" title="Turkic settlement of the Tarim Basin">Islamization and Turkicization of Xinjiang</a>. </p><p>Built on an oasis, Khotan's mulberry groves allowed the production and export of <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carpet" title="Carpet">carpets</a>, in addition to the city's other major products such as its famous <a href="/wiki/Nephrite" title="Nephrite">nephrite</a> jade and <a href="/wiki/Pottery" title="Pottery">pottery</a>. Despite being a significant city on the Silk Road as well as a notable source of jade for ancient China, Khotan itself is relatively small – the circumference of the ancient city of Khotan at Yōtkan was about 2.5 to 3.2 km (1.5 to 2 miles). Much of the archaeological evidence of the ancient city of Khotan however had been obliterated due to centuries of treasure hunting by local people.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The inhabitants of Khotan spoke <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian language">Eastern Iranian language</a> belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka language</a>, and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gandhari Prakrit</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan language">Indo-Aryan language</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>. There is debate as to how much Khotan's original inhabitants were ethnically and anthropologically <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryan</a> and speakers of the <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gāndhārī language</a> versus the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European people</a> of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> branch from the <a href="/wiki/Eurasian_Steppe" title="Eurasian Steppe">Eurasian Steppe</a>. From the 3rd century onwards they also had a visible linguistic influence on the Gāndhārī language spoken at the royal court of Khotan. The Khotanese Saka language was also recognized as an official court language by the 10th century and used by the Khotanese rulers for administrative documentation. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The kingdom of Khotan was given various names and transcriptions. The ancient Chinese called Khotan <i>Yutian</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">于闐</span></span>, its ancient pronunciation was <i>gi̯wo-d'ien</i> or <i>ji̯u-d'ien</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also written as <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">于窴</span></span> and other similar-sounding names such as Yudun (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">于遁</span></span>), Huodan (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">豁旦</span></span>), and Qudan (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">屈丹</span></span>). Sometimes they also used <i>Jusadanna</i> (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">瞿薩旦那</span></span>), derived from Indo-Iranian <i>Gostan</i> and <i>Gostana</i>, the names of the town and region around it respectively. Others include Huanna (<span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hant">渙那</span></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-theobald_2011_yutian_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-theobald_2011_yutian-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To the Tibetans in the seventh and eighth centuries, the kingdom was called Li (or Li-yul) and the capital city <i>Hu-ten</i>, <i>Hu-den</i>, <i>Hu-then</i> and <i>Yvu-then</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-khotanese_texts_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khotanese_texts-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name as written by the locals changed over time; in about the third century AD, the local people wrote <i>Khotana</i> in Kharoṣṭhī script, and <i>Hvatäna</i> in the <a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a> some time later. From this came <i>Hvamna</i> and <i>Hvam</i> in their latest texts, where <i>Hvam kṣīra</i> or 'the land of Khotan' was the name given. Khotan became known to the west while the –<i>t</i>- was still unchanged, as is frequent in early <a href="/wiki/Persian_language#New_Persian" title="Persian language">New Persian</a>. The local people also used <i>Gaustana</i> (<i>Gosthana</i>, <i>Gostana</i>, <i>Godana</i>, <i>Godaniya</i> or <i>Kustana</i>) under the influence of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Hybrid_Sanskrit" title="Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit">Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit</a>, and <i>Yūttina</i> in the ninth century, when it was allied with the Chinese kingdom of Șacū (Shazhou or <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-khotanese_texts_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-khotanese_texts-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Location_and_geography">Location and geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Location and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od 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style="color:#4F311CFF">JIN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_183x72" style="position:absolute; left:183px; top:72px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">YUEZHI</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_170x63" style="position:absolute; left:170px; top:63px; font-size:6.5px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6.5; line-height:8.5px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Subeshi_culture" title="Subeshi culture"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Subeshi</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_200x57" style="position:absolute; left:200px; top:57px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i>Wusun</i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_48x87" style="position:absolute; left:48px; top:87px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">SELEUCID<br />EMPIRE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_137x113" style="position:absolute; left:137px; top:113px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">MAURYA<br />EMPIRE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_235x94" style="position:absolute; left:235px; top:94px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">HAN<br />DYNASTY</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_225x50" style="position:absolute; left:225px; top:50px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#4F311CFF;"><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">XIONGNU</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_02x100" style="position:absolute; left:02px; top:100px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PTOLE-<br />MIES</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_05x131" style="position:absolute; left:05px; top:131px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><b>MEROË</b></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_5x45" style="position:absolute; left:5px; top:45px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Scythians</b></i></span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_42x50" style="position:absolute; left:42px; top:50px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF"><i><b>Sarma-<br />tians</b></i></span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">General location of Khotan within the <a href="/wiki/Sakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakas">Saka</a> realm (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ffa500"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FFA500;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), and contemporary Asian polities <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> -200</span></div></div></div></div> <p>The geographical position of the oasis was the main factor in its success and wealth. To its north is one of the most arid and desolate desert climates on the earth, the <a href="/wiki/Taklamakan_Desert" title="Taklamakan Desert">Taklamakan Desert</a>, and to its south the largely uninhabited <a href="/wiki/Kunlun_Mountains" title="Kunlun Mountains">Kunlun Mountains</a> (Qurum). To the east there were few oases beyond <a href="/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a>, making travel difficult, and access is only relatively easy from the west.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khotan was irrigated from the Yurung-kàsh<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Kara-kàsh rivers, which water the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a>. These two rivers produce vast quantities of water, which made habitation possible in an otherwise arid climate. The location next to the mountain not only allowed irrigation for crops but also increased the fertility of the land, as the rivers reduced the gradient and deposited sediment on their banks, creating a more fertile soil. This more fertile soil increased the agricultural productivity that made Khotan famous for its cereal crops and fruit. Therefore, Khotan's lifeline was its proximity to the Kunlun mountain range, and without it Khotan would not have become one of the largest and most successful oasis cities along the Silk Roads. </p><p>The kingdom of Khotan was one of the many small states found in the Tarim Basin, which included <a href="/wiki/Yarkent_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Yarkent County">Yarkand</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loulan" class="mw-redirect" title="Loulan">Loulan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Turfan" class="mw-redirect" title="Turfan">Turfan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Shule" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Shule">Kashgar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karashahr" class="mw-redirect" title="Karashahr">Karashahr</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (the last three, together with Khotan, made up the <a href="/wiki/Four_Garrisons_of_Anxi" title="Four Garrisons of Anxi">four Garrisons</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>). To the west were the Central Asian kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>. It was surrounded by powerful neighbours, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, and for a time the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, all of which had exerted or tried to exert their influence over Khotan at various times. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From an early period, the Tarim Basin had been inhabited by different groups of Indo-European speakers such as the <a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a> people.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1964_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1964-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jade from Khotan had been traded into China for a long time before the founding of the city, as indicated by items made of jade from Khotan found in tombs from the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> (Yin) and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasties</a>. The jade trade is thought to have been facilitated by the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundation_legend">Foundation legend</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Foundation legend"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg/300px-Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg/450px-Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg/600px-Dandan_Uiliq_Khotanese_ms_British_Library_Khot_4-1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1589" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Manuscript in <a href="/wiki/Khotanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotanese language">Khotanese</a> from <a href="/wiki/Dandan_Oilik" title="Dandan Oilik">Dandan Oilik</a>, NE of Khotan. Now held in the British Library.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are four versions of the legend of the founding of Khotan. It is important to note that these legends were not contemporary or primary accounts. They were written centuries after the kingdom was founded."<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_263_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_263-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These may be found in accounts given by the Chinese pilgrim <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> and in Tibetan translations of Khotanese documents. All four versions suggest that the city was founded around the third century BC by a group of Indians during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_263_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_263-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one version, the nobles of a tribe in <a href="/wiki/Taxila_(ancient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxila (ancient)">ancient Taxila</a>, who traced their ancestry to the deity <a href="/wiki/Vai%C5%9Brava%E1%B9%87a" title="Vaiśravaṇa">Vaiśravaṇa</a>, were said to have blinded <a href="/wiki/Kunala" title="Kunala">Kunãla</a>, a son of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>. In punishment they were banished by the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Mauryan emperor</a> to the north of the Himalayas, where they settled in Khotan and elected one of their members as king. However war then ensued with another group from China whose leader then took over as king, and the two colonies merged.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a different version, it was Kunãla himself who was exiled and founded Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The legend suggests that Khotan was settled by people from northwest India and China, and may explain the division of Khotan into an eastern and western city since the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others however argued that the legend of the founding of Khotan is a fiction as it ignores the Iranian population, and that its purpose was to explain the Indian and Chinese influences that were present in Khotan in the 7th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-tremblay_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tremblay-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By Xuanzang's account, it was believed that the royal power had been transmitted unbroken since the founding of Khotan, and evidence indicates that the kings of Khotan had used an Iranian-based word as their title since at least the 3rd century AD, suggesting that they may be speakers of an Iranian language.<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 1900s, <a href="/wiki/Aurel_Stein" title="Aurel Stein">Aurel Stein</a> discovered <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> documents written in <a href="/wiki/Kharo%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADh%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Kharoṣṭhī">Kharoṣṭhī</a> in <a href="/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a>, and together with the founding legend of Khotan, Stein proposed that these people in the Tarim Basin were Indian immigrants from Taxila who conquered and colonized Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> however may be a legacy of the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also Greek influences in early Khotan, based on evidence such as <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic artworks</a> found at various sites in the Tarim Basin, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a> found near Khotan, tapestries depicting the Greek god <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a> and the winged <a href="/wiki/Pegasus" title="Pegasus">pegasus</a> found at nearby <a href="/wiki/Loulan" class="mw-redirect" title="Loulan">Loulan</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece" title="Pottery of ancient Greece">ceramics</a> that may suggest influences from as far as the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic kingdom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic Empire">Ptolemaic Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_pp15-20_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christopoulos_2012_pp15-20-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One suggestion is therefore that the early migrants to the region may have been an ethnically mixed people from the city of Taxila led by a Greco-Saka or an <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a> leader, who established Khotan using the administrative and social organizations of the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-christopoulos_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christopoulos-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_literature" title="Tibetan literature">Tibetan literature</a>, a long list of <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indian</a> kings is preserved. <a href="/wiki/Sten_Konow" title="Sten Konow">Sten Konow</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Norwegians" title="Norwegians">Norwegian</a> <a href="/wiki/Indologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Indologist">Indologist</a> who critically examined the different versions of the tradition concluded as follows: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Kustana, the son of <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>, is said to have founded the royal dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a>. But Kustana's son Ye-u-la, who is said to have founded the capital of the kingdom is most probably identical with the king Yü-Lin mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> chronicles as ruling over Khotan about the middle of the first century AD. </p><p>Ye-u-la was succeeded by his son Vijita Saṃbhava, with whom begins a long series of Khotan kings all begin with Vijita. If there is any truth in the Chinese statement that Wei-chi or Vijita was the family name of the kings, it is of interest to note that this 'Vijita' dynasty, according to the <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> tradition, begins where the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a> annals place the foundation of the national Khotan kingdom. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> was introduced into Khotan in the fifth year of Vijita Saṃbhava. Eleven kings followed, and then came Vijita Dharma who was a powerful ruler and always engaged in war. Later, he became a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> and retired to <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>. We know from Chinese sources that Kashgar had formerly developed great power, but it became dependent on <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a> during AD 220-264. It is then probable that this was the time of the powerful king Vijita-Dharma. </p><p> Vijita Dharma was followed on the throne by his son Vijita Siṃha, and the latter by his son Vijita-Kīrti. Vijita-Kīrti is said to have carried war into <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and to have overthrown <a href="/wiki/Saketa" class="mw-redirect" title="Saketa">Saketa</a>, together with king Kanika (or the king of Kanika) and the Guzan king Guzan here evidently stands for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kush%C4%81%E1%B9%87a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kushāṇa (page does not exist)">Kushāṇa</a>."</p></blockquote><p><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the oldest detailed <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">Chinese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> texts (including a <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibetan</a> text which may be contemporary), which we cannot distrust, the colonizing groups of exiled <a href="/wiki/Indian_people" title="Indian people">Indians</a> (including the son and ministers of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a>) founded the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arrival_of_the_Saka">Arrival of the Saka</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Arrival of the Saka"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg/170px-Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg/255px-Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg/340px-Khotanese_animal_zodiac_BLI6_OR11252_1R2_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="862" data-file-height="1107" /></a><figcaption>A document from <a href="/wiki/Khotan" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotan">Khotan</a> written in <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Khotanese Saka</a>, part of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_languages" title="Eastern Iranian languages">Eastern Iranian branch</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, listing the animals of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_zodiac" title="Chinese zodiac">Chinese zodiac</a> in the cycle of predictions for people born in that year; ink on paper, early 9th century</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rawak_Temple_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Rawak_Temple_01.jpg/220px-Rawak_Temple_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Rawak_Temple_01.jpg/330px-Rawak_Temple_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Rawak_Temple_01.jpg/440px-Rawak_Temple_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4224" data-file-height="2376" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak Stupa</a> outside of <a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Hotan</a>, a Buddhist site dated from the late 3rd to 5th century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Surviving documents from Khotan of later centuries indicate that the people of Khotan spoke the <a href="/wiki/Saka_language" title="Saka language">Saka language</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Iranian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Iranian language">Eastern Iranian language</a> that was closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian language</a> (of <a href="/wiki/Sogdiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Sogdiana">Sogdiana</a>); as an Indo-European language, Saka was more distantly related to the <a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian languages</a> (also known as Agnean-Kuchean) spoken in adjoining areas of the Tarim Basin.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also shared <a href="/wiki/Areal_feature" title="Areal feature">areal features</a> with Tocharian. It is not certain when the <a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka people</a> moved into the Khotan area. Archaeological evidence from the <a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a> of Sampul<sup id="cite_ref-GNISsampul_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GNISsampul-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Shanpulu; <span title="Uyghur-language text"><span lang="ug" dir="rtl">سامپۇل بازىرى</span></span><sup id="cite_ref-GNISsampul2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GNISsampul2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> / <span title="Chinese-language text"><span lang="zh-Hans"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%B1%B1%E6%99%AE%E9%B2%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:山普鲁">山普鲁</a><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%95%87" class="extiw" title="wikt:镇">镇</a></span></span>), near Khotan may indicate a settled Saka population in the last quarter of the first millennium BC,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although some have suggested they may not have moved there until after the founding of the city.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Saka may have inhabited other parts of the Tarim Basin earlier – presence of a people believed to be Saka had been found in the <a href="/wiki/Keriya_River" title="Keriya River">Keriya</a> region at Yumulak Kum (Djoumboulak Koum, Yuansha) around 200 km east of Khotan, possibly as early as the 7th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Saka people were known as the Sai (塞, sāi, <i>sək</i> in Old Sinitic) in ancient Chinese records.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These records indicate that they originally inhabited the <a href="/wiki/Ili_River" title="Ili River">Ili</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chu_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Chu River">Chu River</a> valleys of modern <a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a>. In the Chinese <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i>, the area was called the "land of the Sai", i.e. the Saka.<sup id="cite_ref-yu_2010_p13_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yu_2010_p13-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Shiji" title="Shiji">Shiji</a></i>, the Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, originally from the area between Tängri Tagh (<a href="/wiki/Tian_Shan" title="Tian Shan">Tian Shan</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>, China,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were assaulted and forced to flee from the <a href="/wiki/Hexi_Corridor" title="Hexi Corridor">Hexi Corridor</a> of Gansu by the forces of the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Modu_Chanyu" title="Modu Chanyu">Modu Chanyu</a> in 177-176 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn the Yuezhi were responsible for attacking and pushing the Sai (i.e. Saka) south. The Saka crossed the <a href="/wiki/Syr_Darya" title="Syr Darya">Syr Darya</a> into <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> around 140 B.C.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later the Saka would also move into Northern India, as well as other Tarim Basin sites like Khotan, <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Karasahr</a> (Yanqi), <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a> (Shache) and <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (Qiuci). One suggestion is that the Saka became Hellenized in the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>, and they or an ethnically mixed Greco-Scythians either migrated to <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a> and Khotan, or a bit earlier from <a href="/wiki/Taxila" title="Taxila">Taxila</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek Kingdom</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-enoki_1998_396-397_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enoki_1998_396-397-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Documents written in <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> dating to the 3rd century AD from neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> show that the king of Khotan was given the title <i>hinajha</i> (i.e. "generalissimo"), a distinctively Iranian-based word equivalent to the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> title <i><a href="/wiki/Senapati" title="Senapati">senapati</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This along with the fact that the king's recorded regnal periods were given as Khotanese <i>kṣuṇa</i>, "implies an established connection between the Iranian inhabitants and the royal power," according to the late Professor of Iranian Studies Ronald E. Emmerick (d. 2001).<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He contended that Khotanese-Saka-language royal rescripts of Khotan dated to the 10th century "makes it likely that the ruler of Khotan was a speaker of <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, he elaborated on the early name of Khotan: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The name of Khotan is attested in a number of spellings, of which the oldest form is <i>hvatana</i>, in texts of approximately the 7th to the 10th century AD written in an Iranian language itself called <i>hvatana</i> by the writers. The same name is attested also in two closely related Iranian dialects, <a href="/wiki/Sogdian_language" title="Sogdian language">Sogdian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a>...Attempts have accordingly been made to explain it as Iranian, and this is of some importance historically. My own preference is for an explanation connecting it semantically with the name Saka, for the Iranian inhabitants of Khotan spoke a language closely related to that used by the used by the Sakas in the north-west of India from the first century B.C. onwards.<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Later Khotanese-Saka-language documents, ranging from medical texts to <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist literature">Buddhist literature</a>, have been found in Khotan and <a href="/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a> (east of Kashgar).<sup id="cite_ref-bailey_1996_pp1231-1235_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bailey_1996_pp1231-1235-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar documents in the Khotanese-Saka language dating mostly to the 10th century have been found in <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_period">Early period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Early period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg/330px-KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg/495px-KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg/660px-KingGurgamoyaKhotan1stCenturyCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3262" data-file-height="1743" /></a><figcaption>Coin of <a href="/wiki/Gurgamoya" title="Gurgamoya">Gurgamoya</a>, king of Khotan. Khotan, 1st century AD.<br /> <i>Obv:</i> <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> legend, "Of the great king of kings, king of Khotan, Gurgamoya.<br /> <i>Rev:</i> Chinese legend: "Twenty-four grain copper coin". <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 2nd century AD a Khotanese king helped the famous ruler <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a> of South Asia (founded by the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a> people) to conquer the key town of <a href="/wiki/Saket" class="mw-redirect" title="Saket">Saket</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_kingdoms_of_India" title="Middle kingdoms of India">Middle kingdoms of India</a>: <sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Afterwards king Vijaya Krīti, for whom a manifestation of the Ārya Mañjuśrī, the Arhat called Spyi-pri who was propagating the religion (<a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a>) in Kam-śeṅ [a district of Khotan] was acting as pious friend, through being inspired with faith, built the vihāra of Sru-ño. Originally, King Kanika, the king of Gu-zar [Kucha] and the Li [Khotanese] ruler, King Vijaya Krīti, and others led an army into India, and when they captured the city called So-ked [Saketa], King Vijaya Krīti obtained many relics and put them in the stūpa of Sru-ño.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Prophecy of the Li Country.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>According to Chapter 96A of the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Han" title="Book of Han">Book of Han</a></i>, covering the period from 125 BC to 23 AD, Khotan had 3,300 households, 19,300 individuals and 2,400 people able to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern_Han_period">Eastern Han period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Eastern Han period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/170px-Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/255px-Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/340px-Ceramic_figurine_with_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1919" data-file-height="2598" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic figurine with Western influences, Yotkan near Khotan, 2-4th century AD.</figcaption></figure> <p>Minted coins from Khotan dated to the 1st century AD bear dual inscriptions in Chinese and <a href="/wiki/G%C4%81ndh%C4%81r%C4%AB_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gāndhārī language">Gandhari Prakrit</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> script, showing links of Khotan to India and China in that period.<sup id="cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khotan began to exert its power in the first century AD. It was first ruled by <a href="/wiki/Yarkant_County" title="Yarkant County">Yarkand</a>, but revolted in 25-57 AD and took Yarkand and the territory as far as <a href="/wiki/Kashgar_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Kashgar City">Kashgar</a>, thereby gaining control over part of the southern <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The town grew very quickly after local trade developed into the interconnected chain of silk routes across Eurasia. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/170px-Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/255px-Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg/340px-Ceramic_figurine_showing_Western_influences_Yotkan_near_Khotan_2nd_4th_century_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="2497" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic figurine showing Western influences, Yotkan near Khotan, 2-4th century AD.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>During the Yongping period (58-76 AD), in the reign of <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Ming_of_Han" title="Emperor Ming of Han">Emperor Ming</a>, Xiumo Ba, a Khotanese general, rebelled against Suoju (Yarkand), and made himself king of Yutian (in 60 AD). On the death of Xiumo Ba, Guangde, son of his elder brother, assumed power and then (in 61 AD) defeated Suoju (Yarkand). His kingdom became very prosperous after this. From Jingjue (<a href="/wiki/Niya_(Tarim_Basin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Niya (Tarim Basin)">Niya</a>) northwest, as far as <a href="/wiki/Shule_Kingdom" title="Shule Kingdom">Kashgar</a> thirteen kingdoms submitted to him. Meanwhile, the king of <a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> (the Lop Nor region, capital <a href="/wiki/Charklik_(ancient_settlement)" title="Charklik (ancient settlement)">Charklik</a>) had also begun to prosper. From then on, these two kingdoms were the only major ones on the Southern Route in the whole region to the east of the Congling (<a href="/wiki/Pamir_Mountains" title="Pamir Mountains">Pamir Mountains</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>King Guangde of Khotan submitted to the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> in 73 AD. Khotan at the time had relations with the <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a>, who during the reign of Emperor Ming of Han (57-75 AD) invaded Khotan and forced the Khotanese court to pay them large annual amounts of tribute in the form of silk and tapestries.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the Han military officer <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a> went to Khotan, he was received by the King with minimal courtesy. The soothsayer to the King suggested that he should demand the horse of Ban, and Ban killed the soothsayer on the spot. The King, impressed by Ban's action, then killed the Xiongnu agent in Khotan and offered his allegiance to Han.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time the Han dynasty exerted its dominance over Khotan, the population had more than quadrupled. The <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Later_Han" title="Book of the Later Han">Book of the Later Han</a></i>, covering 6 to 189 AD, says: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The main centre of the kingdom of Yutian (Khotan) is the town of Xicheng ("Western Town", Yotkan). It is 5,300 li (c.2,204 km) from the residence of the Senior Clerk [in Lukchun], and 11,700 li (c.4,865 km) from <a href="/wiki/Luoyang" title="Luoyang">Luoyang</a>. It controls 32,000 households, 83,000 individuals, and more than 30,000 men able to bear arms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Han influence on Khotan, however, diminished when Han power declined.<sup id="cite_ref-BuddhismKhotan_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuddhismKhotan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tang_dynasty">Tang dynasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Tang dynasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg/170px-%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="385" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg/255px-%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg/340px-%E4%BA%8E%E9%97%90%E5%9C%8B_Yutian_Khotan_in_Wanghuitu_circa_650_CE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="952" data-file-height="2156" /></a><figcaption>Man from Khotan (于闐國 <i>Yutian</i>) visiting the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> court, in <i><a href="/wiki/Wanghuitu" class="mw-redirect" title="Wanghuitu">Wanghuitu</a></i> circa 650 CE</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Tang_campaign_against_the_oasis_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Tang campaign against the oasis states">Tang campaign against the oasis states</a> began in 640 AD and Khotan submitted to the Tang emperor. The <a href="/wiki/Four_Garrisons_of_Anxi" title="Four Garrisons of Anxi">Four Garrisons of Anxi</a> were established, one of them at Khotan. </p><p>The Tibetans later defeated the Chinese and took control of the Four Garrisons. Khotan was first taken in 665,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Khotanese helped the Tibetans to conquer <a href="/wiki/Aksu,_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Aksu, Xinjiang">Aksu</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tang China later regained control in 692, but eventually lost control of the entire <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> after it was weakened considerably by the <a href="/wiki/An_Lushan_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="An Lushan Rebellion">An Lushan Rebellion</a>. </p><p>After the Tang dynasty, Khotan formed an alliance with the rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a>. The Buddhist entitites of Dunhuang and Khotan had a tight-knit partnership, with intermarriage between Dunhuang and Khotan's rulers. Dunhuang's Mogao grottos and Buddhist temples were also funded and sponsored by the Khotan royals, whose likenesses were drawn in the Mogao grottoes.<sup id="cite_ref-Millward2007_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millward2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Khotan was conquered by the Tibetan Empire in 792 and gained its independence in 851.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1993171_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1993171-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first recorded post-Tibetan King of Khotan was <a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a>, who used the Chinese name Li Shengtian and claimed to a descendant of the Tang dynasty imperial family. While using the Indic-style title "lion king" (<i>rajasimha</i>) and the Near Eastern Emperor-like title "king of kings", Viśa' Saṃbhava also used the Chinese title <i>huangdi</i> (emperor) in Khotan's Chinese language court documents, and dressed in hats and robes of Chinese style. His son, Viśa' Śūra, used the combined title, "king of kings of China" (<i>caiga rāṃdānä rrādi</i>), portrayed himself as a Chinese emperor in portraiture, used Chinese-style imperial edicts signed with the character chi 勑 ("edict", in imitation of the Tang and Song dynasties' edicts), and used a seal inscribed "Han Son of Heaven of great Khotan" (大于闐漢天子).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viśa' Saṃbhava married the daughter of Cao Yijin, the ruler of the Guiyi Circuit. Cao Yijin's grandson, Cao Yanlu, married the third daughter of Viśa' Saṃbhava.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 772px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Indian deity on the obverse of a painted panel, most likely depicting Shiva. Khotanese artist Viśa Īrasangä or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century"><img alt="Indian deity on the obverse of a painted panel, most likely depicting Shiva. Khotanese artist Viśa Īrasangä or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/133px-Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg" decoding="async" width="133" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/199px-Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/265px-Indian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="942" data-file-height="1420" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Hindu_mythology" title="Hindu mythology">Indian deity</a> on the obverse of a painted panel, most likely depicting <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a>. Khotanese artist <a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4" title="Viśa Īrasangä">Viśa Īrasangä</a> or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Persian deity on the reverse of a painted panel, probably depicting the legendary hero Rustam. Khotanese artist Viśa Īrasangä or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century"><img alt="Persian deity on the reverse of a painted panel, probably depicting the legendary hero Rustam. Khotanese artist Viśa Īrasangä or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/132px-Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg" decoding="async" width="132" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/198px-Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg/264px-Persian_deity_attributed_to_Vi%C5%9Ba_%C4%AArasang%C3%A4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="935" data-file-height="1416" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian deity</a> on the reverse of a painted panel, probably depicting the legendary hero <a href="/wiki/Rustam" class="mw-redirect" title="Rustam">Rustam</a>. Khotanese artist Viśa Īrasangä or his father Viśa Baysūna, 7th century</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hotan_bm.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Grotesque face, stucco, found at Khotan, 7th-8th century."><img alt="Grotesque face, stucco, found at Khotan, 7th-8th century." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hotan_bm.jpg/150px-Hotan_bm.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hotan_bm.jpg/225px-Hotan_bm.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hotan_bm.jpg/300px-Hotan_bm.jpg 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Grotesque face, stucco, found at Khotan, 7th-8th century.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px; height: 230px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf,_Tang_Dynastie.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Human head ceramic with cow, Tang Dynasty. Hotan Cultural Museum, China"><img alt="Human head ceramic with cow, Tang Dynasty. Hotan Cultural Museum, China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG/105px-2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG" decoding="async" width="105" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG/158px-2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG/211px-2015-13-101702_-_Hotan_Museum_-_Keramik_mit_Kuh-_und_Menschenkopf%2C_Tang_Dynastie.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="4600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Human head ceramic with cow, Tang Dynasty. <a href="/wiki/Hotan_Cultural_Museum" title="Hotan Cultural Museum">Hotan Cultural Museum</a>, China</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turco-Islamic_conquest_of_Buddhist_Khotan">Turco-Islamic conquest of Buddhist Khotan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Turco-Islamic conquest of Buddhist Khotan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamicisation_and_Turkicisation_of_Xinjiang" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang">Islamicisation and Turkicisation of Xinjiang</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238443738"><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Kingdom of Khotan is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Kingdom of Khotan is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/300px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/450px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/600px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/300px-Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/450px-Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png/600px-Map_of_the_Kingdom_of_Khotan.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span></div><div id="annotation_105x60" style="position:absolute; 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left:193px; top:135px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Pagan_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Pagan Kingdom"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">PAGAN</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_205x120" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:120px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Dali_Kingdom" title="Dali Kingdom"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">DALI</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_210x145" style="position:absolute; left:210px; top:145px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">KHMER</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_5x100" style="position:absolute; left:5px; top:100px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">FATIMID<br />CALIPHATE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_5x70" style="position:absolute; left:5px; top:70px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">BYZANTINE<br />EMPIRE</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_280x74" style="position:absolute; left:280px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">GO-<br />RYEO</span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div>The Kingdom of Khotan and main neighbouring polities <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1000</span></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg/190px-Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="190" height="317" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg/285px-Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg/380px-Portrait_of_a_Khotan_King_-_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2022" data-file-height="3373" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a>, a 10th-century king of Khotan, <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gansu_province" class="mw-redirect" title="Gansu province">Gansu province</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 10th century, the Iranic Saka Buddhist Kingdom of Khotan was the only city-state in the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> that was not yet conquered by either the Turkic Uyghur <a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho Kingdom</a> (Buddhist) or by the Turkic <a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> (Muslim). During the latter part of the tenth century, Khotan became engaged in a struggle against the Kara-Khanid Khanate. The Islamic conquests of the Buddhist cities east of Kashgar began with the conversion of the Karakhanid <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Satuq_Bughra_Khan" title="Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan">Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan</a> to Islam in 934. Satuq Bughra Khan and later his son Musa directed endeavors to proselytize Islam among the Turks and engage in military conquests,<sup id="cite_ref-Millward2007_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millward2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a long war ensued between Islamic Kashgar and Buddhist Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-MichellGollings2008_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MichellGollings2008-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Satuq Bughra Khan's nephew or grandson Ali Arslan was said to have been killed during the war with the Buddhists.<sup id="cite_ref-RingSalkin1994_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RingSalkin1994-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khotan briefly took <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> from the Kara-Khanids in 970, and according to Chinese accounts, the King of Khotan offered to send in tribute to the Chinese court a dancing elephant captured from Kashgar.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Accounts of the war between the Karakhanid and Khotan were given in <i> Taẕkirah of the Four Sacrificed Imams</i>, written sometime in the period from 1700 to 1849 in the Eastern Turkic language (modern Uyghur) in <a href="/wiki/Altishahr" title="Altishahr">Altishahr</a> probably based on an older oral tradition. It contains a story about four Imams from Mada'in city (possibly in modern-day Iraq) who helped the Qarakhanid leader Yusuf Qadir Khan conquered Khotan, Yarkand, and Kashgar.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were years of battles where "blood flows like the Oxus", "heads litter the battlefield like stones" until the "infidels" were defeated and driven towards Khotan by Yusuf Qadir Khan and the four Imams. The imams however were assassinated by the Buddhists prior to the last Muslim victory.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite their foreign origins, they are viewed as local saints by the current Muslim population in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1006, the Muslim Kara-Khanid ruler Yusuf Kadir (Qadir) Khan of Kashgar conquered Khotan, ending Khotan's existence as an independent Buddhist state.<sup id="cite_ref-Millward2007_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Millward2007-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some communications between Khotan and Song China continued intermittently, but it was noted in 1063 in a Song source that the ruler of Khotan referred to himself as kara-khan, indicating dominance of the Karakhanids over Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been suggested Buddhists in Dunhuang, alarmed by the conquest of Khotan and ending of Buddhism there, sealed Cave 17 of the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a> containing the <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_manuscripts" title="Dunhuang manuscripts">Dunhuang manuscripts</a> so to protect them.<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen2012_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen2012-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Karakhanid Turkic Muslim writer <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_al-Kashgari" title="Mahmud al-Kashgari">Mahmud al-Kashgari</a> recorded a short Turkic language poem about the conquest: </p> <dl><dd><table> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:20em;"> </th> <th style="width:28em;"> </th></tr> <tr> <td> <p>In Turkic:<sup id="cite_ref-Moriyasu2004_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moriyasu2004-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Institute1980_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Institute1980-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>kälginläyü aqtïmïz<br /> kändlär üzä čïqtïmïz<br /> furxan ävin yïqtïmïz<br /> burxan üzä sïčtïmïz </p> </div></blockquote> </td> <td> <p>English translation:<sup id="cite_ref-Hansen2012_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hansen2012-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elverskog2011_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elverskog2011-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AkasoyBurnett2011_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AkasoyBurnett2011-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dankoff2008_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dankoff2008-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> <p>We came down on them like a flood,<br /> We went out among their cities,<br /> We tore down the idol-temples,<br /> We shat on the Buddha's head! </p> </div> </blockquote> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <p>According to Kashgari who wrote in the 11th century, the inhabitants of Khotan still spoke a different language and did not know the Turkic language well.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LeviSela2010_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeviSela2010-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is however believed that the Turkic languages became the lingua franca throughout the Tarim Basin by the end of the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Akiner2013_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Akiner2013-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the time <a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo" title="Marco Polo">Marco Polo</a> visited Khotan, which was between 1271 and 1275, he reported that "the inhabitants all worship <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Mohamet</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_timeline">Historical timeline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Historical timeline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The first inhabitants of the region appear to have been Indians from the <a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya Empire</a> according to its founding legends.<sup id="cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The foundation of Khotan occurred when Kushtana, said to be a son of Ashoka, the Indian emperor belonging to the Maurya Empire settled there about 224 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-Bihar_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bihar-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>c.84 BC: Buddhism is reportedly introduced to Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-Emmerick_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Emmerick-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>c.56: Xian, the powerful and prosperous king of Yarkent, attacked and annexed Khotan. He transferred Yulin, its king, to become the king of Ligui, and set up his younger brother, Weishi, as king of Khotan.</li> <li>61: Khotan defeats Yarkand. Khotan becomes very powerful after this and 13 kingdoms submitted to Khotan, which now, with <a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a>, became the major power on the southern branch of the Silk Route.</li> <li>78: <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a>, a Chinese General, subdues the kingdom.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg/170px-Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg/255px-Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg/340px-Bronze_coin_of_Kanishka_found_in_Khotan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1281" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>Bronze coin of <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a>, found in Khotan.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>127: The Khotanese king Vijaya Krīti is said to have helped the <a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a> in his conquest of Saket in India.</li> <li>127: The Chinese general <a href="/wiki/Ban_Yong" title="Ban Yong">Ban Yong</a> attacked and subdued <a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Karasahr</a>; and then <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a>, Khotan, Yarkand, and other kingdoms, seventeen altogether, who all came to submit to China.</li> <li>129: Fangqian, the king of Khotan, killed the king of <a href="/wiki/Keriya_Town" title="Keriya Town">Keriya</a>, Xing. He installed his son as the king of Keriya. Then he sent an envoy to offer tribute to Han. The Emperor pardoned the crime of the king of Khotan, ordering him to hand back the kingdom of Keriya. Fangqian refused.</li> <li>131: Fangqian, the king of Khotan, sends one of his sons to serve and offer tribute at the Chinese Imperial Palace.</li> <li>132: The Chinese sent the king of Kashgar, Chenpan, who with 20,000 men, attacked and defeated Khotan. He beheaded several hundred people, and released his soldiers to plunder freely. He replaced the king [of Keriya] by installing Chengguo from the family of [the previous king] Xing, and then he returned.</li> <li>151: Jian, the king of Khotan, was killed by Han chief clerk Wang Jing, who was in turn killed by Khotanese. Anguo, the son of Jian, was placed on the throne.</li> <li>175: Anguo, the king of Khotan, attacked Keriya, and defeated it soundly. He killed the king and many others.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>195: The 'Western Regions' rebelled, and Khotan regained its independence.</li> <li>399 Chinese pilgrim monk, Faxian, visits and reports on the active Buddhist community there.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>632: Khotan pays homage to imperial China, and becomes a vassal state.</li> <li>644: Chinese pilgrim monk, <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a>, stays 7–8 months in Khotan and writes a detailed account of the kingdom.</li> <li>670: <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan Empire</a> invades and conquers Khotan (now known as one of the "four garrisons").</li> <li>c.670-673: Khotan governed by Tibetan Mgar minister.</li> <li>674: King Fudu Xiong (Vijaya Sangrāma IV), his family and followers flee to China after fighting the Tibetans. They are unable to return.</li> <li>c.680 - c.692: 'Amacha Khemeg rules as regent of Khotan.</li> <li>692: China under <a href="/wiki/Wu_Zetian" title="Wu Zetian">Wu Zetian</a> reconquers the Kingdom from Tibet. Khotan is made a protectorate.</li> <li>725: Yuchi Tiao (Vijaya Dharma III) is beheaded by the Chinese for conspiring with the Turks. Yuchi Fushizhan (Vijaya Sambhava II) is placed on the throne by the Chinese.</li> <li>728: Yuchi Fushizhan (Vijaya Sambhava II) officially given the title "King of Khotan" by the Chinese emperor.</li> <li>736: Fudu Da (Vijaya Vāhana the Great) succeeds Yuchi Fushizhan and the Chinese emperor bestows a title on his wife.</li> <li>c. 740: King Yuchi Gui (<a href="/wiki/Wylie_transliteration" title="Wylie transliteration">Wylie</a>: <i>btsan bzang btsan la brtan</i>) succeeds Fudu Da (Vijaya Vāhana) and begins persecution of Buddhists. Khotanese Buddhist monks flee to Tibet, where they are given refuge by the Chinese wife of King Mes ag tshoms. Soon after, the queen died in a smallpox epidemic and the monks had to flee to <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>740: Chinese emperor bestows a title on wife of Yuchi Gui.</li> <li>746: The <i>Prophecy of the Li Country</i> is completed and later added to the Tibetan <a href="/wiki/Tengyur" title="Tengyur">Tengyur</a>.</li> <li>756: Yuchi Sheng hands over the government to his younger brother, Shihu (Jabgu) Yao.</li> <li>786 to 788: Yuchi Yao still ruling Khotan at the time of the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Wukong's visit to Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>934: <a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a> marries the daughter of Cao Yijin, the ruler of the <a href="/wiki/Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>.</li> <li>969: The son of King Viśa' Saṃbhava named Zongchang sends a tribute mission to China.</li> <li>971: A Buddhist priest (Jixiang) brings a letter from the king of Khotan to the Chinese emperor offering to send a dancing elephant which he had captured from Kashgar.</li> <li>1006: Khotan held by the Muslim Yūsuf Qadr Khān, a brother or cousin of the Muslim ruler of Kāshgar and Balāsāghūn.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Between 1271 and 1275: Marco Polo visits Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_rulers">List of rulers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: List of rulers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Note:- <i>Some names are in modern Mandarin pronunciations based on ancient Chinese records and Time period of rulers is in CE.</i> </p> <ul><li>Yu Lin - 23 BCE</li> <li>Jun De - 57 BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurgamoya" title="Gurgamoya">Gurgamoya</a> - 30 to 60 CE</li> <li>Xiu Moba - 60</li> <li>Guang De - 60</li> <li>Vijaya Krīti (Fang Qian) - 110</li> <li>Jian - 132</li> <li>An Guo - 152</li> <li>Qiu Ren - 446</li> <li>Polo the Second - 471</li> <li>Sangrāma the Third (Sanjuluomo) - 477</li> <li>She Duluo - 500</li> <li>Viśa' Yuchi - 530</li> <li>Vijayavardhana (Bei Shilian)<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> - 590</li> <li>Viśa' Wumi - 620</li> <li>Fudu Xin - 642</li> <li>Vijaya Sangrāma IV (Fudu Xiong) - 665</li> <li>Viśvajita (Viśa' Jing) - 691</li> <li>Vijaya Dharma III (Viśa' Tiao) - 724</li> <li>Vijaya Sambhava II (Fu Shizhan) - 725</li> <li>Vijaya Vāhana the Great (Fudu Da) - 736</li> <li>Viśa' Gui - 740</li> <li>Viśa' Sheng - 745</li> <li>Viśvavāhana (Viśa' Vāhaṃ) - 764</li> <li>Viśa' Kīrti - 791</li> <li>Viśa' Chiye - 829</li> <li>Viśvānanda (Viśa' Nanta) - 844</li> <li>Viśa' Wana - 859</li> <li>Viśa' Piqiluomo - 888</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vi%C5%9Ba%27_Sa%E1%B9%83bhava" title="Viśa' Saṃbhava">Viśa' Saṃbhava</a> - 912</li> <li>Viśa' Śūra - 967</li> <li>Viśa' Dharma - 978</li> <li>Viśa' Sangrāma - 986</li> <li>Viśa' Sagemayi - 999 to 1006</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Buddhism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Buddha.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Head_of_Buddha.jpg/220px-Head_of_Buddha.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Head_of_Buddha.jpg/330px-Head_of_Buddha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Head_of_Buddha.jpg/440px-Head_of_Buddha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Head of Buddha found in Khotan, 3rd-4th century</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Khotan" title="Buddhism in Khotan">Buddhism in Khotan</a></div> <p>The kingdom was one of the major centres of Buddhism, and up until the 11th century, the vast majority of the population was Buddhist.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the people of the kingdom were not Buddhist, and Buddhism was said to have been adopted in the reign of Vijayasambhava in the first century BC, some 170 years after the founding of Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an account by the Han general <a href="/wiki/Ban_Chao" title="Ban Chao">Ban Chao</a> suggested that the people of Khotan in 73 AD still appeared to practice <a href="/wiki/Mazdeism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazdeism">Mazdeism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Shamanism" title="Shamanism">Shamanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-tremblay_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tremblay-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ma_yong_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ma_yong-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son <a href="/wiki/Ban_Yong" title="Ban Yong">Ban Yong</a> who spent time in the <a href="/wiki/Western_Regions" title="Western Regions">Western Regions</a> also did not mention Buddhism there, and with the absence of Buddhist art in the region before the beginning of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Han" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Han">Eastern Han</a>, it has also been suggested that Buddhism may not have been adopted in the region until the middle of the second century AD.<sup id="cite_ref-ma_yong_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ma_yong-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The kingdom is primarily associated with the <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Chinese pilgrim <a href="/wiki/Faxian" title="Faxian">Faxian</a> who passed through Khotan in the fourth century: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The country is prosperous and the people are numerous; without exception they have faith in the Dharma and they entertain one another with religious music. The community of monks numbers several tens of thousands and they belong mostly to the Mahayana.<sup id="cite_ref-BuddhismKhotan_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BuddhismKhotan-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote><p>It differed in this respect to <a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a>, a <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vakay%C4%81na" title="Śrāvakayāna">Śrāvakayāna</a>-dominated kingdom on the opposite side of the desert. Faxian's account of the city states it had fourteen large and many small <a href="/wiki/Vihara" class="mw-redirect" title="Vihara">viharas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many foreign languages, including <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>, Sanskrit, <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrits</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apabhra%E1%B9%83%C5%9Ba" title="Apabhraṃśa">Apabhraṃśas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_Tibetan" title="Classical Tibetan">Classical Tibetan</a> were used in cultural exchange. A number of Buddhist monks who played an important role in the transmission of Buddhism in China had their origins in Khotan including Śikṣānanda and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%ABladharma" title="Śīladharma">Śīladharma</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity">Christianity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the 11th-century Persian historian <a href="/wiki/Gardizi" title="Gardizi">Gardizi</a>, there were two <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">East Syriac Christian</a> churches within the kingdom's territory in the mid 5th–11th century, one inside the city of Khotan and one outside the city. A Christian cemetery has also been found in Khotan. In the <i>Taḏkera</i> of Maḥmūd-Karam Kābolī, it is recorded that Khotan was governed by a Christian ruler in the middle of the 12th century. Despite being a source of dubious historical value, this statement of the <i>Taḏkera</i> has been accepted as authentic by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertold_Spuler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bertold Spuler (page does not exist)">Bertold Spuler</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertold_Spuler" class="extiw" title="de:Bertold Spuler">de</a>]</span>. A Chinese-manufactured <a href="/wiki/Melkite" title="Melkite">Melkite</a> cross with Greek inscription was bought at Khotan during the <a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Mongol period</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A supposed reference to Christianity in a Khotanese text has been proved illusory by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ronald_Erich_Emmerick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ronald Erich Emmerick (page does not exist)">Ronald Erich Emmerick</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Erich_Emmerick" class="extiw" title="de:Ronald Erich Emmerick">de</a>]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Social_and_economic_life">Social and economic life</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social and economic life"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/220px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="320" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/330px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg/440px-Khotanese_donor_ladies._Dunhuang_cave_61.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2289" data-file-height="3329" /></a><figcaption>Khotanese Buddhist women donors</figcaption></figure> <p>Despite scant information on the socio-political structures of Khotan, the shared geography of the Tarim city-states and similarities in archaeological findings throughout the <a href="/wiki/Tarim_Basin" title="Tarim Basin">Tarim Basin</a> enable some conclusions on Khotanese life.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A seventh-century Chinese pilgrim named <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> described Khotan as having limited <a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable land</a> but apparently particularly <a href="/wiki/Fertility_(soil)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility (soil)">fertile</a>, able to support "<a href="/wiki/Cereal" title="Cereal">cereals</a> and producing an abundance of <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruits</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-Records_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Records-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He further commented that the city "manufactures carpets and fine-felts and silks" as well as "dark and white <a href="/wiki/Jade" title="Jade">jade</a>". The city's economy was chiefly based upon water from <a href="/wiki/Oases" class="mw-redirect" title="Oases">oases</a> for irrigation and the manufacture of traded goods.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Xuanzang also praised the culture of Khotan, commenting that its people "love to study literature", and said "[m]usic is much practiced in the country, and men love song and dance." The "urbanity" of the Khotan people is also mentioned in their dress, that of 'light silks and white clothes' as opposed to more rural "wools and furs".<sup id="cite_ref-Records_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Records-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Silk">Silk</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Silk"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Khotan was the first place outside of inland China to begin cultivating <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a>. The legend, repeated in many sources, and illustrated in murals discovered by archaeologists, is that a Chinese princess brought <a href="/wiki/Bombyx_mori" title="Bombyx mori">silkworm</a> eggs hidden in her hair when she was sent to marry the Khotanese king. This probably took place in the first half of the 1st century AD but is disputed by a number of scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg/450px-British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="450" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg/675px-British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg/900px-British_Museum_silk_princess_painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8926" data-file-height="2437" /></a><figcaption>Painting on wooden panel discovered by Aurel Stein in <a href="/wiki/Dandan_Oilik" title="Dandan Oilik">Dandan Oilik</a>, depicting the legend of the princess who hid <a href="/wiki/Bombyx_mori" title="Bombyx mori">silkworm</a> eggs in her headdress to smuggle them out of China to the Kingdom of Khotan.</figcaption></figure> <p>One version of the story is told by the Chinese Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">monk</a> <a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a> who describes the covert transfer of silkworms to Khotan by a Chinese princess. Xuanzang, on his return from India between 640 and 645, crossed Central Asia passing through the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a> and Khotan (Yutian in Chinese).<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Xuanzang, the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Sericulture" title="Sericulture">sericulture</a> to Khotan occurred in the first quarter of the 5th century. The King of Khotan wanted to obtain silkworm eggs, <a href="/wiki/Morus_(plant)" title="Morus (plant)">mulberry</a> seeds and Chinese know-how - the three crucial components of silk production. The Chinese court had strict rules against these items leaving China, to maintain the Chinese monopoly on silk manufacture. Xuanzang wrote that the King of Khotan asked for the hand of a Chinese princess in marriage as a token of his allegiance to the Chinese emperor. The request was granted, and an ambassador was sent to the Chinese court to escort the Chinese princess to Khotan. He advised the princess that she would need to bring silkworms and mulberry seeds in order to make herself robes in Khotan and to make the people prosperous. The princess concealed silkworm eggs and mulberry seeds in her headdress and smuggled them through the Chinese frontier. According to his text, silkworm eggs, mulberry trees and weaving techniques passed from Khotan to <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and from there eventually reached <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jade">Jade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Jade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/200px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/300px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg/400px-Dunhuang_Mogao_cave_Cao_donor_figures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="528" data-file-height="757" /></a><figcaption>Daughter of the King of Khotan married to the ruler of <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>, Cao Yanlu, shown here wearing elaborate headdress decorated with jade pieces. Mural in <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Cave</a> 61, <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Khotan, throughout and before the Silk Roads period, was a prominent trading oasis on the southern route of the Tarim Basin – the only major oasis "on the sole water course to cross the desert from the south".<sup id="cite_ref-Life_Along_the_Silk_Roads_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Life_Along_the_Silk_Roads-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aside from the geographical location of the towns of Khotan it was also important for its wide renown as a significant source of nephrite jade for export to China. </p><p>There has been a long history of trade of jade from Khotan to China. Jade pieces from the Tarim Basin have been found in Chinese archaeological sites. Chinese carvers in <a href="/wiki/Xinglongwa_culture" title="Xinglongwa culture">Xinglongwa</a> and Chahai had been carving ring-shaped pendants "from greenish jade from Khotan as early as 5000 BC".<sup id="cite_ref-The_Silk_Road_Folio_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Silk_Road_Folio-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hundreds of jade pieces found in the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Fuhao" class="mw-redirect" title="Tomb of Fuhao">tomb of Fuhao</a> from the late <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zheng_Zhenxiang" title="Zheng Zhenxiang">Zheng Zhenxiang</a> and her team all originated from Khotan.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Chinese text <i><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a>, described in the book as Yuzhi 禺氏, or Niuzhi 牛氏, supplied jade to the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It would seem, from secondary sources, the prevalence of jade from Khotan in ancient Chinese is due to its quality and the relative lack of such jade elsewhere. </p><p>Xuanzang also observed jade on sale in Khotan in 645 and provided a number of examples of the jade trade.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Silk_Road_Folio_105-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Silk_Road_Folio-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Khotan_coinage">Khotan coinage</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Khotan coinage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_cash_coins_by_inscription#Kingdom_of_Khotan" title="List of Chinese cash coins by inscription">List of Chinese cash coins by inscription § Kingdom of Khotan</a></div> <p>The Kingdom of Khotan is known to have produced both <a href="/wiki/Cash_(Chinese_coin)" title="Cash (Chinese coin)">cash-style</a> coinage and coins without holes<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Inscription</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional Chinese">Traditional Chinese</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th> <th>Approximate years of production</th> <th><a href="#List_of_rulers">King</a></th> <th>Coinage </th></tr> <tr> <td>Yu Fang</td> <td>于方</td> <td>yú fāng</td> <td>129 - 130 CE</td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fang_Qian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fang Qian (page does not exist)">Fang Qian</a></td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_(Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg/100px-Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg/150px-Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg/200px-Ancient-Khotan-XXXIX-5_%28Sir_Mar_Aurel_Stein%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="154" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Zhong Er Shi Si Zhu Tong Qian </td> <td>重廿四銖銅錢 </td> <td> </td> <td>100 - 200 CE </td> <td>Maharajasa Yidirajasa Gurgamoasa </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg/100px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg/150px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg/200px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_Sino_Kharosthi_24_Zhu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="761" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Liu Zhu </td> <td>六銖 </td> <td> </td> <td>0 - 200 CE </td> <td>Maharajasa Yidirajasa Gurgamoasa(?) </td> <td><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg/100px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="51" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg/150px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg/200px-Kingdom_of_Khotan_-_Sino_Kharosthi_6_Zhu_coin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1758" data-file-height="904" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetics">Genetics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Haplogroups">Haplogroups</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Haplogroups"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the cemetery in Sampul (Chinese: 山普拉), ~14 km from the archaeological site of Khotan in <a href="/wiki/Lop_County" title="Lop County">Lop County</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-chengzhi_2007_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chengzhi_2007-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_art" title="Hellenistic art">Hellenistic art</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a> has been found (its provenance most likely from the nearby <a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_pp15-16_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christopoulos_2012_pp15-16-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the local inhabitants buried their dead there from roughly 217 BC to 283 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial DNA</a> analysis of the human remains has revealed genetic affinities to peoples from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, specifically a <a href="/wiki/Maternal" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternal">maternal</a> lineage linked to <a href="/wiki/Ossetians" title="Ossetians">Ossetians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a>, as well as an Eastern-Mediterranean <a href="/wiki/Paternal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paternal">paternal</a> lineage.<sup id="cite_ref-chengzhi_2007_111-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chengzhi_2007-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_footnote46_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-christopoulos_2012_footnote46-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seeming to confirm this link, from historical accounts it is known that <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, who married a <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdian</a> woman from <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a> named <a href="/wiki/Roxana" title="Roxana">Roxana</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-livius_roxane_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius_roxane-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-strachan_2008_p87_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-strachan_2008_p87-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> encouraged his soldiers and generals to marry local women; consequentially the later kings of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> and Greco-Bactrian Kingdom had a mixed <a href="/wiki/Persian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian people">Persian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Greek_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek people">Greek</a> ethnic background.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to other genetic studies, the Khotanese Sakas had paternal haplogroups Q1a, O3a, O2a, R1a, R1b. Among the maternal haplogroups were H6a, H14b, U3b, U4b, M3, U5b, H, U4a, C4a, W3a, H6a, U5a, H2b, H5c, T1a, J1b, R2, N.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autosomal_DNA">Autosomal DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Autosomal DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genetically, the Khotanese Sakas were of heterogeneous origin, primarily descended from steppe pastoralists associated with the Andronovo/Sintasha and Afanasevo cultures, with significant contributions from Bronze Age populations associated with bmac, Baikal HG, Yellow farmer and local Tarim mummies, and minor contributions from APS and AASI. During the Iron Age, the inhabitants received minor gene flow associated with the Xiongnu.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_122-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saka-Khotan_DNA.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Saka-Khotan_DNA.png/250px-Saka-Khotan_DNA.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Saka-Khotan_DNA.png/375px-Saka-Khotan_DNA.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Saka-Khotan_DNA.png/500px-Saka-Khotan_DNA.png 2x" data-file-width="1003" data-file-height="635" /></a><figcaption>Autosomal DNA Saka Khotan.</figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png/250px-Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png/375px-Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png/500px-Saka-Khotan_DNA2.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="322" /></a><figcaption>Autosomal DNA Saka Khotan. <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Hunter_Gatherer" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Hunter Gatherer">Eastern Hunter Gatherer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasian</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#0bda51"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#0BDA51;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> EHG/ANE), <a href="/wiki/Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasian Hunter-Gatherer</a>/<a href="/wiki/Ganj_Dareh" title="Ganj Dareh">Iran Neolithic Farmer</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ff2400"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FF2400;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> CHG/INF), <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_Neolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatolian Neolithic">Anatolian Neolithic</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#9966cc"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#9966CC;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">East Asian hunter gatherer</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ffff00"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FFFF00;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> ANA), Yellow River Neolithic Farmer (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ed760e"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#ED760E;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> YRNF), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Ancestral_South_Indians" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Ancestral South Indians">Ancient Ancestral South Indians</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#1560bd"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#1560BD;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> AASI) and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Paleo-Siberian" title="Ancient Paleo-Siberian">Ancient Paleo-Siberian</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#249bba"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#249BBA;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small> APS)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg/250px-Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg/375px-Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg/500px-Saka-Khotan_DNA3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption>Autosomal DNA Saka Khotan. <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#ff8518"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#FF8518;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>) <a href="/wiki/Afanasevo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Afanasevo culture">Afanasevo culture</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#62ad5e"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#62AD5E;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#7f5233"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#7F5233;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), <a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#66cee7"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#66CEE7;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Baikal HG</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#e29bae"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#E29BAE;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>), Yellow Farmer (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#8bf000"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#8BF000;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>) and <a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a> (<small><span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#a5a5a5"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:0.6em;height:0.6em;background:#A5A5A5;color:inherit;"> </span></span></small>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khatana" title="Khatana">Khatana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khotanese_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Khotanese language">Khotanese language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotan" title="Hotan">Hotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dandan_Oilik" title="Dandan Oilik">Dandan Oilik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarim_mummies" title="Tarim mummies">Tarim mummies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamsabhoga" title="Kamsabhoga">Kamsabhoga</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style=""><ol class="references" style="list-style-type:upper-alpha;"> <li id="cnote_a"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#ref_a_1">^</a></b></span> <div style="display:inline;" class="reference-text">Scholarship considers the Kingdom of Khotan have been an ancient Buddhist Saka kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickens2018363_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickens2018363-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaggi2021_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaggi2021-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmmerickMacuch2008330_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmerickMacuch2008330-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompareti2015199_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECompareti2015199-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolini-Zani202226_(note_94)_129-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolini-Zani202226_(note_94)-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></li> </ol></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">If this is correct, and if modern dating of the beginning of Kanishka's era in 127 AD, this must have happened at about this date - just before <a href="/wiki/Ban_Yong" title="Ban Yong">Ban Yong</a> reasserted Chinese influence over the region.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_references">Book references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Book references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStein1907" class="citation book cs1">Stein, M. Aurel (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.181484"><i>Ancient Khotan</i></a>. Oxford: Clarendon Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Khotan&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=M.+Aurel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.181484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Higham2004" class="citation book cs1">Charles Higham (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H1c1UIEVH9gC&pg=PA143"><i>Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations</i></a>. Facts on File. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4640-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4640-9"><bdi>978-0-8160-4640-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Asian+Civilizations&rft.pages=143&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4640-9&rft.au=Charles+Higham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH1c1UIEVH9gC%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mallory_2000-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mallory_2000_5-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalloryMair2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. 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Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (2000), <i>The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West</i>, London: Thames & Hudson, pp. <span class="nowrap">77–</span>81</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tarim+Mummies%3A+Ancient+China+and+the+Mystery+of+the+Earliest+Peoples+from+the+West&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E77-%3C%2Fspan%3E81&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Mallory&rft.aufirst=J.+P.&rft.au=Mair%2C+Victor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-theobald_2011_yutian-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-theobald_2011_yutian_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheobald2011" class="citation web cs1">Theobald, Ulrich (16 October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Altera/citystates.html#yutian">"City-states Along the Silk Road"</a>. <i>ChinaKnowledge.de</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ChinaKnowledge.de&rft.atitle=City-states+Along+the+Silk+Road&rft.date=2011-10-16&rft.aulast=Theobald&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chinaknowledge.de%2FHistory%2FAltera%2Fcitystates.html%23yutian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-khotanese_texts-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-khotanese_texts_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-khotanese_texts_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.W._Bailey1979" class="citation book cs1">H.W. 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Cambridge University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04080-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-04080-8"><bdi>978-0-521-04080-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Khotanese+Texts&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1979-10-31&rft.isbn=978-0-521-04080-8&rft.au=H.W.+Bailey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DH4YMQcBlVu0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20131229154820/http://qkzz.net/magazine/1002-557X/2007/02/1821520.htm">"藏文文献中"李域"(li-yul,于阗)的不同称谓"</a>. <i>qkzz.net</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://qkzz.net/magazine/1002-557X/2007/02/1821520.htm">the original</a> on 29 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=qkzz.net&rft.atitle=%E8%97%8F%E6%96%87%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E4%B8%AD%22%E6%9D%8E%E5%9F%9F%22%28li-yul%2C%E4%BA%8E%E9%98%97%29%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%8D%E5%90%8C%E7%A7%B0%E8%B0%93&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fqkzz.net%2Fmagazine%2F1002-557X%2F2007%2F02%2F1821520.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080206203501/http://www.huaxia-ng.com/web/?action-viewnews-itemid-1058">"神秘消失的古国（十）：于阗"</a>. <i>华夏地理互动社区</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huaxia-ng.com/web/?action-viewnews-itemid-1058">the original</a> on 6 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%E5%8D%8E%E5%A4%8F%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E4%BA%92%E5%8A%A8%E7%A4%BE%E5%8C%BA&rft.atitle=%E7%A5%9E%E7%A7%98%E6%B6%88%E5%A4%B1%E7%9A%84%E5%8F%A4%E5%9B%BD%EF%BC%88%E5%8D%81%EF%BC%89%EF%BC%9A%E4%BA%8E%E9%98%97&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huaxia-ng.com%2Fweb%2F%3Faction-viewnews-itemid-1058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/notes4.html">"Section 4 – The Kingdom of Yutian 于寘 (modern Khotan or Hetian)"</a>. <i>depts.washington.edu</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=depts.washington.edu&rft.atitle=Section+4+%E2%80%93+The+Kingdom+of+Yutian+%E4%BA%8E%E5%AF%98+%28modern+Khotan+or+Hetian%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdepts.washington.edu%2Fsilkroad%2Ftexts%2Fhhshu%2Fnotes4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein" class="citation web cs1">Stein, Aurel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-11/V-1/page-hr/0043.html.en">"Memoir on Maps of Chinese Turkistan and Kansu: vol.1"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Memoir+on+Maps+of+Chinese+Turkistan+and+Kansu%3A+vol.1&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Aurel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Ftoyobunko%2FVIII-5-B2-11%2FV-1%2Fpage-hr%2F0043.html.en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1964-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukerjee1964_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMukerjee1964">Mukerjee 1964</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_Romgard2008" class="citation journal cs1">Jan Romgard (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120206060414/http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp185_silk_road.pdf">"Questions of Ancient Human Settlements in Xinjiang and the Early Silk Road Trade, with an Overview of the Silk Road Research Institutions and Scholars in Beijing, Gansu, and Xinjiang"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> (185): 40. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp185_silk_road.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 6 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Questions+of+Ancient+Human+Settlements+in+Xinjiang+and+the+Early+Silk+Road+Trade%2C+with+an+Overview+of+the+Silk+Road+Research+Institutions+and+Scholars+in+Beijing%2C+Gansu%2C+and+Xinjiang&rft.issue=185&rft.pages=40&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Jan+Romgard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp185_silk_road.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJeong_Su-il2016" class="citation book cs1">Jeong Su-il (17 July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UgOwDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT854">"Jade"</a>. <i>The Silk Road Encyclopedia</i>. Seoul Selection. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62412-076-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62412-076-3"><bdi>978-1-62412-076-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Jade&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road+Encyclopedia&rft.pub=Seoul+Selection&rft.date=2016-07-17&rft.isbn=978-1-62412-076-3&rft.au=Jeong+Su-il&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUgOwDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emmerick_263-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_263_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_263_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmerick,_R._E.1983" class="citation book cs1">Emmerick, R. E. (14 April 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA263">"Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs"</a>. In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1</i>. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Iranian+Settlement+East+of+the+Pamirs&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Vol+III%3A+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian%2C+and+Sasanian+Periods%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press%3B+Reissue+edition&rft.date=1983-04-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.au=Emmerick%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1999" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Vincent A. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8XXGhAL1WKcC&pg=PA193"><i>The Early History of India</i></a>. Atlantic Publishers. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-618-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7156-618-1"><bdi>978-81-7156-618-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+History+of+India&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Atlantic+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-7156-618-1&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Vincent+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8XXGhAL1WKcC%26pg%3DPA193&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-tremblay-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tremblay_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-tremblay_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXavier_Tremblay2007" class="citation book cs1">Xavier Tremblay (11 May 2007). Ann Heirman; Stephan Peter Bumbacher (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kr_M1e7yImoC&pg=PA100"><i>The Spread of Buddhism</i></a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15830-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15830-6"><bdi>978-90-04-15830-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spread+of+Buddhism&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2007-05-11&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15830-6&rft.au=Xavier+Tremblay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dkr_M1e7yImoC%26pg%3DPA100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-emmerick_2003_p265-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-emmerick_2003_p265_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmerick,_R._E.1983" class="citation book cs1">Emmerick, R. E. (14 April 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA265">"Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs"</a>. In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1</i>. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition. pp. <span class="nowrap">265–</span>266. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Iranian+Settlement+East+of+the+Pamirs&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Vol+III%3A+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian%2C+and+Sasanian+Periods%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E265-%3C%2Fspan%3E266&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press%3B+Reissue+edition&rft.date=1983-04-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.au=Emmerick%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPA265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Aurel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-19/V-1/page-hr/0171.html.en"><i>On Ancient Central-Asian Tracks: vol.1</i></a>. p. 91.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Ancient+Central-Asian+Tracks%3A+vol.1&rft.pages=91&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Aurel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Ftoyobunko%2FVIII-5-B2-19%2FV-1%2Fpage-hr%2F0171.html.en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitfield2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Whitfield" title="Susan Whitfield">Whitfield, Susan</a> (August 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ArWLD4Qop38C&pg=PA170"><i>The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith</i></a>. British Library. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-932476-13-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-932476-13-2"><bdi>978-1-932476-13-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+Trade%2C+Travel%2C+War+and+Faith&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=British+Library&rft.date=2004-08&rft.isbn=978-1-932476-13-2&rft.aulast=Whitfield&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DArWLD4Qop38C%26pg%3DPA170&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzanne_G.2007" class="citation web cs1">Suzanne G., Valenstein (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/cultural_convergence_in_the_northern_qi_period_a_flamboyant_chinese_ceramic_container_a_research#">"Cultural Convergence in the Northern Qi Period: A Flamboyant Chinese Ceramic Container"</a>. <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.atitle=Cultural+Convergence+in+the+Northern+Qi+Period%3A+A+Flamboyant+Chinese+Ceramic+Container&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Suzanne+G.&rft.aufirst=Valenstein&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Fart%2Fmetpublications%2Fcultural_convergence_in_the_northern_qi_period_a_flamboyant_chinese_ceramic_container_a_research%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christopoulos_2012_pp15-20-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_pp15-20_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 26, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christopoulos-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-christopoulos_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2012" class="citation journal cs1">Lucas, Christopoulos (August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp230_hellenes_romans_in_china.pdf">"Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i> (230): <span class="nowrap">9–</span>20. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=Hellenes+and+Romans+in+Ancient+China+%28240+BC+%E2%80%93+1398+AD%29&rft.issue=230&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E20&rft.date=2012-08&rft.issn=2157-9687&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Christopoulos&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp230_hellenes_romans_in_china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For another thorough assessment, see W.W. Tarn (1966), <i>The Greeks in Bactria and India</i>, reprint edition, London & New York: Cambridge University Press, pp 109-111.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMajumdar1990" class="citation book cs1">Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ecJ6wwEACAAJ"><i>The History and Culture of the Indian People: the age of imperial unity. vol. [2]</i></a>. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 641.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Culture+of+the+Indian+People%3A+the+age+of+imperial+unity.+vol.+%5B2%5D&rft.pages=641&rft.pub=Bharatiya+Vidya+Bhavan&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Majumdar&rft.aufirst=Ramesh+Chandra&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DecJ6wwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmerick,_R._E.1983" class="citation book cs1">Emmerick, R. E. (14 April 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA263">"Chapter 7: Iranian Settlement East of the Pamirs"</a>. In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 1</i>. Cambridge University Press; Reissue edition. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%3A+Iranian+Settlement+East+of+the+Pamirs&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Vol+III%3A+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian%2C+and+Sasanian+Periods%2C+Part+1&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press%3B+Reissue+edition&rft.date=1983-04-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.au=Emmerick%2C+R.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPA263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rhie, Marylin Martin (2007), <i>Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 1 Later Han, Three Kingdoms and Western Chin in China and Bactria to Shan-shan in Central Asia</i>, Leiden: Brill. p. 254.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Xavier Tremblay, "The Spread of Buddhism in Serindia: Buddhism Among Iranians, Tocharians and Turks before the 13th Century," in <i>The Spread of Buddhism</i>, eds Ann Heirman and Stephan Peter Bumbacker, Leiden: Koninklijke Brill, 2007, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GNISsampul-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GNISsampul_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/detaillinksearch.asp?G_NAME=32FA8856C24F3774E0440003BA962ED3&Diacritics=DC">Sampul (Approved - N)</a> at <a href="/wiki/GEOnet_Names_Server" title="GEOnet Names Server">GEOnet Names Server</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency" title="National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency">United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GNISsampul2-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GNISsampul2_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geonames.nga.mil/namesgaz/detaillinksearch.asp?G_NAME=4079295DABFA2317E0440003BA962ED3&Diacritics=DC">سامپۇل (Variant Non-Roman Script - VS)</a> at <a href="/wiki/GEOnet_Names_Server" title="GEOnet Names Server">GEOnet Names Server</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Geospatial-Intelligence_Agency" title="National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency">United States National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumer2012" class="citation book cs1">Baumer, Christoph (30 November 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yglkwD7pKV8C&pg=PA219"><i>The History of Central Asia: The Age of the Steppe Warriors</i></a>. I.B.Tauris. p. 219. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-060-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-060-5"><bdi>978-1-78076-060-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Central+Asia%3A+The+Age+of+the+Steppe+Warriors&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2012-11-30&rft.isbn=978-1-78076-060-5&rft.aulast=Baumer&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyglkwD7pKV8C%26pg%3DPA219&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_E._Emmerick2013" class="citation book cs1">Ronald E. Emmerick (13 May 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QtpQZ1DD6tEC&pg=PA377">"Khotanese and Tumshuqese"</a>. In Gernot Windfuhr (ed.). <i>Iranian Languages</i>. Routledge. p. 377. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79704-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-79704-1"><bdi>978-1-135-79704-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khotanese+and+Tumshuqese&rft.btitle=Iranian+Languages&rft.pages=377&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-05-13&rft.isbn=978-1-135-79704-1&rft.au=Ronald+E.+Emmerick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQtpQZ1DD6tEC%26pg%3DPA377&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFC._Debaine-FrancfortA._Idriss2001" class="citation book cs1">C. Debaine-Francfort; A. Idriss (2001). <i>Keriya, mémoires d'un fleuve. Archéologie et civilations des oasis du Taklamakan</i>. Electricite de France. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-86805-094-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-86805-094-6"><bdi>978-2-86805-094-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keriya%2C+m%C3%A9moires+d%27un+fleuve.+Arch%C3%A9ologie+et+civilations+des+oasis+du+Taklamakan&rft.pub=Electricite+de+France&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-86805-094-6&rft.au=C.+Debaine-Francfort&rft.au=A.+Idriss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ._P._mallory" class="citation web cs1">J. P. mallory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160909231531/http://www.penn.museum/documents/publications/expedition/PDFs/52-3/mallory.pdf">"Bronze Age Languages of the Tarim Basin"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Penn Museum</i>. Archived from the original on 9 September 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Penn+Museum&rft.atitle=Bronze+Age+Languages+of+the+Tarim+Basin&rft.au=J.+P.+mallory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.penn.museum%2Fdocuments%2Fpublications%2Fexpedition%2FPDFs%2F52-3%2Fmallory.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_bot:_original_URL_status_unknown" title="Category:CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang_Guang-da1999" class="citation book cs1">Zhang Guang-da (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FcKtIPVQ6REC&pg=PA283"><i>History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume III: The crossroads of civilizations: AD 250 to 750</i></a>. UNESCO. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1540-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1540-7"><bdi>978-81-208-1540-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia+Volume+III%3A+The+crossroads+of+civilizations%3A+AD+250+to+750&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1540-7&rft.au=Zhang+Guang-da&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFcKtIPVQ6REC%26pg%3DPA283&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yu_2010_p13-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-yu_2010_p13_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yu Taishan (June 2010), "The Earliest Tocharians in China" in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMallory,_J._P.Mair,_Victor_H.2000" class="citation book cs1">Mallory, J. P. & Mair, Victor H. (2000). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall"><i>The Tarim Mummies: Ancient China and the Mystery of the Earliest Peoples from the West</i></a></span>. Thames & Hudson. London. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tarimmummiesanci00mall/page/n59">58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05101-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05101-6"><bdi>978-0-500-05101-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tarim+Mummies%3A+Ancient+China+and+the+Mystery+of+the+Earliest+Peoples+from+the+West&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson.+London&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05101-6&rft.au=Mallory%2C+J.+P.&rft.au=Mair%2C+Victor+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftarimmummiesanci00mall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Torday, Laszlo. (1997). <i>Mounted Archers: The Beginnings of Central Asian History</i>. Durham: The Durham Academic Press, pp 80-81, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-900838-03-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-900838-03-0">978-1-900838-03-0</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yü, Ying-shih. (1986). "Han Foreign Relations," in <i>The Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220</i>, 377-462. Edited by Denis Twitchett and Michael Loewe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp 377-388, 391, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24327-8">978-0-521-24327-8</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chang, Chun-shu. (2007). The Rise of the Chinese Empire: Volume II; Frontier, Immigration, & Empire in Han China, 130 B.C. – A.D. 157. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp 5-8 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11534-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11534-1">978-0-472-11534-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Di Cosmo, Nicola. (2002). <i>Ancient China and Its Enemies: The Rise of Nomadic Power in East Asian History</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 174-189, 196-198, 241-242 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77064-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-77064-4">978-0-521-77064-4</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYu_Taishan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Yu Taishan (June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp204_tocharian_china.pdf">"The Earliest Tocharians in China"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>: <span class="nowrap">21–</span>22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sino-Platonic+Papers&rft.atitle=The+Earliest+Tocharians+in+China&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E21-%3C%2Fspan%3E22&rft.date=2010-06&rft.au=Yu+Taishan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsino-platonic.org%2Fcomplete%2Fspp204_tocharian_china.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-enoki_1998_396-397-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-enoki_1998_396-397_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kazuo Enoki (1998), "The So-called Sino-Kharoshthi Coins," in Rokuro Kono (ed.), <i>Studia Asiatica: The Collected Papers in Western Languages of the Late Dr. Kazuo Enoki</i>, Tokyo: Kyu-Shoin, pp. 396–97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bailey_1996_pp1231-1235-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bailey_1996_pp1231-1235_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey,_H.W.1996" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, H.W. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7IHmyKcPtYC&pg=PA1231">"Khotanese Saka Literature"</a>. In Ehsan Yarshater (ed.). <i>The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol III: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian Periods, Part 2</i> (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">1231–</span>1235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24693-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24693-4"><bdi>978-0-521-24693-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khotanese+Saka+Literature&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran%2C+Vol+III%3A+The+Seleucid%2C+Parthian%2C+and+Sasanian+Periods%2C+Part+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1231-%3C%2Fspan%3E1235&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24693-4&rft.au=Bailey%2C+H.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy7IHmyKcPtYC%26pg%3DPA1231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2005" class="citation journal cs1">Hansen, Valerie (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/VH%20BAI%20paper%2009.pdf">"The Tribute Trade with Khotan in Light of Materials Found at the Dunhuang Library Cave"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Bulletin of the Asia Institute</i>. <b>19</b>: <span class="nowrap">37–</span>46.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+Asia+Institute&rft.atitle=The+Tribute+Trade+with+Khotan+in+Light+of+Materials+Found+at+the+Dunhuang+Library+Cave&rft.volume=19&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E37-%3C%2Fspan%3E46&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistory.yale.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Ffiles%2FVH%2520BAI%2520paper%252009.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mentioned by the 8th-century Tibetan Buddhist history, <i>The Prophecy of the Li Country</i>. Emmerick, R. E. 1967. <i>Tibetan Texts Concerning Khotan</i>. Oxford University Press, London, p. 47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHulsewé1979" class="citation book cs1">Hulsewé, A F P (1979). <i>China in central Asia : the early stage, 125 B.C.-A.D. 23: an annotated translation of chapters 61 and 96 of The history of the former Han dynasty</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05884-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-05884-2"><bdi>978-90-04-05884-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+in+central+Asia+%3A+the+early+stage%2C+125+B.C.-A.D.+23%3A+an+annotated+translation+of+chapters+61+and+96+of+The+history+of+the+former+Han+dynasty&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=978-90-04-05884-2&rft.aulast=Hulsew%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=A+F+P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHill200917-19_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHill2009">Hill 2009</a>, p. 17-19.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 22, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRafe_de_Crespigny2014" class="citation book cs1">Rafe de Crespigny (14 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=49OvCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>A Biographical Dictionary of Later Han to the Three Kingdoms (23-220 AD)</i></a>. Brill Academic Publishers. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-1184-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-1184-0"><bdi>978-90-474-1184-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Biographical+Dictionary+of+Later+Han+to+the+Three+Kingdoms+%2823-220+AD%29&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2014-05-14&rft.isbn=978-90-474-1184-0&rft.au=Rafe+de+Crespigny&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D49OvCQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2009" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (16 March 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-Ue8BxLEMt4C&pg=PA130"><i>Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2994-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2994-1"><bdi>978-1-4008-2994-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Empires+of+the+Silk+Road%3A+A+History+of+Central+Eurasia+from+the+Bronze+Age+to+the+Present&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009-03-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-2994-1&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-Ue8BxLEMt4C%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith1993" class="citation book cs1">Beckwith, Christopher I. (28 March 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7G61UifCEZMC&pg=PA34"><i>The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia: A History of the Struggle for Great Power Among Tibetans, Turks, Arabs and Chinese During the Early Middle Ages</i></a>. Princeton University Press. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02469-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-02469-1"><bdi>978-0-691-02469-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tibetan+Empire+in+Central+Asia%3A+A+History+of+the+Struggle+for+Great+Power+Among+Tibetans%2C+Turks%2C+Arabs+and+Chinese+During+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=34&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1993-03-28&rft.isbn=978-0-691-02469-1&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Christopher+I.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7G61UifCEZMC%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Millward2007-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Millward2007_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millward2007_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Millward2007_55-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_A._Millward2007" class="citation book cs1">James A. Millward (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8FVsWq31MtMC&pg=PA55"><i>Eurasian Crossroads: A History of Xinjiang</i></a>. Columbia University Press. pp. 55–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13924-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-13924-3"><bdi>978-0-231-13924-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eurasian+Crossroads%3A+A+History+of+Xinjiang&rft.pages=55-&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13924-3&rft.au=James+A.+Millward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8FVsWq31MtMC%26pg%3DPA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1993171-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith1993171_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeckwith1993">Beckwith 1993</a>, p. 171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXin_Wen2023" class="citation book cs1">Xin Wen (2023). <i>The King's Road: Diplomacy and the Remaking of the Silk Road</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. 35, <span class="nowrap">254–</span>255. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691237831" title="Special:BookSources/9780691237831"><bdi>9780691237831</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+King%27s+Road%3A+Diplomacy+and+the+Remaking+of+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=35%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E254-%3C%2Fspan%3E255&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=9780691237831&rft.au=Xin+Wen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERussell-Smith200523,_65_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRussell-Smith2005">Russell-Smith 2005</a>, p. 23, 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERong2013327-8_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRong2013">Rong 2013</a>, p. 327-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValerie_Hansen2012" class="citation book cs1">Valerie Hansen (17 July 2012). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318"><i>The Silk Road: A New History</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/226">226</a>–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3"><bdi>978-0-19-993921-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=226-&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-07-17&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993921-3&rft.au=Valerie+Hansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195159318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MichellGollings2008-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MichellGollings2008_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_MichellJohn_GollingsMarika_ViczianyYen_Hu_Tsui2008" class="citation book cs1">George Michell; John Gollings; Marika Vicziany; Yen Hu Tsui (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hMJC0JSfBkEC&pg=PA13"><i>Kashgar: Oasis City on China's Old Silk Road</i></a>. Frances Lincoln. pp. 13–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2913-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7112-2913-6"><bdi>978-0-7112-2913-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kashgar%3A+Oasis+City+on+China%27s+Old+Silk+Road&rft.pages=13-&rft.pub=Frances+Lincoln&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7112-2913-6&rft.au=George+Michell&rft.au=John+Gollings&rft.au=Marika+Vicziany&rft.au=Yen+Hu+Tsui&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhMJC0JSfBkEC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-RingSalkin1994-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-RingSalkin1994_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrudy_RingRobert_M._SalkinSharon_La_Boda1994" class="citation book cs1">Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC&pg=PA457"><i>International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. pp. 457–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884964-04-6"><bdi>978-1-884964-04-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Dictionary+of+Historic+Places%3A+Asia+and+Oceania&rft.pages=457-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-1-884964-04-6&rft.au=Trudy+Ring&rft.au=Robert+M.+Salkin&rft.au=Sharon+La+Boda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWLRxJEU49EC%26pg%3DPA457&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFE._Yarshater1983" class="citation book cs1">E. Yarshater, ed. (14 April 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA271">"Chapter 7, The Iranian Settlements to the East of the Pamirs"</a>. <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 271. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+7%2C+The+Iranian+Settlements+to+the+East+of+the+Pamirs&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=271&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983-04-14&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPA271&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThum2012" class="citation journal cs1">Thum, Rian (6 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1558522">"Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism"</a>. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>71</b> (3). The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2012: 632. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911812000629">10.1017/S0021911812000629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162917965">162917965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Modular+History%3A+Identity+Maintenance+before+Uyghur+Nationalism&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=632&rft.date=2012-08-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911812000629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162917965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thum&rft.aufirst=Rian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1558522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThum2012" class="citation journal cs1">Thum, Rian (6 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1558522">"Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism"</a>. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>71</b> (3). The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2012: 633. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911812000629">10.1017/S0021911812000629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162917965">162917965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Modular+History%3A+Identity+Maintenance+before+Uyghur+Nationalism&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=633&rft.date=2012-08-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911812000629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162917965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thum&rft.aufirst=Rian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1558522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThum2012" class="citation journal cs1">Thum, Rian (6 August 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1558522">"Modular History: Identity Maintenance before Uyghur Nationalism"</a>. <i>The Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>71</b> (3). The Association for Asian Studies, Inc. 2012: 634. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0021911812000629">10.1017/S0021911812000629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162917965">162917965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Modular+History%3A+Identity+Maintenance+before+Uyghur+Nationalism&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=634&rft.date=2012-08-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0021911812000629&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162917965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Thum&rft.aufirst=Rian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1558522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthew_Tom_KapsteinBrandon_Dotson2007" class="citation book cs1">Matthew Tom Kapstein; Brandon Dotson, eds. (20 July 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fIpwbzRUylkC&pg=PA96"><i>Contributions to the Cultural History of Early Tibet</i></a>. Brill. p. 96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16064-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16064-4"><bdi>978-90-04-16064-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contributions+to+the+Cultural+History+of+Early+Tibet&rft.pages=96&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007-07-20&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16064-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfIpwbzRUylkC%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hansen2012-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen2012_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hansen2012_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValerie_Hansen2012" class="citation book cs1">Valerie Hansen (17 July 2012). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318"><i>The Silk Road: A New History</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195159318/page/227">227</a>–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993921-3"><bdi>978-0-19-993921-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+A+New+History&rft.pages=227-228&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-07-17&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993921-3&rft.au=Valerie+Hansen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780195159318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moriyasu2004-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moriyasu2004_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTakao_Moriyasu2004" class="citation book cs1">Takao Moriyasu (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_uOrQKcnMkAC&pg=PA207"><i>Die Geschichte des uigurischen Manichäismus an der Seidenstrasse: Forschungen zu manichäischen Quellen und ihrem geschichtlichen Hintergrund</i></a>. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05068-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-447-05068-5"><bdi>978-3-447-05068-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+Geschichte+des+uigurischen+Manich%C3%A4ismus+an+der+Seidenstrasse%3A+Forschungen+zu+manich%C3%A4ischen+Quellen+und+ihrem+geschichtlichen+Hintergrund&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-3-447-05068-5&rft.au=Takao+Moriyasu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_uOrQKcnMkAC%26pg%3DPA207&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span>, p 207</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Institute1980-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Institute1980_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarvard_Ukrainian_Research_Institute1980" class="citation book cs1">Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KTYMAQAAMAAJ"><i>Harvard Ukrainian studies</i></a>. Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harvard+Ukrainian+studies&rft.pub=Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft.date=1980&rft.au=Harvard+Ukrainian+Research+Institute&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKTYMAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 160</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elverskog2011-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Elverskog2011_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohan_Elverskog2011" class="citation book cs1">Johan Elverskog (6 June 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N7_4Gr9Q438C&pg=PA95"><i>Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road</i></a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0531-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-0531-2"><bdi>978-0-8122-0531-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+and+Islam+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2011-06-06&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-0531-2&rft.au=Johan+Elverskog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN7_4Gr9Q438C%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AkasoyBurnett2011-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AkasoyBurnett2011_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnna_AkasoyCharles_S._F._BurnettRonit_Yoeli-Tlalim2011" class="citation book cs1">Anna Akasoy; Charles S. F. Burnett; Ronit Yoeli-Tlalim (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZfWXIfbynwYC&pg=PA295"><i>Islam and Tibet: Interactions Along the Musk Routes</i></a>. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. pp. 295–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6956-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6956-2"><bdi>978-0-7546-6956-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Tibet%3A+Interactions+Along+the+Musk+Routes&rft.pages=295-&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd.&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6956-2&rft.au=Anna+Akasoy&rft.au=Charles+S.+F.+Burnett&rft.au=Ronit+Yoeli-Tlalim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZfWXIfbynwYC%26pg%3DPA295&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dankoff2008-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dankoff2008_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDankoff2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Dankoff" title="Robert Dankoff">Dankoff, Robert</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KaYZAQAAIAAJ"><i>From Mahmud Kaşgari to Evliya Çelebi</i></a>. Isis Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-428-366-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-428-366-2"><bdi>978-975-428-366-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Mahmud+Ka%C5%9Fgari+to+Evliya+%C3%87elebi&rft.pub=Isis+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-975-428-366-2&rft.aulast=Dankoff&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKaYZAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span>, p. 35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/17_781-2049-1-PB.pdf">http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/17_781-2049-1-PB.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200519050601/http://journals.manas.edu.kg/mjtc/oldarchives/2004/17_781-2049-1-PB.pdf">Archived</a> 19 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Bare_URLs" title="Wikipedia:Bare URLs"><span title="A full citation of this PDF document is required to prevent link rot. (March 2022)">bare URL PDF</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeviSela2010-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeviSela2010_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott_Cameron_LeviRon_Sela2010" class="citation book cs1">Scott Cameron Levi; Ron Sela (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SAX5ohFkcVgC&pg=PA72"><i>Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources</i></a>. Indiana University Press. pp. 72–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35385-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-35385-6"><bdi>978-0-253-35385-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Central+Asia%3A+An+Anthology+of+Historical+Sources&rft.pages=72-&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-253-35385-6&rft.au=Scott+Cameron+Levi&rft.au=Ron+Sela&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSAX5ohFkcVgC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Akiner2013-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Akiner2013_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkiner2013" class="citation book cs1">Akiner (28 October 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=udjWAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71"><i>Cultural Change & Continuity In</i></a>. Routledge. pp. 71–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15034-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-15034-0"><bdi>978-1-136-15034-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Change+%26+Continuity+In&rft.pages=71-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-10-28&rft.isbn=978-1-136-15034-0&rft.au=Akiner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DudjWAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJ.M._Dent1908" class="citation cs2">J.M. 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University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroadtwothous0000wood/page/18">18</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24340-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24340-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24340-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+two+thousand+years+in+the+heart+of+Asia&rft.pages=18&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24340-8&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsilkroadtwothous0000wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bihar-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bihar_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1974" class="citation book cs1">Sinha, Bindeshwari Prasad (1974). <i>Comprehensive history of Bihar</i>. 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Reiyukai Library.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+guide+to+the+literature+of+Khotan&rft.pub=Reiyukai+Library&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Emmerick&rft.aufirst=R+E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span>, p.4-5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill (2009), p. 17.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. <i>A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline</i>. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965, pp. 16-20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill (1988), p. 184.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hill (1988), p. 185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stein, Aurel M. 1907. <i>Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan</i>, 2 vols., p. 180. Clarendon Press. Oxford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stein, Aurel M. 1907. <i>Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan</i>, 2 vols., p. 183. Clarendon Press. Oxford. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/III-2-F-c-104/V-1/page/0435.html.en">"Notes on Marco Polo: Vol.1 / Page 435 (Color Image)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Notes+on+Marco+Polo%3A+Vol.1+%2F+Page+435+%28Color+Image%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdsr.nii.ac.jp%2Ftoyobunko%2FIII-2-F-c-104%2FV-1%2Fpage%2F0435.html.en&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ehsan Yar-Shater, William Bayne Fisher, <i>The Cambridge history of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian and Sasanian periods.</i> Cambridge University Press, 1983, page 963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaij_Nath_Puri1987" class="citation book cs1">Baij Nath Puri (December 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sluKZfTrr3oC&pg=PA53"><i>Buddhism in Central Asia</i></a>. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0372-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-0372-5"><bdi>978-81-208-0372-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1987-12&rft.isbn=978-81-208-0372-5&rft.au=Baij+Nath+Puri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsluKZfTrr3oC%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ma_yong-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ma_yong_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ma_yong_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa_YongSun_Yutang1999" class="citation book cs1">Ma Yong; Sun Yutang (1999). 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Motilal Banarsidass Publ. pp. <span class="nowrap">237–</span>238. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1408-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1408-0"><bdi>978-81-208-1408-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Civilizations+of+Central+Asia%3A+The+Development+of+Sedentary+and+Nomadic+Civilisations%3A+Vol+2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E237-%3C%2Fspan%3E238&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass+Publ.&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1408-0&rft.au=Ma+Yong&rft.au=Sun+Yutang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDguGWP0vGY8C%26pg%3DPA238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2002" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Frances (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroadtwothous0000wood"><i>The Silk Road: two thousand years in the heart of Asia</i></a></span>. London. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroadtwothous0000wood/page/95">95</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road%3A+two+thousand+years+in+the+heart+of+Asia&rft.place=London&rft.pages=95&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsilkroadtwothous0000wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBuswellLopez2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Buswell_Jr." title="Robert Buswell Jr.">Buswell, Robert Jr</a>; <a href="/wiki/Donald_S._Lopez,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Donald S. 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Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 433. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15786-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-15786-3"><bdi>978-0-691-15786-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%22Khotan%22%2C+in+Princeton+Dictionary+of+Buddhism.&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pages=433&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-691-15786-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silk-road.com/artl/fahsien.shtml">"Travels of Fa-Hsien -- Buddhist Pilgrim of Fifth Century By Irma Marx"</a>. 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In Central Asia and Chinese Turkestan"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>. Vol. V. pp. <span class="nowrap">330–</span>34<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Odyssey. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroad00luce/page/179">179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silk+Road%3A+Monks%2C+Warriors+and+Merchants+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Odyssey&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Boulnois&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsilkroad00luce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoulnois2004" class="citation book cs1">Boulnois, L (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroad00luce"><i>Silk Road: Monks, Warriors and Merchants on the Silk Road</i></a></span>. Odyssey. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroad00luce/page/179">179</a>–184.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silk+Road%3A+Monks%2C+Warriors+and+Merchants+on+the+Silk+Road&rft.pages=179-184&rft.pub=Odyssey&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Boulnois&rft.aufirst=L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsilkroad00luce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Life_Along_the_Silk_Roads-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Life_Along_the_Silk_Roads_104-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhitfield1999" class="citation book cs1">Whitfield, Susan (1999). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifealongsilkroa00whit"><i>Life Along the Silk Road</i></a></span>. London. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifealongsilkroa00whit/page/24">24</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22472-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22472-8"><bdi>978-0-520-22472-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life+Along+the+Silk+Road&rft.place=London&rft.pages=24&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22472-8&rft.aulast=Whitfield&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifealongsilkroa00whit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Silk_Road_Folio-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-The_Silk_Road_Folio_105-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-The_Silk_Road_Folio_105-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2002" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Frances (2002). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroadtwothous0000wood"><i>The Silk Road Folio</i></a></span>. London. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/silkroadtwothous0000wood/page/151">151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Silk+Road+Folio&rft.place=London&rft.pages=151&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsilkroadtwothous0000wood&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiu2001a" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Xinru_Liu" title="Xinru Liu">Liu, Xinru</a> (2001a). 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Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-christopoulos_2012_footnote46-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-christopoulos_2012_footnote46_114-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livius_roxane-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-livius_roxane_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Livius.org. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/articles/person/roxane/">Roxane</a>." <i>Articles on Ancient History</i>. Page last modified 17 August 2015. Retrieved on 8 September 2016.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-strachan_2008_p87-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-strachan_2008_p87_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strachan, Edward and Roy Bolton (2008), <i>Russia and Europe in the Nineteenth Century</i>, London: Sphinx Fine Art, p. 87, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-907200-02-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-907200-02-1">978-1-907200-02-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For another publication calling her "Sogdian", see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 4, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Holt, Frank L. (1989), <i>Alexander the Great and Bactria: the Formation of a Greek Frontier in Central Asia</i>, Leiden, New York, Copenhagen, Cologne: E. J. Brill, pp 67–8, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-08612-9" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-08612-9">90-04-08612-9</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ahmed, S. Z. (2004), <i>Chaghatai: the Fabulous Cities and People of the Silk Road</i>, West Conshokoken: Infinity Publishing, p. 61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Magill, Frank N. et al. (1998), <i>The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1</i>, Pasadena, Chicago, London,: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, Salem Press, p. 1010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89356-313-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-89356-313-7">0-89356-313-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lucas Christopoulos writes the following: "<i>The kings (or soldiers) of the Sampul cemetery came from various origins, composing as they did a homogeneous army made of Hellenized Persians, western Scythians, or Sacae Iranians from their mother's side, just as were most of the second generation of Greeks colonists living in the Seleucid Empire. Most of the soldiers of Alexander the Great who stayed in Persia, India and central Asia had married local women, thus their leading generals were mostly Greeks from their father's side or had Greco-Macedonian grandfathers. Antiochos had a Persian mother, and all the later Indo-Greeks or Greco-Bactrians were revered in the population as locals, as they used both Greek and Bactrian scripts on their coins and worshipped the local gods. The DNA testing of the Sampul cemetery shows that the occupants had paternal origins in the eastern part of the Mediterranean</i>"; see Christopoulos, Lucas (August 2012), "Hellenes and Romans in Ancient China (240 BC – 1398 AD)," in Victor H. Mair (ed), <i>Sino-Platonic Papers</i>, No. 230, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, University of Pennsylvania Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations, p. 27 & footnote #46, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:2157-9687">2157-9687</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-doi.org-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_122-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_122-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKumarWangJieWang2022" class="citation journal cs1">Kumar, Vikas; Wang, Wenjun; Jie, Zhang; Wang, Yongqiang; Ruan, Qiurong; Yu, Jianjun; Wu, Xiaohong; Hu, Xingjun; Wu, Xinhua; Guo, Wu; Wang, Bo; Niyazi, Alipujiang; Lv, Enguo; Tang, Zihua; Cao, Peng; Liu, Feng; Dai, Qingyan; Yang, Ruowei; Feng, Xiaotian; Ping, Wanjing; Zhang, Lizhao; Zhang, Ming; Hou, Weihong; Yichen, Liu; E. Andrew, Bennett (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abk1534">"Bronze and Iron Age population movements underlie Xinjiang population history"</a>. <i>Science</i>. <b>376</b> (6588): <span class="nowrap">62–</span>69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abm4247">10.1126/science.abm4247</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12684%2F12345">20.500.12684/12345</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35357918">35357918</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Bronze+and+Iron+Age+population+movements+underlie+Xinjiang+population+history&rft.volume=376&rft.issue=6588&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E62-%3C%2Fspan%3E69&rft.date=2022&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.12684%2F12345&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35357918&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abm4247&rft.aulast=Kumar&rft.aufirst=Vikas&rft.au=Wang%2C+Wenjun&rft.au=Jie%2C+Zhang&rft.au=Wang%2C+Yongqiang&rft.au=Ruan%2C+Qiurong&rft.au=Yu%2C+Jianjun&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xiaohong&rft.au=Hu%2C+Xingjun&rft.au=Wu%2C+Xinhua&rft.au=Guo%2C+Wu&rft.au=Wang%2C+Bo&rft.au=Niyazi%2C+Alipujiang&rft.au=Lv%2C+Enguo&rft.au=Tang%2C+Zihua&rft.au=Cao%2C+Peng&rft.au=Liu%2C+Feng&rft.au=Dai%2C+Qingyan&rft.au=Yang%2C+Ruowei&rft.au=Feng%2C+Xiaotian&rft.au=Ping%2C+Wanjing&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Lizhao&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Ming&rft.au=Hou%2C+Weihong&rft.au=Yichen%2C+Liu&rft.au=E.+Andrew%2C+Bennett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1126%2Fscience.abk1534&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholson2018" class="citation book cs1">Nicholson, Oliver (19 April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=A09WDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA863"><i>The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 863. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256246-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-256246-3"><bdi>978-0-19-256246-3</bdi></a>. <q>Khotanese language and literature" entry: "<b>...the Saka kingdom of Khotan...</b>"</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.pages=863&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018-04-19&rft.isbn=978-0-19-256246-3&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DA09WDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherYarshater1968" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, William Bayne; Yarshater, Ehsan (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko_RafMSGLkC&pg=PA614"><i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 614. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-20092-9"><bdi>978-0-521-20092-9</bdi></a>. <q>One branch of <b>the Sakas who founded a kingdom in Khotan</b> (in the Tarim Basin) were zealous Buddhist....</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pages=614&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-521-20092-9&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=William+Bayne&rft.au=Yarshater%2C+Ehsan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKo_RafMSGLkC%26pg%3DPA614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDickens2018363-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDickens2018363_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDickens2018">Dickens 2018</a>, p. 363.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaggi2021-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaggi2021_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaggi2021">Maggi 2021</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEmmerickMacuch2008330-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEmmerickMacuch2008330_127-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEmmerickMacuch2008">Emmerick & Macuch 2008</a>, p. 330.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECompareti2015199-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECompareti2015199_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCompareti2015">Compareti 2015</a>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENicolini-Zani202226_(note_94)-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENicolini-Zani202226_(note_94)_129-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNicolini-Zani2022">Nicolini-Zani 2022</a>, p. 26 (note 94).</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web-references">Web-references</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Web-references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120301201003/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xsk">"The Sakan Language"</a>. The Linguist. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=xsk">the original</a> on 1 March 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 August</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Sakan+Language&rft.pub=The+Linguist&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistlist.org%2Fforms%2Flangs%2FLLDescription.cfm%3Fcode%3Dxsk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927032739/http://www.silk-road.com/newsletter/vol2num2/oasis.html">"Archaeological GIS and Oasis Geography in the Tarim Basin"</a>. The Silk Road Foundation Newsletter. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.silk-road.com/newsletter/vol2num2/oasis.html">the original</a> on 27 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archaeological+GIS+and+Oasis+Geography+in+the+Tarim+Basin&rft.pub=The+Silk+Road+Foundation+Newsletter&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.silk-road.com%2Fnewsletter%2Fvol2num2%2Foasis.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BuddhismKhotan-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BuddhismKhotan_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BuddhismKhotan_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080508035836/http://idp.bl.uk/education/buddhism/khotanese/khotanese.html">"The Buddhism of Khotan"</a>. <i>idp.bl.uk</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://idp.bl.uk/education/buddhism/khotanese/khotanese.html">the original</a> on 8 May 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 July</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=idp.bl.uk&rft.atitle=The+Buddhism+of+Khotan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fidp.bl.uk%2Feducation%2Fbuddhism%2Fkhotanese%2Fkhotanese.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><i>Histoire de la ville de Khotan: tirée des annales de la chine et traduite du chinois; Suivie de Recherches sur la substance minérale appelée par les Chinois PIERRE DE IU, et sur le Jaspe des anciens</i>. Abel Rémusat. Paris. L'imprimerie de doublet. 1820. Downloadable from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://archive.org/details/HistoireDeLaVilleDeKhotanTireeDesAnnalesDeLaChineEtTraduiteDu">[3]</a></li> <li>Bailey, H. W. (1961). <i>Indo-Scythian Studies being Khotanese Texts. Volume IV</i>. Translated and edited by H. W. Bailey. Indo-Scythian Studies, Cambridge, The University Press. 1961.</li> <li>Bailey, H. W. (1979). <i>Dictionary of Khotan Saka</i>. Cambridge University Press. 1979. 1st Paperback edition 2010. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14250-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-14250-2">978-0-521-14250-2</a>.</li> <li>Beal, Samuel. 1884. <i>Si-Yu-Ki: Buddhist Records of the Western World, by Hiuen Tsiang.</i> 2 vols. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. Reprint: Delhi. Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1969.</li> <li>Beal, Samuel. 1911. <i>The Life of Hiuen-Tsiang by the Shaman Hwui Li, with an Introduction containing an account of the Works of I-Tsing</i>. Trans. by Samuel Beal. London. 1911. Reprint: Munshiram Manoharlal, New Delhi. 1973.</li> <li>Emmerick, R. E. 1967. <i>Tibetan Texts Concerning Khotan</i>. Oxford University Press, London.</li> <li>Emmerick, R. E. 1979. <i>Guide to the Literature of Khotan</i>. Reiyukai Library, Tokyo.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmmerickMacuch2008" class="citation book cs1">Emmerick, Ronald E.; Macuch, Maria (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f0XnDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Literature of Pre-Islamic Iran: Companion Volume I</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-356-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85772-356-7"><bdi>978-0-85772-356-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Literature+of+Pre-Islamic+Iran%3A+Companion+Volume+I&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-85772-356-7&rft.aulast=Emmerick&rft.aufirst=Ronald+E.&rft.au=Macuch%2C+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Df0XnDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCompareti2015" class="citation book cs1">Compareti, Matteo (2015). "Armenian Pre-Christian Divinities: Some Evidence from the History of Art and Archaeological Investigation". In Asatrian, Garnik (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/32184?contents=toc-50344"><i>Studies on Iran and The Caucasus</i></a>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">193–</span>205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30206-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-30206-8"><bdi>978-90-04-30206-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Armenian+Pre-Christian+Divinities%3A+Some+Evidence+from+the+History+of+Art+and+Archaeological+Investigation&rft.btitle=Studies+on+Iran+and+The+Caucasus&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E193-%3C%2Fspan%3E205&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-90-04-30206-8&rft.aulast=Compareti&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fedcollbook%2Ftitle%2F32184%3Fcontents%3Dtoc-50344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDickens2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Dickens, Mark (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-5744">"Khotanese language and literature"</a>. In Nicholson, Oliver (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/The_Oxford_Dictionary_of_Late_Antiquity" title="The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity">The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</a></i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 863. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8"><bdi>978-0-19-866277-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khotanese+language+and+literature&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=863&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866277-8&rft.aulast=Dickens&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-5744&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Grousset, Rene. 1970. <i>The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia</i>. Trans. by Naomi Walford. New Brunswick, New Jersey. Rutgers University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1304-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-1304-9">0-8135-1304-9</a></li> <li>Hill, John E. July, 1988. "Notes on the Dating of Khotanese History." <i>Indo-Iranian Journal</i>, Vol. 31, No. 3. See: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00163016">[4]</a> for paid copy of original version. Updated version of this article is available for free download (with registration) at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://independent.academia.edu/JHill/Papers/439945/Notes_on_the_Dating_of_Khotanese_History">[5]</a></li> <li>Hill, John E. 2004. <i>The Peoples of the West from the Weilüe</i> 魏略 <i>by Yu Huan</i> 魚豢<i>: A Third Century Chinese Account Composed between 239 and 265 CE.</i> Draft annotated English translation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150907144621/http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/weilue/weilue.html">[6]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2009" class="citation cs2">Hill, John E. (2009), <i>Through the Jade Gate to Rome: A Study of the Silk Routes during the Later Han Dynasty, 1st to 2nd Centuries CE</i>, Charleston, South Carolina: BookSurge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4392-2134-1"><bdi>978-1-4392-2134-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Through+the+Jade+Gate+to+Rome%3A+A+Study+of+the+Silk+Routes+during+the+Later+Han+Dynasty%2C+1st+to+2nd+Centuries+CE&rft.place=Charleston%2C+South+Carolina&rft.pub=BookSurge&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4392-2134-1&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Legge, James. Trans. and ed. 1886. <i>A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms: being an account by the Chinese monk Fâ-hsien of his travels in India and Ceylon (A.D. 399-414) in search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline</i>. Reprint: Dover Publications, New York. 1965.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaggi2021" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Maggi, Mauro (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-iranica-online/khotan-COM_365009#COM-365019">"Khotan v. Khotanese Literature"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ehsan_Yarshater" title="Ehsan Yarshater">Yarshater, Ehsan</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/"><i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i></a> (Online ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Khotan+v.+Khotanese+Literature&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica+Foundation&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Maggi&rft.aufirst=Mauro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freferenceworks.brillonline.com%2Fentries%2Fencyclopaedia-iranica-online%2Fkhotan-COM_365009%23COM-365019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukerjee1964" class="citation cs2">Mukerjee, Radhakamal (1964), <i>The flowering of Indian art: the growth and spread of a civilization</i>, Asia Pub. House</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+flowering+of+Indian+art%3A+the+growth+and+spread+of+a+civilization&rft.pub=Asia+Pub.+House&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Mukerjee&rft.aufirst=Radhakamal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicolini-Zani2022" class="citation book cs1">Nicolini-Zani, Matteo (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pU9gEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Luminous Way to the East: Texts and History of the First Encounter of Christianity with China</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0197609644" title="Special:BookSources/978-0197609644"><bdi>978-0197609644</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Luminous+Way+to+the+East%3A+Texts+and+History+of+the+First+Encounter+of+Christianity+with+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0197609644&rft.aulast=Nicolini-Zani&rft.aufirst=Matteo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpU9gEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRong2013" class="citation cs2">Rong, Xinjiang (2013), <i>Eighteen Lectures on Dunhuang</i>, Brill, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004252332">10.1163/9789004252332</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004250420" title="Special:BookSources/9789004250420"><bdi>9789004250420</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eighteen+Lectures+on+Dunhuang&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004252332&rft.isbn=9789004250420&rft.aulast=Rong&rft.aufirst=Xinjiang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell-Smith2005" class="citation cs2">Russell-Smith, Lilla (2005), <i>Uygur Patronage in Dunhuang</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Uygur+Patronage+in+Dunhuang&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Russell-Smith&rft.aufirst=Lilla&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha1974" class="citation cs2">Sinha, Bindeshwari Prasad (1974), <i>Comprehensive history of Bihar, Volume 1, Deel 2</i>, Kashi Prasad Jayaswal Research Institute</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comprehensive+history+of+Bihar%2C+Volume+1%2C+Deel+2&rft.pub=Kashi+Prasad+Jayaswal+Research+Institute&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Bindeshwari+Prasad&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AKingdom+of+Khotan" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Sims-Williams, Ursula. 'The Kingdom of Khotan to AD 1000: A Meeting of Cultures.' <i>Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology</i> 3 (2008).</li> <li>Watters, Thomas (1904–1905). <i>On Yuan Chwang's Travels in India</i>. London. Royal Asiatic Society. Reprint: 1973.</li> <li>Whitfield, Susan. <i>The Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith.</i> London. The British Library 2004.</li> <li>Williams, Joanna. 'Iconography of Khotanese Painting'. <i>East & West</i> (Rome) XXIII (1973), 109–54.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Hill, John E. (2003). Draft version of: "The Western Regions according to the <i>Hou Hanshu</i>. 2nd Edition." "Appendix A: The Introduction of Silk Cultivation to Khotan in the 1st Century CE." <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hhshu/appendices.html#a">[7]</a></li> <li>Martini, G. (2011). "Mahāmaitrī in a Mahāyāna Sūtra in Khotanese - Continuity and Innovation in Buddhist Meditation", <i>Chung-Hwa Buddhist Journal</i> 24: 121–194. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1017-7132">1017-7132</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.chibs.edu.tw/ch_html/chbj/24/Giuliana%20Martini%20121-194.pdf">[8]</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ra3AAAAIAAJ">1904 <i>Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan</i>, London, Hurst and Blackett, Ltd.</a> Reprint Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, Madras, 2000 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-5/V-1/">Sand-Buried Ruins of Khotan : vol.1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FaMMAQAAMAAJ">1907. <i>Ancient Khotan: Detailed report of archaeological explorations in Chinese Turkestan</i>, 2 vols. Clarendon Press. Oxford.</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/creator/marc_aurel_stein.html.en">M. A. Stein – Digital Archive of Toyo Bunko Rare Books</a> at dsr.nii.ac.jp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-7/V-1/">Ancient Khotan : vol.1</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/VIII-5-B2-7/V-2/">Ancient Khotan : vol.2</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kingdom_of_Khotan&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070817073602/http://ignca.nic.in/pb0013.htm">THE SPREAD OF INDIAN ART AND CULTURE TO CENTRAL ASIA AND CHINA</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.zeno.ru/showgallery.php?cat=1086">ZENO coins page on Khotan</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=4,1888,0,0,1,0">Smallest ancient temple discovered</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Asia" title="History of Central Asia">History of Central Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Polities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mal%27ta%E2%80%93Buret%27_culture" title="Mal'ta–Buret' culture">Mal'ta–Buret' culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vakhsh_culture" title="Vakhsh culture">Vakhsh culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saka" title="Saka">Saka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagar_culture" title="Tagar culture">Tagar culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyuk_culture" title="Uyuk culture">Uyuk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_culture" title="Pazyryk culture">Pazyryk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massagetae" title="Massagetae">Massagetae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Median Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Macedonian Empire">Macedonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Greco-Bactrian Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiyi_Circuit" title="Guiyi Circuit">Guiyi Circuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushano-Sasanian_Kingdom" title="Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom">Kushano-Sasanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidarites" title="Kidarites">Kidarites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alchon_Huns" title="Alchon Huns">Alchon Huns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">Hephthalites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ushrusana" title="Principality of Ushrusana">Ustrushana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Khuttal" title="Principality of Khuttal">Khuttal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferghana_Kingdom" title="Ferghana Kingdom">Ferghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western Turks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (<a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Anxi Protectorate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshids_of_Sogdia" title="Ikhshids of Sogdia">Ikhshids of Sogdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokhara_Yabghus" title="Tokhara Yabghus">Tokhara Yabghus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turk_Shahis" title="Turk Shahis">Turk Shahis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Yabgu_State" title="Oghuz Yabgu State">Oghuz Yabgus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second Turkic Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uyghur Khaganate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Samanids">Samanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27munids" title="Ma'munids">Ma'munids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farighunids" title="Farighunids">Farighunids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Great Seljuq Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarazmian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_dynasty" title="Sufi dynasty">Sufi dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Fergana" title="Principality of Fergana">Principality of Fergana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Bukhara" title="Khanate of Bukhara">Khanate of Bukhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Turkestan" title="Chinese Turkestan">Chinese Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Turkestan" title="Russian Turkestan">Russian Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Central_Asia" title="Soviet Central Asia">Soviet Central Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Central Asia">Chinese Central Asia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Asian_art" title="Central Asian art">Central Asian art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_art" title="Silk Road transmission of art">Silk Road transmission of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serindian_art" title="Serindian art">Serindian art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Russia" title="Southern Russia">Southern Russia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta" title="Sintashta">Sintashta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arzhan_culture" title="Arzhan culture">Arzhan kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazyryk_burials" title="Pazyryk burials">Pazyryk burials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salbyk_kurgan" title="Salbyk kurgan">Salbyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filippovka_kurgans" title="Filippovka kurgans">Filippovka kurgans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulay%C3%AFq" title="Bulayïq">Bulayïq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizil_Caves" title="Kizil Caves">Kizil Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kizilgaha_caves" title="Kizilgaha caves">Kizilgaha caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumtura_Caves" title="Kumtura Caves">Kumtura Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subashi_Temple" title="Subashi Temple">Subashi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miran_(Xinjiang)" title="Miran (Xinjiang)">Miran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niya_ruins" title="Niya ruins">Niya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rawak_Stupa" title="Rawak Stupa">Rawak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumxuk" title="Tumxuk">Tumshuq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bezeklik_Caves" title="Bezeklik Caves">Bezeklik Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunhuang_Caves" class="mw-redirect" title="Dunhuang Caves">Dunhuang Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Khotan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashgar" title="Kashgar">Kashgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beshbalik" title="Beshbalik">Beshbalik</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mongolia" title="Mongolia">Mongolia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noin-Ula_burial_site" title="Noin-Ula burial site">Noin-Ula burial site</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Begash" title="Begash">Begash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk_kurgan" title="Issyk kurgan">Issyk kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jankent" title="Jankent">Jankent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karsakpay_inscription" title="Karsakpay inscription">Karsakpay inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerderi" title="Kerderi">Kerderi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krasnyi_Yar_(Kazakhstan)" title="Krasnyi Yar (Kazakhstan)">Krasnyi Yar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merke_Turkic_Sanctuaries" title="Merke Turkic Sanctuaries">Merke Turkic Sanctuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otrar" title="Otrar">Otrar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroglyphs_of_Arpa-Uzen" title="Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen">Petroglyphs of Arpa-Uzen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petrovka_settlement" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrovka settlement">Petrovka settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boralday_(archaeological_site)" title="Boralday (archaeological site)">Boralday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawran_(Kazakhstan)" title="Sawran (Kazakhstan)">Sawran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shilikty" title="Shilikty">Shilikty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe_Geoglyphs" title="Steppe Geoglyphs">Steppe Geoglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumbe_(ancient_settlement)" title="Sumbe (ancient settlement)">Sumbe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talapty_Settlement" title="Talapty Settlement">Talapty Settlement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkistan_(city)" title="Turkistan (city)">Turkistan (city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urpek" title="Urpek">Urpek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausoleum_of_Khoja_Ahmed_Yasawi" title="Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi">Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Araltobe_kurgan" title="Araltobe kurgan">Araltobe kurgan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyzstan" title="Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aigyr-Zhal_2" title="Aigyr-Zhal 2">Aigyr-Zhal 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balasagun" title="Balasagun">Balasagun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burana_Tower" title="Burana Tower">Burana Tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Issyk-Kul" title="Issyk-Kul">Issyk-Kul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshoy_Korgon" title="Koshoy Korgon">Koshoy Korgon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manas_Ordo" title="Manas Ordo">Manas Ordo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navekat" title="Navekat">Navekat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%96zg%C3%B6n" title="Özgön">Özgön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakh_Fazil" title="Shakh Fazil">Shakh Fazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suyab" title="Suyab">Suyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tash_Rabat" title="Tash Rabat">Tash Rabat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_(Samarkand)" title="Afrasiyab (Samarkand)">Afrasiyab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akchakhan-Kala" title="Akchakhan-Kala">Akchakhan-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhsikath" title="Akhsikath">Akhsikath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Pap" title="Ancient Pap">Ancient Pap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayaz-Kala" title="Ayaz-Kala">Ayaz-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balalyk_Tepe" title="Balalyk Tepe">Balalyk Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burchmulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Burchmulla">Burchmulla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalverzin_Tepe" title="Dalverzin Tepe">Dalverzin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_castles_of_ancient_Khorezm" title="Desert castles of ancient Khorezm">Desert castles of ancient Khorezm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayaz_Tepe" title="Fayaz Tepe">Fayaz Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guldursun-Kala" title="Guldursun-Kala">Guldursun-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazorasp" title="Hazorasp">Hazorasp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itchan_Kala" title="Itchan Kala">Itchan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Uzbekistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Uzbekistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kampir_Tepe" title="Kampir Tepe">Kampir Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Tepe" title="Kara Tepe">Kara Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khalchayan" title="Khalchayan">Khalchayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiva" title="Khiva">Khiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koi_Krylgan_Kala" title="Koi Krylgan Kala">Koi Krylgan Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koktepe" title="Koktepe">Koktepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyzyl-Kala" title="Kyzyl-Kala">Kyzyl-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obi-Rakhmat_Grotto" title="Obi-Rakhmat Grotto">Obi-Rakhmat Grotto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poykent" class="mw-redirect" title="Poykent">Poykent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarmishsay" title="Sarmishsay">Sarmishsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahrukhiya" title="Shahrukhiya">Shahrukhiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siypantosh_Rock_Paintings" title="Siypantosh Rock Paintings">Siypantosh Rock Paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tavka_Kurgan" title="Tavka Kurgan">Tavka Kurgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toprak-Kala" title="Toprak-Kala">Toprak-Kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varakhsha" title="Varakhsha">Varakhsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zarautsoy_Rock_Paintings" title="Zarautsoy Rock Paintings">Zarautsoy Rock Paintings</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tajikistan" title="Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bunjikat_(archeological_site)" title="Bunjikat (archeological site)">Bunjikat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent" class="mw-redirect" title="Penjikent">Penjikent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajina_tepe" class="mw-redirect" title="Ajina tepe">Ajina tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyropolis" title="Cyropolis">Cyropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafir-kala_(Tajikistan)" title="Kafir-kala (Tajikistan)">Kafir-kala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarazm" title="Sarazm">Sarazm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Kuwad" title="Takht-i Kuwad">Takht-i Kuwad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-i_Sangin" title="Takht-i Sangin">Takht-i Sangin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalai_Kafirnigan" title="Kalai Kafirnigan">Kalai Kafirnigan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Dzhebel" title="Cave of Dzhebel">Cave of Dzhebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiward" title="Abiward">Abiward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altyndepe" title="Altyndepe">Altyndepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau_culture" title="Anau culture">Anau culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anau,_Turkmenistan" title="Anau, Turkmenistan">Anau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dev-Kesken" class="mw-redirect" title="Dev-Kesken">Dev-Kesken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonur_Depe" title="Gonur Depe">Gonur Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeitun" title="Jeitun">Jeitun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konye-Urgench" title="Konye-Urgench">Konye-Urgench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kutlug_Timur_Minaret" title="Kutlug Timur Minaret">Kutlug Timur Minaret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merv" title="Merv">Merv</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monjukli_Depe" title="Monjukli Depe">Monjukli Depe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namazga-Tepe" title="Namazga-Tepe">Namazga-Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nisa,_Turkmenistan" title="Nisa, Turkmenistan">Nisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Togolok" title="Togolok">Togolok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulug_Depe" title="Ulug Depe">Ulug Depe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum" title="Ai-Khanoum">Ai-Khanoum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilberjin_Tepe" title="Dilberjin Tepe">Dilberjin Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadda,_Afghanistan" title="Hadda, Afghanistan">Hadda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Shotor" title="Tapa Shotor">Tapa Shotor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shotorak_monastery" title="Shotorak monastery">Shotorak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paitava" title="Paitava">Paitava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran" title="Bimaran">Bimaran</a></li> <li><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Tapa-i_Kafariha_Monastery" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Tapa-i Kafariha Monastery">Tapa-i Kafariha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mes_Aynak" title="Mes Aynak">Mes Aynak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fondukistan_monastery" title="Fondukistan monastery">Fondukistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapa_Sardar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapa Sardar">Tapa Sardar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Narenj" class="mw-redirect" title="Tepe Narenj">Tepe Narenj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takht-e_Rostam" title="Takht-e Rostam">Takht-e Rostam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tepe_Fullol" title="Tepe Fullol">Tepe Fullol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillya_Tepe" title="Tillya Tepe">Tillya Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemshi_Tepe" title="Yemshi Tepe">Yemshi Tepe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Prophthasia" title="Alexandria Prophthasia">Alexandria Prophthasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Kupruk" title="Aq Kupruk">Aq Kupruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asqalan,_Afghanistan" title="Asqalan, Afghanistan">Asqalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakhil-i-Ghoundi_Stupa" title="Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa">Chakhil-i-Ghoundi Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darra-e_Kur" title="Darra-e Kur">Darra-e Kur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasht-e_Nawar" title="Dasht-e Nawar">Dasht-e Nawar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan" title="Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan">Dokhtar-i-Noshirwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firozkoh" title="Firozkoh">Firozkoh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gawhar_Shad_Mausoleum" title="Gawhar Shad Mausoleum">Gawhar Shad Mausoleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haji_Piyada" title="Haji Piyada">Haji Piyada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khair_Khaneh" title="Khair Khaneh">Khair Khaneh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundigak" title="Mundigak">Mundigak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musalla_Complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Musalla Complex">Musalla Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagara_(ancient_city)" title="Nagara (ancient city)">Nagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qala-i-Jangi" title="Qala-i-Jangi">Qala-i-Jangi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rag-i-Bibi" title="Rag-i-Bibi">Rag-i-Bibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surkh_Kotal" title="Surkh Kotal">Surkh Kotal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bandian_complex" title="Bandian complex">Bandian complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Khajeh" title="Mount Khajeh">Mount Khajeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahr-e_Sukhteh" title="Shahr-e Sukhteh">Shahr-e Sukhteh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artifacts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sokh_snakes" title="Sokh snakes">Sokh snakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orlat_plaques" title="Orlat plaques">Orlat plaques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalite_silver_bowl" title="Hephthalite silver bowl">Hephthalite silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilek_silver_bowl" title="Chilek silver bowl">Chilek silver bowl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gardez_Ganesha" title="Gardez Ganesha">Gardez Ganesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogao_Christian_painting" title="Mogao Christian painting">Mogao Christian painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murals_from_the_Christian_temple_at_Qocho" title="Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho">Murals from the Christian temple at Qocho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penjikent_murals" title="Penjikent murals">Penjikent murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sampul_tapestry" title="Sampul tapestry">Sampul tapestry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_Da%C4%93n%C4%81s" title="Sogdian Daēnās">Sogdian Daēnās</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxus_Treasure" title="Oxus Treasure">Oxus Treasure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaran_Casket" class="mw-redirect" title="Bimaran Casket">Bimaran Casket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhas_of_Bamiyan" title="Buddhas of Bamiyan">Buddhas of Bamiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabul_hoard" title="Kabul hoard">Kabul hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_Inscription_of_Laghman" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic Inscription of Laghman">Aramaic Inscription of Laghman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Aramaic_inscription" title="Kandahar Aramaic inscription">Kandahar Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pul-i-Darunteh_Aramaic_inscription" title="Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription">Pul-i-Darunteh Aramaic inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Bilingual_Rock_Inscription" title="Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription">Kandahar Bilingual Rock Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kandahar_Greek_Edicts_of_Ashoka" title="Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka">Kandahar Greek Edicts of Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrasiab_murals" title="Afrasiab murals">Afrasiab murals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_seal_(BM_119999)" title="Stamp seal (BM 119999)">Stamp seal (BM 119999)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_of_Khingila" title="Seal of Khingila">Seal of Khingila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Ice_Maiden" title="Siberian Ice Maiden">Siberian Ice Maiden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ai-Khanoum_plaque" title="Ai-Khanoum plaque">Ai-Khanoum plaque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saksanokhur_gold_buckle" title="Saksanokhur gold buckle">Saksanokhur gold buckle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boar_hunter_(Hermitage_Museum)" title="Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)">Boar hunter (Hermitage Museum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_Collection_of_Peter_the_Great" title="Siberian Collection of Peter the Great">Siberian Collection of Peter the Great</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historical_polities_in_Xinjiang60" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Historical_polities_in_Xinjiang" title="Template:Historical polities in Xinjiang"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Historical_polities_in_Xinjiang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Historical polities in Xinjiang (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Historical_polities_in_Xinjiang" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Historical polities in Xinjiang"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historical_polities_in_Xinjiang60" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Historical polities in Xinjiang</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Pre-Mongol Empire</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a> (5th century BC–5th century AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shule_Kingdom" title="Shule Kingdom">Shule Kingdom</a> (200 BC-709 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loulan_Kingdom" title="Loulan Kingdom">Loulan Kingdom</a> (?–77 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_of_the_Western_Regions" title="Protectorate of the Western Regions">Protectorate of the Western Regions</a> (60 BC–107)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jushi_Kingdom" title="Jushi Kingdom">Jushi Kingdom</a> (?-460)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanshan" title="Shanshan">Shanshan</a> (77 BC–630)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaochang" title="Gaochang">Gaochang</a> (460-640)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kucha" title="Kucha">Kucha</a> (?–789)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karasahr" title="Karasahr">Yanqi</a> (?–9th century)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Kingdom of Khotan</a> (?–1006)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protectorate_General_to_Pacify_the_West" title="Protectorate General to Pacify the West">Protectorate General to Pacify the West</a> (640-790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara-Khanid_Khanate" title="Kara-Khanid Khanate">Kara-Khanid Khanate</a> (840–1212)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qocho" title="Qocho">Qocho</a> (843–1209)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Khitai" title="Qara Khitai">Qara Khitai</a> (1124–1218)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Mongol</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a> (1225–1370)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moghulistan" title="Moghulistan">Moghulistan</a> (1347–1680s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kara_Del" title="Kara Del">Kara Del</a> (1389–1513)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turpan_Khanate" title="Turpan Khanate">Turpan Khanate</a> (1487-1660?)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarkent_Khanate" title="Yarkent Khanate">Yarkent Khanate</a> (1514–1705)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar Khanate</a> (1634–1758)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Khanate" title="Kumul Khanate">Kumul Khanate</a> (1696–1930)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_under_Qing_rule" title="Xinjiang under Qing rule">Xinjiang under Qing rule</a> (1757-1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Province,_Republic_of_China" title="Xinjiang Province, Republic of China">Xinjiang (ROC)</a> (1912-1992)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_Uygur_Autonomous_Region" class="mw-redirect" title="Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region">Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region</a> (1949-)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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