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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samarra:_Julian's_death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samarra:_Julian's_death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Samarra: Julian's death</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samarra:_Julian's_death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aftermath:_Jovian" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aftermath:_Jovian"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Aftermath: Jovian</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aftermath:_Jovian-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aftermath: Jovian subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aftermath:_Jovian-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li 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cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Consequences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Consequences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reign_of_Jovian;_reinstatement_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reign_of_Jovian;_reinstatement_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Reign of Jovian; reinstatement of Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reign_of_Jovian;_reinstatement_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shapur_and_the_fate_of_Armenia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shapur_and_the_fate_of_Armenia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Shapur and the fate of Armenia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shapur_and_the_fate_of_Armenia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc 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class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6misch-Persische_Kriege#Julians_Perserkrieg:_Ein_Abenteuer_endet_in_der_Katastrophe" title="Römisch-Persische Kriege – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Römisch-Persische Kriege" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guerras_romano-sas%C3%A1nidas#La_campaña_persa_de_Juliano:_una_aventura_que_terminó_en_catástrofe" title="Guerras romano-sasánidas – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Guerras romano-sasánidas" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D9%87_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A8%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86" title="حمله ژولیان به ایران – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حمله ژولیان به ایران" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagne_de_Julien_en_Perse" title="Campagne de Julien en Perse – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Campagne de Julien en Perse" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julijanov_perzijski_pohod" title="Julijanov perzijski pohod – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Julijanov perzijski pohod" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagna_sasanide_di_Giuliano" title="Campagna sasanide di Giuliano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Campagna sasanide di Giuliano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expeditio_in_Persas_conducta_(363)" title="Expeditio in Persas conducta (363) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Expeditio in Persas conducta (363)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julianus%27_Perzische_Veldtocht" title="Julianus' Perzische Veldtocht – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Julianus' Perzische Veldtocht" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%B4_%D0%AE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%9E%D1%82%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%BF%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Персидский поход Юлиана Отступника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Персидский поход Юлиана Отступника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">War between Roman and Sasanian Empires (363)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r963460841">@media all and (min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .desktop-float-right{box-sizing:border-box;float:right;clear:right}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.vevent .status>p:first-child{margin:0}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th class="summary" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Julian's Persian expedition</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Julian_the_Apostate_(4684713248).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg/300px-Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg/450px-Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg/600px-Julian_the_Apostate_%284684713248%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a></span><br />An ancient mural depicting footage as allegedly <i>Julian getting trampled by Shapur II</i>.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"><table style="width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;border:0;display:inline-table"><tbody><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Date</th><td>March–July 363 AD</td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Location</th><td><div class="location">Mesopotamia, Western Iran and Armenia</div></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Result</th><td class="status"> Sasanian victory<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th style="padding-right:1em">Territorial<br />changes</th><td> Sasanian annexation of five regions and fifteen major fortresses from the Roman Empire in addition to the consequent annexation of Armenia.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Belligerents</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a><br />Arab allies</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders and leaders</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Arshak_II" title="Arshak II">Arshak II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Hormizd_(Constantinople)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormizd (Constantinople)">Hormizd</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Arintheus" title="Arintheus">Arintheus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Victor_(magister_equitum)" title="Victor (magister equitum)">Victor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wounded_in_action" title="Wounded in action"><abbr title="Wounded in action">WIA</abbr></a>)<br /><a href="/wiki/Dagalaifus_(magister_equitum)" title="Dagalaifus (magister equitum)">Dagalaifus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nevitta" title="Nevitta">Nevitta</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Lucillianus_(fleet_commander)" title="Lucillianus (fleet commander)">Lucillianus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sebastianus_(magister_peditum)" title="Sebastianus (magister peditum)">Sebastianus</a></td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Pigranes" title="Pigranes">Pigranes</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Surena_(4th-century)" class="mw-redirect" title="Surena (4th-century)">Surena</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Merena" title="Merena">Merena</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Nohodares" class="mw-redirect" title="Nohodares">Nohodares</a> <a href="/wiki/Killed_in_action" title="Killed in action"><span style="font-family:'Times New Roman','Old English Text MT',serif"><b>†</b></span></a><br />Narseus<br />Podosaces<br />Mamersides</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Strength</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> <p>120,000 men<br /> </p> <ul><li>95,000 Romans<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>25,000 Armenians<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> 1,150 ships</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Unknown, but probably fewer<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Casualties and losses</th></tr><tr><td style="width:50%;border-right:1px dotted #aaa;"> Heavy</td><td style="width:50%;padding-left:0.25em"> Moderate<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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II</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_II%27s_Arab_campaign" title="Shapur II's Arab campaign">Arab campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_war_of_337%E2%80%93350&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roman–Sasanian war of 337–350 (page does not exist)">First Roman War</a> <ul><li><i>Nisibis</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(338)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Nisibis (338)">Siege of Nisibis (338)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(346)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Nisibis (346)">Siege of Nisibis (346)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(350)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Nisibis (350)">Siege of Nisibis (350)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Singara" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Singara">Siege of Singara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">Siege of Amida</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Second Roman War</a><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shapur_II%27s_Armenian_campaign&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shapur II's Armenian campaign (page does not exist)">Shapur II's Armenian campaign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman–Persian_Wars" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Roman–Persian Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman–Persian_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars"><span class="wrap">Roman–Persian Wars</span></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_Wars" title="Roman–Parthian Wars">Roman–Parthian Wars</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">Carrhae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar%27s_planned_invasion_of_the_Parthian_Empire" title="Julius Caesar's planned invasion of the Parthian Empire">Caesar's planned invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeian%E2%80%93Parthian_invasion_of_40_BC" title="Pompeian–Parthian invasion of 40 BC">Pompeian–Parthian invasion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cilician_Gates" title="Battle of the Cilician Gates">Cilician Gates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Amanus_Pass" title="Battle of Amanus Pass">Amanus Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Gindarus" title="Battle of Mount Gindarus">Mt Gindarus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony%27s_Atropatene_campaign" title="Antony's Atropatene campaign">Mark Antony's campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_58%E2%80%9363" title="Roman–Parthian War of 58–63">Armenian War of 58–63</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Parthian_campaign" title="Trajan's Parthian campaign">Trajan's Parthian campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Parthian_War_of_161%E2%80%93166" title="Roman–Parthian War of 161–166">Lucius Verus' campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(198)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (198)">2nd Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_war_of_Caracalla" title="Parthian war of Caracalla">Parthian war of Caracalla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nisibis_(217)" title="Battle of Nisibis (217)">Nisibis</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman–Sasanian wars">Roman–Sasanian wars</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_campaigns_of_Ardashir_I" title="Mesopotamian campaigns of Ardashir I">Mesopotamia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sassanid_campaign_of_Severus_Alexander" title="Sassanid campaign of Severus Alexander">Campaign of Severus Alexander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(235)" title="Siege of Nisibis (235)">Nisibis (235)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Hatra" title="Fall of Hatra">Hatra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Resaena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Misiche</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Nisibis_(252)" title="Siege of Nisibis (252)">Nisibis (252)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Barbalissos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch_(253)" title="Siege of Antioch (253)">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dura-Europos_(256)" title="Siege of Dura-Europos (256)">Dura-Europos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Caesarea_Cappadocia_(260)" title="Siege of Caesarea Cappadocia (260)">Caesarea (260)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(263)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (263)">3rd Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae_(296)" title="Battle of Carrhae (296)">Carrhae (296)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Satala_(298)" title="Battle of Satala (298)">Satala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361" title="Perso-Roman wars of 337–361">Perso-Roman wars of 337–361</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Singara_(344)" title="Battle of Singara (344)">1st Singara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Singara_(360)" title="Siege of Singara (360)">2nd Singara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Julian's Persian expedition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">Pirisabora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">Maiozamalcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Maranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra_(363)" title="Battle of Samarra (363)">Samarra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bagavan" title="Battle of Bagavan">Bagrevand</a></li></ul> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Byzantine-Sasanian_Wars" title="Byzantine-Sasanian Wars">Byzantine-Sasanian Wars</a></b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_421%E2%80%93422" title="Roman–Sasanian War of 421–422">War of 421–422</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_440" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 440">War of 440</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasian_War" title="Anastasian War">Anastasian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_War" title="Iberian War">Iberian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazic_War" title="Lazic War">Lazic War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_572%E2%80%93591" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 572–591">War of 572–591</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">War of 602–628</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div><div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Roman–Sassanid_Wars" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Roman–Sassanid Wars"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Roman–Sassanid Wars"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Roman%E2%80%93Sassanid_Wars" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Roman–Sassanid Wars"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Roman–Sassanid_Wars" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em">Roman–Sassanid Wars</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Resaena" title="Battle of Resaena">Resaena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Misiche" title="Battle of Misiche">Misiche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Barbalissos" title="Battle of Barbalissos">Barbalissos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Antioch_(253)" title="Siege of Antioch (253)">Antiochia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edessa" title="Battle of Edessa">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_wars_of_337%E2%80%93361" title="Perso-Roman wars of 337–361">Perso-Roman wars of 337–361</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Singara" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Singara">Singara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Amida_(359)" title="Siege of Amida (359)">Amida</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian%27s_Persian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian's Persian War">Julian's Persian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">Pirisabora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">Maiozamalcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Maranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Samarra</a></li></ul></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/290px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="290" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/435px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg/580px-Julian%27s_campaign-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2580" data-file-height="1684" /></a><figcaption>Map of <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>'s unsuccessful campaign in 363</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Julian's Persian expedition</b> began in March 363 AD and was the final military campaign of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>. The Romans fought against the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, ruled at the time by <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>. </p><p>Aiming to capture the Sasanians' winter capital of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, Julian assembled a large army. In order to mislead the opponent and to carry out a <a href="/wiki/Pincer_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Pincer attack">pincer attack</a>, he sent a detachment to join with his ally <a href="/wiki/Arshak_II" title="Arshak II">Arshak II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Arsacid Armenia</a> to take the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> route from the north. Meanwhile, his main army and a large fleet, facing little opposition, advanced rapidly down the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, destroying several well-fortified cities along the way. The ships then reached the walls of Ctesiphon, where a large Sasanian force had assembled in its defense. </p><p>The Romans won a victory outside the city, but the northern army failed to arrive, and the fortified capital seemed impregnable. Due to these complications, Julian did not attempt to <a href="/wiki/Besiege" class="mw-redirect" title="Besiege">besiege</a> the city, instead burning the Roman fleet of supplies and leading a march into Persia's interior. Shapur II's army, however, took lengths to avoid a full-scale battle and used a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> strategy; as a result, Julian's army soon faced supply problems and had to retreat to the north. Shapur II's army pursued the retreating Romans, ceaselessly harassing the retreat through skirmishes. Julian died of wounds from one of these skirmishes and his successor, <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>, agreed to surrender under unfavorable terms in order to save the remnants of his demoralized and exhausted army from annihilation. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_Peace_Treaty_of_363" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363">Treaty of 363</a> transferred multiple regions and frontier fortresses, including <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singara" title="Singara">Singara</a>. In addition to territorial concessions, Rome renounced its alliance with Armenia, giving Shapur II the opportunity to invade and annex it. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aims_and_preparations">Aims and preparations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Aims and preparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The military and political aims of the campaign are uncertain, and they are also disputed by both ancient and modern sources and historians.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, Julian's aim was to enhance his fame as a general and to punish the Persians for their invasions of Rome's eastern provinces; for this reason, he refused Shapur's immediate offer of negotiations.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian was a devout believer in the old <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religion</a>. Some modern authors note that he intended to accelerate and gain support for the pagan renovation of the Roman Empire and actions against the Christians after defeating the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, since such victory would have been proof of the support of the Roman gods.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the leaders of the expedition was <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_(Constantinople)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormizd (Constantinople)">Hormizd</a>, a brother of Shapur II, who had fled from the Persian Empire forty years earlier and had been welcomed by the then Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>. Julian is said to have intended to place Hormizd on the Persian throne in place of Shapur,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but replacing a successful ruler with one who has been in exile for decades is an "incomprehensible" aim.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Julian asked several major oracles about the outcome of his expedition.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian's <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_prefect" title="Praetorian prefect">praetorian prefect</a> of Gaul, <a href="/wiki/Flavius_Sallustius" title="Flavius Sallustius">Sallustius</a>, wrote advising him to abandon his plan,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and numerous adverse <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a> were reported; at the urging of other advisers he went ahead.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He instructed <a href="/wiki/Arshak_II" title="Arshak II">Arshak II</a> of <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> to prepare a large army, but without revealing its purpose;<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he sent <a href="/wiki/Lucillianus_(fleet_commander)" title="Lucillianus (fleet commander)">Lucillianus</a> to <a href="/wiki/Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Samosata">Samosata</a> in the upper <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> valley to build a fleet of river ships.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These preparations are thought by scholars to have suggested to Shapur that an invasion from the north, by way of the Tigris valley, was Julian's plan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advance">Advance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Advance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg/220px-Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg/330px-Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg/440px-Ancient_Roman_road_of_Tall_Aqibrin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3364" data-file-height="2392" /></a><figcaption>The Roman road from <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> to Chalcis and <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>, the first stage of Julian's expedition</figcaption></figure> <p>Julian had wintered at <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a>. On 5 March 363, he set out north-east with his army by way of Beroea (<a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Hierapolis (<a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a>), where fifty soldiers were killed when a portico collapsed while they were marching under it.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The whole army mustered there, crossed the middle <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and proceeded to Carrhae (<a href="/wiki/Harran" title="Harran">Harran</a>), the site of <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">the famous battle</a> in which the Roman general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Crassus</a> was defeated and killed in 53 BC. "From there two different royal highways lead to Persia," writes the eyewitness <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>: "the one on the left through <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> and across the Tigris; the one on the right through <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a> and across the Euphrates."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian made use of both. He sent a detachment, which ancient sources variously estimated between 16,000 and 30,000 in strength, under <a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sebastianus_(magister_peditum)" title="Sebastianus (magister peditum)">Sebastianus</a> towards the Tigris where they were to join Arshak and his Armenian army. They were then to attack the Persians from the north.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, by tying Shapur down in northern <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, Julian would have been able to quickly advance down the Euphrates without opposition, while the group in Armenia was supposed to join up with Julian in Assyria. Many modern scholars have praised the choice of routes, rapid movements, and deception, while some consider the plan to be inadequate with regard to supply, communication, climate consideration, and the difficulty of crossing between Euphrates and Tigris near <a href="/wiki/Naarmalcha" title="Naarmalcha">Naarmalcha</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Julian himself, with the larger part of his army of 65,000, of which it is unclear whether that was before or after Procopius' departure, turned south along the <a href="/wiki/Balikh_River" title="Balikh River">Balikh River</a> towards the lower Euphrates, reaching Callinicum (<a href="/wiki/Raqqa" title="Raqqa">al-Raqqah</a>) on 27 March and meeting the fleet of 1,100 supply vessels and 50 armed <a href="/wiki/Galley" title="Galley">galleys</a> under the command of Lucillianus.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There he was met by leaders of the "Saraceni" (Arab nomads), who offered Julian a gold crown. He refused to pay the traditional tribute in return;<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though he later requested their envoys to join him.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army followed the Euphrates downstream to the border city of <a href="/wiki/Circesium" title="Circesium">Circesium</a> and crossed the river <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Aboras</a> (Khabur) with the help of a <a href="/wiki/Pontoon_bridge" title="Pontoon bridge">pontoon bridge</a> constructed for the purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Progress_of_the_war">Progress of the war</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Progress of the war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="From_Circesium_to_Ctesiphon">From Circesium to Ctesiphon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: From Circesium to Ctesiphon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once over the border, <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> invigorated the soldiers' ardor with a fiery oration, representing his hopes and reasons for the war, and distributed a donative of 130 pieces of silver to each.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The army was divided on the march into three principal divisions. The center under <a href="/wiki/Victor_(magister_equitum)" title="Victor (magister equitum)">Victor</a>, composed of the heavy infantry; the cavalry under <a href="/wiki/Arintheus" title="Arintheus">Arintheus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hormizd_(Constantinople)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormizd (Constantinople)">Hormizd</a> the renegade Persian on the left; the right, marching along the riverbank and maintaining contact with the fleet, consisting likewise of infantry, and commanded by <a href="/wiki/Nevitta" title="Nevitta">Nevitta</a>. The baggage and the rearguard were under <a href="/wiki/Dagalaifus_(magister_equitum)" title="Dagalaifus (magister equitum)">Dagalaifus</a>, while the scouts were led by <a href="/wiki/Lucillianus_(magister_equitum)" title="Lucillianus (magister equitum)">Lucilianus</a>, the veteran of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A detachment was left to hold the fortress of Circesium, as several of the fickle <a href="/wiki/Arabian" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian">Arabian</a> tribes near the border were allied with Persia. </p><p>Julian then penetrated rapidly into Assyria. Similarly to the concentration of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>'s population on the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> was the main part of the population of <a href="/wiki/Asuristan" class="mw-redirect" title="Asuristan">Assyria</a> located in the towns on the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, while the interior of the country was, for the most part, a desert wasteland.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first Persian settlement that was encountered was Anatha (<a href="/wiki/Anah" title="Anah">Anah</a>), which surrendered, but the Romans destroyed it. The army then moved past the Thilutha (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Telbis_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telbis Island (page does not exist)">Telbis Island</a>, now flooded by the <a href="/wiki/Haditha_Dam" title="Haditha Dam">Haditha Dam</a>) and Achaiachala (variously identified with <a href="/wiki/Haditha" title="Haditha">Haditha</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bijan_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Bijan Island">Bijân Island</a>, the latter is now flooded by the Haditha Dam), since both of them were difficult to capture. A part of the army crossed over at Baraxmalcha. Then they reached Diacira (<a href="/wiki/Hit,_Iraq" title="Hit, Iraq">Hit</a>) and then Ozogardana/Zaragardia, both of which were abandoned and Julian destroyed them. Then the Romans met a Sasanian detachment for the first time and defeated it.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Macepracta/Besechana, which was reached by a march of two weeks, Julian's army <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">besieged</a> Pirisabora (<a href="/wiki/Anbar_(town)" title="Anbar (town)">Anbar</a>), the largest city of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> after Ctesiphon. The city was surrendered after two or three days and was destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Julian used the nearby <a href="/wiki/Naarmalcha" title="Naarmalcha">Naarmalcha</a> (the Royal Canal), which was the most direct route, to transfer the fleet from the Euphrates to Tigris. The army moved southeast with great difficulties and losses. Worse still, the Persians flooded the land by destroying the dams and diverting the water of the Naarmalcha canal after the Romans passed Phissenia. Julian's army then reaches Bithra. Arriving within a dozen miles of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a>, the fortified Maiozamalcha was <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">besieged and taken</a> after several days through mining operations. The city was destroyed and almost all inhabitants were killed. Through Meinas Sabatha, Julian marched towards the Seleucia–Ctesiphon metropolis (<a href="/wiki/Al-Mada%27in" title="Al-Mada'in">Al-Mada'in</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Arshak II's preparations in Armenia might have deceived Shapur II, but he must have been soon informed of the advance of the main Roman army along the Euphrates. Modern scholars have noted this avoidance of a full-scale field battle and letting the main Roman army advance deep into Assyria.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style></p><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian strategy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ctesiphon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Battle of Ctesiphon (363)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg/220px-Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg/330px-Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg/440px-Julian_II_under_Ctesifon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>9th-century painting of Julian near Ctesiphon</figcaption></figure> <p>After destroying the private residence, palaces, gardens and extensive menagerie of the Persian monarchy north of Ctesiphon, and securing his position by improvised fortifications, Julian turned his attention to the city itself. The twin cities of <a href="/wiki/Ctesiphon" title="Ctesiphon">Ctesiphon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> (rebuilt as <a href="/wiki/Veh-Ardashir" title="Veh-Ardashir">Veh-Ardashir</a>) lay before Julian to the south. In order to invest the place on both sides, Julian first dug a canal between the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a>, allowing his fleet to enter the latter river, and by this means ferried his army to the further bank. A large Persian army had assembled in Ctesiphon, which was the appointed place of rendezvous for Shapur's army at the outset of the campaign; this was arrayed along the eastern bank in strong defensive positions, and it required the advantages of night-time and surprise, and subsequently a prolonged struggle on the escarpment, reportedly lasting twelve hours, to gain the passage of the river. But in the contest victory lay ultimately with the Romans, and the Persians were driven back within the city walls after sustaining losses of twenty-five hundred men; Julian's casualties are given at no more than 70.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Julian had brought with him through Assyria a large train of siege engines and offensive weapons, and he was supplied by an active fleet that possessed the undisputed navigation of the river, the Romans appear to have been at some difficulty in putting Ctesiphon to the siege.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it had fallen on several previous occasions to the Romans, the city was better fortified than in the second century.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Confronted with the difficulty to capture the city, Julian called a council of war, at which it was decided not to besiege the city and march into Persia's interior instead<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—a turning point of the campaign. Apparently, it met with resistance within the army. The reasons for this decision are uncertain; according to Ammianus, it was due to the fear of a two-front war, since Shapur II's army was apparently nearby. According to Libanios, Shapur II sent an emissary to Julian, who refused it. After abandoning the siege, Julian burned his fleet of provisions to avoid its fall into the Sasanians' hands, as Julian's army now had to move upstream the river. Another theory is that Julian was deceived by Sasanian deserters. Julian was possibly still hoping to join up with the reinforcements from Armenia and then defeat Shapur II's army in a regular battle.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible the intention was justified by the hope of destroying the army of Shapur before the latter should join with the already numerous garrison of Ctesiphon to besiege the camp of the besiegers. More inexplicable is the burning of the fleet, and most of the provisions, which had been transported the whole course of the Euphrates with such monumental cost.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although ancient and modern historians have censured the <i>rashness</i> of the deed, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a> palliates the <i>folly</i> by observing that Julian expected a plentiful supply from the harvests of the fertile territory by which he was to march, and, with regard to the fleet, that it was not navigable up the river, and must be taken by the Persians if abandoned intact. Meanwhile, if he retreated northward with the entire army immediately, his already considerable achievements would be undone, and his prestige irreparably damaged, as one who had obtained success by stratagem and fled upon the resurgence of the foe. There were therefore no negligible reasons for his abandonment of the siege, the fleet, and the safe familiarity of the river bank.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ctesiphon_to_Samarra">Ctesiphon to Samarra</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ctesiphon to Samarra"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After spending several days outside Ctesiphon, Julian directed his army toward the inner regions of Persia east of Ctesiphon. Shapur II's army avoided being dragged into battle while following a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> policy by firing houses, provisions, crops and farmland wherever Julian's march approached; since the army had preserved only 20 days' provisions from the ruin of the fleet, they soon faced the threat of starvation. This together with summer heat prompted the Romans not to advance further and instead seek a route towards the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and follow it upstream to the region <a href="/wiki/Corduena" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduena">Corduena</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this stage, <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>'s army appeared and began to engage Julian's army by ceaseless skirmishing.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Sasanian cavalry repeatedly assailed the Romans' extended columns in the retreat; at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Maranga</a> a sharp skirmish developed into a battle; the Sasanians were repulsed, and Julian's army retired to rest in the hills south of <a href="/wiki/Samarra" title="Samarra">Samarra</a>, on July 25, 363.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Samarra:_Julian's_death"><span id="Samarra:_Julian.27s_death"></span>Samarra: Julian's death</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Samarra: Julian's death"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_(Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History,_vol._3,_1882).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg/220px-Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="321" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg/330px-Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg/440px-Death_of_the_Julian_the_Aposthate_in_the_battle_of_Samarra_%28Cassell%27s_Illustrated_Universal_History%2C_vol._3%2C_1882%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="842" data-file-height="1230" /></a><figcaption>The death of Julian</figcaption></figure> <p>The next day, 26 July, the advance resumed over the sloping hills and valleys in the arid wastelands south of modern Samarra. The heat of the day had already impelled Julian to divest himself of his helmet and protecting armor, when an alarm reached him from the rear of the column that the army was again under assault. Before the attack could be repelled, a warning from the vanguard revealed that the army was surrounded in an ambush, the Persians having stolen a march to occupy the Roman route ahead. While the army struggled to form up so as to meet the manifold threats from every side, a charge of elephants and cavalry rattled the Roman line on the left, and Julian, to prevent its imminent collapse, led his reserves in-person to shore up the defense. The light infantry under his command overthrew the massive troops of Persian heavy cavalry and elephants, and Julian, by the admission of the most hostile authorities, proved his courage in the conduct of the attack. But he had plunged into the fray still unarmored, due to the desperateness of the situation, and fell stricken from a Persian dart even as the enemy fell back. The emperor toppled to the ground off his horse and was borne in an unconscious state from the field of battle.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That midnight Julian died in his tent; "<i>Having received from the Deity</i>", in his own words to the assembled officers, "<i>in the midst of an honorable career, a splendid and glorious departure from the world.</i>"<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The battle, which ended indecisively, raged until night-time. The emperor's death was offset by the heavy losses sustained by the Persians in their repulse on the main sector of the front but in a profound sense the battle was disastrous to the Roman cause; at best, a momentary reprieve was purchased by the loss of the stay of the army of the east and the genius of the Persian war. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aftermath:_Jovian">Aftermath: Jovian</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Aftermath: Jovian"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Defeat:_Samarra_to_Dura">Defeat: Samarra to Dura</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Defeat: Samarra to Dura"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/260px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/390px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg/520px-Taq-e_Bostan_-_High-relief_of_Ardeshir_II_investiture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Investiture of King <a href="/wiki/Ardashir_II" title="Ardashir II">Ardashir II</a> by the angelic divinity <a href="/wiki/Mithra" title="Mithra">Mithra</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> (right); the dead body of <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> is trampled underfoot. Reliefs at <a href="/wiki/Taq-e_Bostan" title="Taq-e Bostan">Taq-e Bostan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Within a few hours of Julian's death, his generals gathered under the necessity of determining a successor.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exigency settled on <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>, an obscure general of the Domestic Guard, distinguished primarily for a merry heart and sociable disposition.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His first command subscribed the continuation of a prompt retreat. During four further days the march was directed up the river towards <a href="/wiki/Corduene" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduene">Corduene</a> and the safety of the frontier, where supplies sufficient for the famished army were expected to be obtained. The Persians, revived by the intelligence of their conqueror's demise, fell twice on the rear of the retreat, and on the camp, one party penetrating to the imperial tent before being cut off and destroyed at Jovian's feet. At <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dura_(Tigris)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dura (Tigris) (page does not exist)">Dura</a> on the fourth day the army came to a halt, deluded with the vain hope of bridging the river with makeshift contraptions of timber and animal hide. In two days, after some initial appearance of success, the futility of the endeavor was proved; but while hope of a crossing was abandoned, the march was not resumed. The spirit of the army was broken, its provisions were four days from giving out, and the verges of Corduene a hundred miles further north as yet.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peace">Peace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Peace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_Peace_Treaty_of_363" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363">Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363</a></div> <p>At this juncture, the emissaries of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a> arrived in the Roman camp. According to Gibbon, Shapur was actuated by his fears of the "resistance of despair" on the part of the entrapped Roman enemy, who had come so near to toppling the Sassanian throne: conscious of the folly of refusing a peaceful but honorable settlement, obtainable at such an advantage, the Persian prudently extended the offer of peace. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>'s supplies and expedients were depleted, and in his overwhelming joy at the prospect of saving his army, his fortunes, and the empire which he later gained, he was willing to overlook the excessive harshness of the terms, and subscribe his signature to the Imperial disgrace along with the demands of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The articles of the treaty, known to history as the treaty of <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos" title="Dura-Europos">Dura</a>, stipulated the cession of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corduene" class="mw-redirect" title="Corduene">Corduene</a>, the four further provinces east of the <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> which <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> had wrested from Persia by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Nisibis_(299)" title="Peace of Nisibis (299)">Treaty of Nisibis</a>; the Roman interest in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Armenia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iberia_(antiquity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iberia (antiquity)">Iberia</a>, as well as guaranteeing an inviolable truce of 30 years, to be warranted by mutual exchange of hostages.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frontier was peeled back from the <a href="/wiki/Khabur_(Euphrates)" title="Khabur (Euphrates)">Khabur</a>, and most of Roman Mesopotamia, along with the elaborate chain of defensive fortresses constructed by Diocletian, conceded to the enemy. The disgraced army, after succumbing to the abject necessity of its situation, was haughtily dismissed from his dominions by Shapur, and it was left to straggle across the desolate tracts of northern Mesopotamia, until at last it rejoined the army of <a href="/wiki/Procopius_(usurper)" title="Procopius (usurper)">Procopius</a> under the walls of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thilasapha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thilasapha (page does not exist)">Thilasapha</a>. From here the exhausted legions retired to <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, where their sorry state of deprivation was finally brought to an end.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Consequences">Consequences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Consequences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reign_of_Jovian;_reinstatement_of_Christianity"><span id="Reign_of_Jovian.3B_reinstatement_of_Christianity"></span>Reign of Jovian; reinstatement of Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reign of Jovian; reinstatement of Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Army had not rested long under the walls of <a href="/wiki/Nisibis" class="mw-redirect" title="Nisibis">Nisibis</a>, when the deputies of Shapur arrived, demanding the surrender of the city in accordance with the treaty. Notwithstanding the entreaties of the populace, and those of the remainder of the territories ceded to Shapur, as also the gossip and calumnies of the Roman people, Jovian conformed to his oath; the depopulated were resettled in <a href="/wiki/Amida_(Mesopotamia)" title="Amida (Mesopotamia)">Amida</a>, funds for the restoration of which were granted lavishly by the emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> From Nisibis <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a> proceeded to <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a>, where the insults of the citizenry at his cowardice soon drove the disgusted emperor to seek a more hospitable place of abode.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notwithstanding widespread disaffection at the shameful accommodation which he had made, the Roman world accepted his sovereignty; the deputies of the western army met him at <a href="/wiki/Tyana" title="Tyana">Tyana</a>, on his way to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, where they rendered him homage.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At Dadastana, on February 17, 364 A.D., <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a> died of unknown causes, after a reign of merely eight months.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The death of Julian without naming a successor allowed the accession of the Christian Jovian, and thus destroyed Julian's ambitions of reestablishing Paganism, for the indisputably most consequential act of <a href="/wiki/Jovian_(emperor)" title="Jovian (emperor)">Jovian</a>'s short reign was the abolition of laws against <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>. From <a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a> he issued decrees immediately repealing the hostile edicts of <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, which forbade the Christians from the teaching of secular studies, and unofficially banned them from employment in the administration of the state. The exemption of the clergy from taxes and the discharge of civil obligations was reinstated; their requirement to repair the pagan temples destroyed under <a href="/wiki/Constantius_II" title="Constantius II">Constantius II</a> recalled; and the rebuilding of the Third Temple in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> was instantly brought to a halt. At the same time, while Jovian expressed the hope that <i>all</i> his subjects would embrace the Christian religion, he granted the rights of conscience to all of mankind, leaving the pagans free to worship in their temples (barring only certain rites which previously had been suppressed), and freedom from persecution to the Jews.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Although very briefly under <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a> appeared to be experiencing a revival, with the restoration of numerous ancient temples and ceremonies which had fallen into decay,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the revival collapsed very soon upon his death due to an intense Christian backlash.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Over the succeeding years, paganism declined further and further, and an increasing portion of the subjects of Rome, especially in the cities, passed to the profession of Christianity. Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Theodosius" title="Theodosius">Theodosius</a>, less than thirty years from the <a href="/wiki/Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostate">Apostate</a>'s death, the practice of pagan ceremonies was formally banned by imperial decree, and the risible relic of ancient paganism passed into illegality.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shapur_and_the_fate_of_Armenia">Shapur and the fate of Armenia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Shapur and the fate of Armenia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without assistance from Rome, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> was invaded and conquered by <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>. <a href="/wiki/Arshak_II" title="Arshak II">Arshak II</a> of Armenia, <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a>'s ally, maintained resistance for up to four years longer, but was abandoned by his nobles, and eventually captured by Shapur. He died in captivity in <a href="/wiki/Ecbatana" title="Ecbatana">Ecbatana</a> in 371, reportedly by suicide.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>His queen <a href="/wiki/Pharantzem" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharantzem">Pharantzem</a>, who retreated to the fortress of Artogerassa, was able to save her son <a href="/wiki/Pap_of_Armenia" title="Pap of Armenia">Pap</a>, before she too was captured with the fall of Artogerassa. The Christian population of Armenia rose in revolt against the <a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Sasanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Sasanians">Sasanians</a>, and, aided by the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Valens" title="Valens">Valens</a>, Pap took the throne. When Pap was discovered in secret correspondence with Shapur, Valens attempted to have him executed. After multiple unsuccessful attempts, he had Pap assassinated at a banquet given by the Roman officer <a href="/wiki/Traianus_(magister_peditum)" title="Traianus (magister peditum)">Traianus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At the death of Shapur in 379 AD, the Persian throne passed to his brother, the moderate <a href="/wiki/Ardeshir_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Ardeshir II">Ardeshir II</a>, who sought peace. In 384, a formal treaty was signed between <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shapur_III" title="Shapur III">Shapur III</a>, son of <a href="/wiki/Shapur_II" title="Shapur II">Shapur II</a>, which divided Armenia between the two empires, bringing an end to the independent Armenian monarchy.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (March 2021)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">Siege of Pirisabora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">Siege of Maiozamalcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Battle of Ctesiphon (363)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Battle of Maranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Samarra">Battle of Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_Peace_Treaty_of_363" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363">Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Primary sources on the Julian's campaign are as follows: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23–25</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnus_of_Carrhae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnus of Carrhae (page does not exist)">Magnus of Carrhae</a> <i>FGrH</i> 225 (fragments)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, <i>Historia nova</i> 3.12–31</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a>, <i>Breviarium</i> 10.16</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Festus</a>, <i>Breviarium</i> 28–29</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a>, <i>Orations</i> 1, 16, 17, 18, 24; <i>Letters</i> 737, 1367, 1402, 1508</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephraem_Syrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephraem Syrus">Ephraem Syrus</a>, <i>Hymns against Julian</i> 2, 3 (Dodgeon and Lieu (1991) pp. 240–245)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eunapius" title="Eunapius">Eunapius</a>, <i>History after Dexippus</i> (fragments)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory of Nazianzus</a>, <i>Orations</i> 5.9–15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates_Scholasticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Socrates Scholasticus">Socrates Scholasticus</a>, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> 3.21–22</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a>, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> 6.1–3</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostorgius" title="Philostorgius">Philostorgius</a>, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> 7.15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret_of_Cyrrhus" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodoret of Cyrrhus">Theodoret of Cyrrhus</a>, <i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> 3.21–26</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Passion_of_Artemius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Passion of Artemius (page does not exist)">Passion of Artemius</a></i> 69–70 (Dodgeon and Lieu (1991) pp. 238–239)</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chronicon_Pseudo-Dionysianum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chronicon Pseudo-Dionysianum (page does not exist)">Chronicon Pseudo-Dionysianum</a></i> year 674 = 363</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>, <i>Chronographia</i> 13 pp. 328–337</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zonaras" class="mw-redirect" title="Zonaras">Zonaras</a>, <i>Epitome</i> 13.13</li></ul> <p>The course of Julian's campaign has been discussed in detail in the following commentaries and secondary sources:<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>J. Fontaine, Ammien Marcellin. <i>Histoire. Tome IV (Livres XXIII-XXV)</i>, Paris, 1977.</li> <li>J. den Boeft, J. W. Drijvers, D. den Hengst, and H. C. Teitler, <i>Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXIII</i>, Groningen, 1998</li> <li>Idem, <i>Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV</i>, Leiden, Boston, and Köln, 2002.</li> <li>F. Paschoud, Zosime, <i>Histoire Nouvelle II, part 1 (Book III)</i>, Paris, 1979.</li> <li>G. Reinhardt, Der Perserkrieg des Kaisers Julian, Dessau, 1892. (in German)</li></ul> <p>However, Reinhardt's view of the sources is now considered invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The route of the campaign has been discussed in the following sources:<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>B. von Borries, “Iulianus (26),” in <i>RE X 1</i>, 1918, pp. 58–63.</li> <li>O. Seeck, <i>Regesten der Kaiser und Päpste für die Jahre 311 bis 476 n. Chr.</i>, Stuttgart, 1919, pp. 212–213. (in German)</li> <li>F. Cumont, Etudes Syriennes. <i>La marche de l’empereur Julien d’Antioche à l’Euphrate</i>, Paris, 1917, pp. 1–33. (for the first part of the campaign up to Hierapolis) (in French)</li> <li>A. Musil, <i>The Middle Euphrates. A Topographical Itinerary</i>, American Geographical Society. Oriental Explorations and Studies 3, New York, 1927, pp. 232–242. (for the advance along the Euphrates)</li> <li>F. Paschoud, "Der Feldzug Iulians gegen die Sāsāniden (363)", in <i>Tübinger Atlas des Vorderen Orients</i>, B VI 4, Wiesbaden, 1984. (in German)</li> <li>F. Paschoud, Zosime, <i>Histoire Nouvelle II, part 1 (Book III)</i>, Paris, 1979, maps 2 and 3.</li></ul> <p>However, Musil's identifications have now met with skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Beate Dignas & Engelbert Winter, "Rome & Persia in Late Antiquity; Neighbours & Rivals" (Cambridge University Press, English edition, 2007), p131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Potter, David S., "The Roman Empire at Bay, AD 180–395", Routledge, First Edition (Taylor & Francis Group, 2004), p520 & p527</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ammianus Marcellinus,xxv.7.9–14, ed. W. Seyfarth (Leipzig 1970-8; repr.1999)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sasanian-dynasty">"Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Welcome+to+Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsasanian-dynasty&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History (HarperCollins, 1993), 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Ernest Dupuy and Trevor N. Dupuy, The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History, p168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghafouri, Ali. "Tarikh-e Janghay-e Iran; Az Madha ta be Emrouz", Entesharat Etela'at 1388, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/964-423-738-2" title="Special:BookSources/964-423-738-2">964-423-738-2</a>, p176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghafouri, Ali. "Tarikh-e Janghay-e Iran; Az Madha ta be Emrouz", The History of Persia's Wars; From the Medes to the Present", Entesharat Etela'at 1388, p176.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranica-julian-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-14"><sup><i><b>o</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-15"><sup><i><b>p</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-16"><sup><i><b>q</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-17"><sup><i><b>r</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranica-julian_9-18"><sup><i><b>s</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKettenhofen2012" class="citation web cs1">Kettenhofen, Erich (19 April 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/julian-flavius-claudius-iulianus-roman-emperor">"Julian"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.atitle=Julian&rft.date=2012-04-19&rft.aulast=Kettenhofen&rft.aufirst=Erich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fjulian-flavius-claudius-iulianus-roman-emperor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a>, <i>Orations</i> 17.19, 18.164</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a>, <i>Letters</i> 1402.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a>, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> 3.21–25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.5.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.5.10; <a href="/wiki/Socrates_Scholasticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Socrates Scholasticus">Socrates Scholasticus</a>, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> 3.21.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.2.2; <a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a>, <i>Orationes</i> 18.215; <a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a>, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> 6.1.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Magnus_of_Carrhae&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Magnus of Carrhae (page does not exist)">Magnus of Carrhae</a> FGrH 225 F 1 (<a href="/wiki/Malalas" class="mw-redirect" title="Malalas">Malalas</a>, <i>Chronography</i> 13 pp. 328–329)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dodgeon and Lieu (1991) p. 231</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.2.6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.3.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.3.4–5; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zosimus_(historicus)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zosimus (historicus) (page does not exist)">Zosimus</a>, <i>New History</i> 3.12.3–5; <a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a>, <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> 6.1.2</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.3.6–9; <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, <i>New History</i> 3.13.1–3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker2010" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Spencer (2010). <i>A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 160b. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-667-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-667-1"><bdi>978-1-85109-667-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Global+Chronology+of+Conflict%3A+From+the+Ancient+World+to+the+Modern+Middle+East&rft.pages=160b&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-667-1&rft.aulast=Tucker&rft.aufirst=Spencer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, <i>Res gestae</i> 23.3.8, 25.6.10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodgeonLieu2002" class="citation book cs1">Dodgeon, Michael H.; Lieu, Samuel N. C. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3gGKAgAAQBAJ&q=Assanite+Saracens&pg=PA334"><i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars AD 226–363: A Documentary History</i></a>. Routledge. p. 334, note 16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-96114-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-96114-6"><bdi>978-1-134-96114-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+Eastern+Frontier+and+the+Persian+Wars+AD+226%E2%80%93363%3A+A+Documentary+History&rft.pages=334%2C+note+16&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-134-96114-6&rft.aulast=Dodgeon&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft.au=Lieu%2C+Samuel+N.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3gGKAgAAQBAJ%26q%3DAssanite%2BSaracens%26pg%3DPA334&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <i>The Decline and Fall of The Roman Empire</i> (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XXIV., p. 808</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 809</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 809–11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2019" class="citation book cs1">Cameron, Hamish (2019). <i>Making Mesopotamia: Geography and Empire in a Romano-Iranian Borderland</i>. BRILL. pp. 121–122. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38863-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38863-5"><bdi>978-90-04-38863-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Mesopotamia%3A+Geography+and+Empire+in+a+Romano-Iranian+Borderland&rft.pages=121-122&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38863-5&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Hamish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 812–813</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 817–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 821</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 820, 821</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 822</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 822, 823</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 824</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 825, 826</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 827</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 828</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 829</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 830</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 831</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 832</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 833</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 835, 836</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 838</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, chap. XXV., p. 844</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, Ibid</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>An Encyclopedia Of World History</i> (Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1952) chap. II., <i>Ancient History</i>, p. 120</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrijvers2022" class="citation book cs1">Drijvers, Jan Willem (2022). <i>The Forgotten Reign of the Emperor Jovian (363-364): History and Fiction</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780197600702" title="Special:BookSources/9780197600702"><bdi>9780197600702</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+Reign+of+the+Emperor+Jovian+%28363-364%29%3A+History+and+Fiction&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=9780197600702&rft.aulast=Drijvers&rft.aufirst=Jan+Willem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJulian%27s+Persian+expedition" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p.841, 842</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, chap. XXIII., p. 769</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, chap. XXV., p. 843</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, p. 886</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gibbon, pp. 887–890</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>An Encyclopedia Of World History</i> (Houghton Mifflin Company Boston, 1952) Chap. II. <i>Ancient History</i>, p. 125</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>R. Andreotti, "L'impresa di Iuliano in Oriente" in <i>Historia</i> vol. 4 (1930) pp. 236–273</li> <li>Timothy D. Barnes, <i>Ammianus Marcellinus and the Representation of Historical Reality</i> (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8014-3526-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8014-3526-9">0-8014-3526-9</a>) pp. 164–165</li> <li>Glen Warren Bowersock, <i>Julian the Apostate</i> (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1978. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-48881-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-48881-4">0-674-48881-4</a>) pp. 106–119 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tScWQpJ6j0kC">Preview</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li>J. den Boeft, J. W. Drijvers, D. den Hengst, H. C. Teitler, <i>Philological and Historical Commentary on Ammianus Marcellinus XXIV</i>. Leiden: Brill, 2002 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mldRe0ZkCVYC">Preview</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li>Walter R. Chalmers, "Eunapius, Ammianus Marcellinus, and Zosimus on Julian's Persian Expedition" in <i>Classical Quarterly</i> n.s. vol. 10 (1960) pp. 152–160</li> <li>Franz Cumont, "La marche de l'empereur Julien d'Antioche à l'Euphrate" in F. Cumont, <i>Etudes syriennes</i> (Paris: Picard, 1917) pp. 1–33 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/tudessyriennes00cumouoft">Text at archive.org</a></li> <li>L. Dillemann, "Ammien Marcellin et les pays de l'Euphrate et du Tigre" in <i>Syria</i> vol. 38 (1961) p. 87 ff.</li> <li>M. H. Dodgeon, S. N. C. Lieu, <i>The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars: 363–628 AD: a narrative sourcebook</i> (London: Routledge, 1991) pp. 231–274 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=njwgd7YZHi8C">Preview (with different page numbers)</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li>Ch. W. Fornara, "Julian's Persian Expedition in Ammianus and Zosimus" in <i>Journal of Hellenic Studies</i> vol. 111 (1991) pp. 1–15</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Gibbon" title="Edward Gibbon">Edward Gibbon</a>, <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, The Modern Library, 1932, New York. Chap. XXIV., XXV., pp. 798–845</li> <li>David Hunt, "Julian" in <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Ancient_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Cambridge Ancient History">Cambridge Ancient History</a></i> vol. 13 (1998. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521302005" title="Special:BookSources/0521302005">0521302005</a>) pp. 44–77, esp. pp. 75–76 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zdoUNivK_hsC">Preview</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li>W. E. Kaegi, "Constantine's and Julian's Strategies of Strategic Surprise against the Persians" in <i>Athenaeum</i> n.s. vol. 69 (1981) pp. 209–213</li> <li>Erich Kettenhofen, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/julian-flavius-claudius-iulianus-roman-emperor">Julian</a>" in <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a> Online</i> (2009–2012)</li> <li>John Matthews, <i>The Roman Empire of Ammianus</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1989. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801839658" title="Special:BookSources/9780801839658">9780801839658</a>) pp. 140–161</li> <li>A. F. Norman, "Magnus in Ammianus, Eunapius, and Zosimus: New Evidence" in <i>Classical Quarterly' n.s. vol. 7 (1957) pp. 129–133</i></li> <li>F. Paschoud, ed., <i>Zosime: Histoire nouvelle. Vol. 2 pars 1</i>. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1979 (<i><a href="/wiki/Collection_Bud%C3%A9" title="Collection Budé">Collection Budé</a></i>)</li> <li>David S. Potter, <i>The Roman Empire at Bay: AD 180–395</i> (London: Routledge, 2004. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415100571" title="Special:BookSources/9780415100571">9780415100571</a>) pp. 518 et 720 <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Da6U4NaBMZAC">Preview</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a></li> <li>R. T. Ridley, "Notes on Julian's Persian Expedition (363)" in <i>Historia</i> vol. 22 (1973) pp. 317–330 esp. p. 326</li> <li>Gerhard Wirth, "Julians Perserkrieg. Kriterien einer Katastrophe" in Richard Klein, ed., <i>Julian Apostata</i> (Darmstadt, 1978) p. 455 ff.</li></ul> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Julian%27s_Persian_War" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Julian's Persian War">Julian's Persian War</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Julian" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Julian_(emperor)" title="Template:Julian (emperor)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Julian_(emperor)" title="Template talk:Julian (emperor)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Julian_(emperor)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Julian (emperor)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Julian" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedon_tribunal" title="Chalcedon tribunal">Chalcedon tribunal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_of_paganism_from_Julian_until_Valens" title="Restoration of paganism from Julian until Valens">Restoration of paganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military campaigns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Roman–Alamannic conflict</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Autun" title="Siege of Autun">Autun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Durocortorum" title="Battle of Durocortorum">Durocortorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brumath" title="Battle of Brumath">Brumath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Senonae" title="Siege of Senonae">Senonae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Strasbourg" title="Battle of Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Persian expedition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Pirisabora" title="Siege of Pirisabora">Pirisabora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Maiozamalcha" title="Siege of Maiozamalcha">Maiozamalcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ctesiphon_(363)" title="Battle of Ctesiphon (363)">Ctesiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maranga" title="Battle of Maranga">Maranga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Samarra_(363)" title="Battle of Samarra (363)">Samarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perso-Roman_Peace_Treaty_of_363" class="mw-redirect" title="Perso-Roman Peace Treaty of 363">Peace treaty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Against_the_Galileans" title="Against the Galileans">Against the Galileans</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Misopogon" title="Misopogon">Misopogon</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Basilina" title="Basilina">Basilina</a> (mother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helena_(wife_of_Julian)" title="Helena (wife of Julian)">Helena</a> (wife)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Constantius" title="Julius Constantius">Julius Constantius</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantius_Gallus" title="Constantius Gallus">Constantius Gallus</a> (brother)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mardonius_(philosopher)" title="Mardonius (philosopher)">Mardonius</a> (tutor)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oribasius" title="Oribasius">Oribasius</a> (physician)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salutius" title="Salutius">Salutius</a> (adviser)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Depictions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Ardashir_II" title="Coronation of Ardashir II">Coronation of Ardashir II</a></i> (379–383 relief)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julian_Romance" title="Julian Romance">Julian Romance</a></i> (4th–6th-century prose account)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Saint_Mercurius_slaying_Julian_the_Apostate_(St._George_church,_Struga)" title="Saint Mercurius slaying Julian the Apostate (St. George church, Struga)">Saint Mercurius slaying Julian the Apostate</a></i> (15th-century icon)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Emperor_and_Galilean" title="Emperor and Galilean">Emperor and Galilean</a></i> (1873 play)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Death_of_the_Gods" title="The Death of the Gods">The Death of the Gods</a></i> (1895 novel)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_l%27Apostata" title="Giuliano l'Apostata">Giuliano l'Apostata</a></i> (1919 film)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Second_Thoughts_(Butor_novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Thoughts (Butor novel)">Second Thoughts</a></i> (1957 novel)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julian_(novel)" title="Julian (novel)">Julian</a></i> (1964 novel)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fireball_(novel)" title="Fireball (novel)">Fireball</a></i> (1981 novel)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Dragon_Waiting" title="The Dragon Waiting">The Dragon Waiting</a></i> (1983 novel)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Column_of_Julianus" title="Column of Julianus">Column of Julianus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julian:_A_Christmas_Story" title="Julian: A Christmas Story">Julian: A Christmas Story</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Julian_Comstock:_A_Story_of_22nd-Century_America" title="Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America">Julian Comstock: A Story of 22nd-Century America</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_the_Gods" title="Worship of the Gods">Worship of the Gods</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&oldid=1258773607">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Julian%27s_Persian_expedition&oldid=1258773607</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div 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