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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consequentialism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequentialism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Consequentialism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequentialism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Utilitarianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Utilitarianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Utilitarianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Utilitarianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deontology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deontology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Deontology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deontology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agent-centered_and_patient-centered" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agent-centered_and_patient-centered"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Agent-centered and patient-centered </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agent-centered_and_patient-centered-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kantianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kantianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Kantianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kantianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Virtue_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Virtue_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Virtue ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Virtue_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Other traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Metaethics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Metaethics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Metaethics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Metaethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Basic concepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Realism,_relativism,_and_nihilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Realism,_relativism,_and_nihilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Realism, relativism, and nihilism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Realism,_relativism,_and_nihilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Naturalism_and_non-naturalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Naturalism_and_non-naturalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Naturalism and non-naturalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naturalism_and_non-naturalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cognitivism_and_non-cognitivism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cognitivism_and_non-cognitivism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Cognitivism and non-cognitivism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cognitivism_and_non-cognitivism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_knowledge" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_knowledge"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Moral knowledge </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_knowledge-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_motivation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_motivation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Moral motivation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_motivation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Applied ethics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Applied_ethics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Applied ethics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Applied_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bioethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bioethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Bioethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bioethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Business_and_professional_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Business_and_professional_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Business and professional ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Business_and_professional_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_subfields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_subfields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Other subfields </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_subfields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Related fields </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Related fields subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Related_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Value_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Value_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Value theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Value_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Moral_psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Moral_psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Moral psychology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Moral_psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descriptive_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descriptive_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Descriptive ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descriptive_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ethics</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 143 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-143" aria-hidden="true" > 143 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiek" title="Etiek – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Etiek" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ethik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%A5%E1%8A%90_%E1%88%9D%E1%8C%8D%E1%89%A3%E1%88%AD" title="ሥነ ምግባር – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሥነ ምግባር" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नैतिकता – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="नैतिकता" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="أخلاقيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أخلاقيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Etica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tika" title="Étika – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Étika" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82_%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="اخلاق فلسفه‌سی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اخلاق فلسفه‌سی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="নীতিশাস্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নীতিশাস্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BBn-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Lûn-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lûn-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этыка – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Этыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этыка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Этыка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Етика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Ethik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buhezegezh" title="Buhezegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Buhezegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica" title="Ètica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ètica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moeseg" title="Moeseg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Moeseg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Etik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ethik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eetika" title="Eetika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Eetika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%97%CE%B8%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Ηθική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ηθική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiko" title="Etiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Etiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="فلسفه اخلاق – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه اخلاق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Ethics" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B0afr%C3%B8%C3%B0i" title="Siðafrøði – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Siðafrøði" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89thique" title="Éthique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Éthique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyk" title="Etyk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Etyk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eitic" title="Eitic – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Eitic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="倫理學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="倫理學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guw mw-list-item"><a href="https://guw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nin%E1%BB%8Dm%E1%BA%B9" title="Ninọmẹ – Gun" lang="guw" hreflang="guw" data-title="Ninọmẹ" data-language-autonym="Gungbe" data-language-local-name="Gun" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gungbe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%A4%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="윤리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="윤리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Էթիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էթիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="नीतिशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नीतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiko" title="Etiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Etiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethica" title="Ethica – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Ethica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%C3%B0fr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Siðfræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Siðfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Etica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A8" title="פילוסופיה של המוסר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה של המוסר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tika" title="Étika – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Étika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiiki_(%C3%A9thique)" title="Etiiki (éthique) – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Etiiki (éthique)" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეთიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეთიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewnhynsegieth" title="Ewnhynsegieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Ewnhynsegieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maadili" title="Maadili – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Maadili" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiik" title="Etiik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Etiik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tik" title="Étik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Étik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exlaq" title="Exlaq – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Exlaq" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Etica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%88%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B4%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B3" title="ຈະລິຍະທຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຈະລິຍະທຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethica" title="Ethica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ethica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%92tika" title="Ētika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ētika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eethik" title="Eethik – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Eethik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B1" title="Эдеб – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Эдеб" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiek" title="Ethiek – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Ethiek" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Etica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/marde" title="marde – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="marde" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essomampisa" title="Essomampisa – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Essomampisa" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etega" title="Etega – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Etega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika_(filoz%C3%B3fia)" title="Etika (filozófia) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Etika (filozófia)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नैतिकता – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="नैतिकता" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target">मैथिली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Етика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="നീതിശാസ്ത്രം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="നീതിശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="नीतिशास्त्र – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नीतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%97%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ეთიკა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ეთიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Этикась – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Этикась" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%81%D1%81_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Ёс зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Ёс зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9C%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B7%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%84%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="လူ့ကျင့်ဝတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="လူ့ကျင့်ဝတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savasava" title="Savasava – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Savasava" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiek" title="Ethiek – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ethiek" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="नीतिशास्त्र – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नीतिशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="倫理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="倫理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eetik" title="Eetik – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Eetik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikk" title="Etikk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Etikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etikk" title="Etikk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Etikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etica" title="Etica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Etica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sakkoo(Ethics)" title="Sakkoo(Ethics) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sakkoo(Ethics)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਨੀਤੀ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨੀਤੀ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%86" title="ورتن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ورتن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="اخلاق – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="اخلاق" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etix" title="Etix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Etix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%91" title="ចរិយាមារយាទ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="ចរិយាមារយាទ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethik" title="Ethik – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Ethik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etyka" title="Etyka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Etyka" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tica" title="Ética – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ética" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qaraqalpaqsha</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahl%C3%A2q" title="Ahlâq – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Ahlâq" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Qırımtatarca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etic%C4%83" title="Etică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Etică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етіка – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Етіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%88tica" title="Ètica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Ètica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%A0%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA" title="සදාචාරය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සදාචාරය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Ethics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اخلاقيات – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="اخلاقيات" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82" title="فەلسەفەی ئەخلاق – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفەی ئەخلاق" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Етика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tika" title="Étika – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Étika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etiikka" title="Etiikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Etiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Etik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF" title="நன்னெறி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நன்னெறி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Этика – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Этика" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="จริยธรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="จริยธรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%BE%D2%9B%D0%B8%D1%91%D1%82" title="Ахлоқиёт – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Ахлоқиёт" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Etik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Етика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Етика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="اخلاقیات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="اخلاقیات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lwnzleixyoz" title="Lwnzleixyoz – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Lwnzleixyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Etik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lu%C3%A2n_l%C3%BD_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Luân lý học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Luân lý học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik%C3%A1" title="Etiká – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Etiká" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="倫理學 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="倫理學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matikhomele" title="Matikhomele – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Matikhomele" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Xitsonga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA" title="מידות – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="מידות" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%80%AB%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="倫理學 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="倫理學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik" title="Etik – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Etik" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Et%C4%97ka" title="Etėka – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Etėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%A6%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="伦理学 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伦理学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etika" title="Etika – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Etika" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etik%C9%99" title="Etikə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Etikə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tolışi</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9465#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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id="mw-indicator-featured-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Featured_articles*" title="This is a featured article. Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical study of morality</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ethics_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ethics (disambiguation)">Ethics (disambiguation)</a>.</div> Ethics is the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches include <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethics</a>. Normative ethics aims to find general principles that govern how people should act. Applied ethics examines concrete ethical problems in real-life situations, such as <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of animals">treatment of animals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business practices</a>. Metaethics explores the underlying assumptions and concepts of ethics. It asks whether there are objective moral facts, how moral knowledge is possible, and how moral judgments motivate people. Influential normative theories are <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>. According to consequentialists, an act is right if it leads to the best consequences. Deontologists focus on acts themselves, saying that they must adhere to <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duties</a>, like telling the truth and keeping promises. Virtue ethics sees the manifestation of <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>, as the fundamental principle of morality. Ethics is closely connected to <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">value theory</a>, which studies the nature and types of <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">value</a>, like the contrast between <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">intrinsic and instrumental value</a>. <a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a> is a related empirical field and investigates psychological processes involved in morality, such as <a href="/wiki/Moral_reasoning" title="Moral reasoning">reasoning</a> and the formation of <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">character</a>. <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a> describes the dominant moral codes and beliefs in different societies and considers their historical dimension. The <a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">history of ethics</a> started in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a> with the development of ethical principles and theories in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a>. This period saw the emergence of ethical teachings associated with <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, and contributions of philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. During the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a>, ethical thought was strongly influenced by religious teachings. In the <a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">modern period</a>, this focus shifted to a more <a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">secular approach</a> concerned with moral experience, <a href="/wiki/Practical_reason" title="Practical reason">reasons for acting</a>, and the consequences of actions. An influential development in the 20th century was the emergence of metaethics. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition </h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Bust of Aristotle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/180px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/270px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Head_of_Aristotle.jpg/360px-Head_of_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="636" data-file-height="850" /></a><figcaption>According to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, how to lead a good life is one of the central questions of ethics.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Ethics, also called moral philosophy, is the study of moral phenomena. It is one of the main branches of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> and investigates the nature of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a> and the principles that govern the moral <a href="/wiki/Evaluation" title="Evaluation">evaluation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">conduct</a>, <a href="/wiki/Character_traits" class="mw-redirect" title="Character traits">character traits</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>. It examines what <a href="/wiki/Moral_obligation" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral obligation">obligations</a> people have, what behavior is right and wrong, and how to lead a <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> life. Some of its key questions are "How should one live?" and "What gives <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaning to life</a>?".<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> In contemporary philosophy, ethics is usually divided into <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">metaethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Morality is about what people ought to do rather than what they actually do, what they want to do, or what <a href="/wiki/Social_convention" class="mw-redirect" title="Social convention">social conventions</a> require. As a rational and systematic field of inquiry, ethics studies practical reasons why people should act one way rather than another. Most ethical theories seek universal principles that express a general standpoint of what is objectively right and wrong.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> In a slightly different sense, the term ethics can also refer to individual ethical theories in the form of a rational system of moral principles, such as <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_ethics" title="Aristotelian ethics">Aristotelian ethics</a>, and to a moral code that certain societies, social groups, or professions follow, as in <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The English word ethics has its roots in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> word <a href="/wiki/Ethos" title="Ethos">êthos</a> (ἦθος), meaning 'character' and 'personal disposition'. This word gave rise to the Ancient Greek word ēthikós (ἠθικός), which was translated into <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as ethica and entered the English language in the 15th century through the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> term éthique.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The term morality originates in the Latin word moralis, meaning 'manners' and 'character'. It was introduced into the English language during the <a href="/wiki/Middle_English" title="Middle English">Middle English</a> period through the Old French term moralité.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The terms ethics and morality are usually used interchangeably but some philosophers distinguish between the two. According to one view, morality focuses on what moral obligations people have while ethics is broader and includes ideas about what is good and how to lead a meaningful life. Another difference is that codes of conduct in specific areas, such as business and environment, are usually termed ethics rather than morality, as in <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Normative_ethics">Normative ethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Normative ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></div> Normative ethics is the philosophical study of ethical conduct and investigates the fundamental principles of <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>. It aims to discover and justify general answers to questions like "How should one live?" and "How should people act?", usually in the form of universal or domain-independent principles that determine whether an act is right or wrong.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> For example, given the particular impression that it is wrong to set a child on fire for fun, normative ethics aims to find more general principles that explain why this is the case, like the principle that one should not cause extreme <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Innocent" class="mw-redirect" title="Innocent">innocent</a>, which may itself be explained in terms of a more general principle.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Many theories of normative ethics also aim to guide behavior by helping people make moral <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decisions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Theories in normative ethics state how people should act or what kind of behavior is correct. They do not aim to describe how people normally act, what moral beliefs ordinary people have, how these beliefs change over time, or what <a href="/wiki/Ethical_code" title="Ethical code">ethical codes</a> are upheld in certain social groups. These topics belong to <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a> and are studied in fields like <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a> rather than normative ethics.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Some systems of normative ethics arrive at a single principle covering all possible cases. Others encompass a small set of basic rules that address all or at least the most important moral considerations.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> One difficulty for systems with several basic principles is that these principles may conflict with each other in some cases and lead to <a href="/wiki/Ethical_dilemma" title="Ethical dilemma">ethical dilemmas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Distinct theories in normative ethics suggest different principles as the foundation of morality. The three most influential schools of thought are <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> These schools are usually presented as exclusive alternatives, but depending on how they are defined, they can overlap and do not necessarily exclude one another.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> In some cases, they differ in which acts they see as right or wrong. In other cases, they recommend the same course of action but provide different <a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">justifications</a> for why it is right.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Consequentialism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></div> Consequentialism, also called teleological ethics,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[a]</a> says that morality depends on consequences. According to the most common view, an act is right if it brings the best future. This means that there is no alternative course of action that has better consequences.<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> A key aspect of consequentialist theories is that they provide a characterization of what is good and then define what is right in terms of what is good.<a href="#cite_note-Crisp_2005_200–201-22">[21]</a> For example, classical <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> says that pleasure is good and that the action leading to the most overall pleasure is right.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> Consequentialism has been discussed indirectly since the formulation of classical utilitarianism in the late 18th century. A more explicit analysis of this view happened in the 20th century, when the term was coined by <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Consequentialists usually understand the consequences of an action in a very wide sense that includes the totality of its effects. This is based on the idea that actions make a difference in the world by bringing about a <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> chain of events that would not have existed otherwise.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> A core intuition behind consequentialism is that the future should be shaped to achieve the best possible outcome.<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> The act itself is usually not seen as part of the consequences. This means that if an act has <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">intrinsic value</a> or disvalue, it is not included as a factor. Some consequentialists see this as a flaw, saying that all value-relevant factors need to be considered. They try to avoid this complication by including the act itself as part of the consequences. A related approach is to characterize consequentialism not in terms of consequences but in terms of outcome, with the outcome being defined as the act together with its consequences.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> Most forms of consequentialism are agent-neutral. This means that the value of consequences is assessed from a neutral perspective, that is, acts should have consequences that are good in general and not just good for the agent. It is controversial whether agent-relative moral theories, like <a href="/wiki/Ethical_egoism" title="Ethical egoism">ethical egoism</a>, should be considered as types of consequentialism.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Types">Types</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> There are many different types of consequentialism. They differ based on what type of entity they evaluate, what consequences they take into consideration, and how they determine the value of consequences.<a href="#cite_note-29">[28]</a> Most theories assess the moral value of acts. However, consequentialism can also be used to evaluate <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Character_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Character trait">character traits</a>, rules, and <a href="/wiki/Policies" class="mw-redirect" title="Policies">policies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[29]</a> Many types assess the value of consequences based on whether they promote happiness or suffering. But there are also alternative evaluative principles, such as <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desire</a> satisfaction, <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Friendship" title="Friendship">friendship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, and self-perfection.<a href="#cite_note-31">[30]</a> Some forms of consequentialism hold that there is only a <a href="/wiki/Axiology#Monism_and_pluralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">single source of value</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_2021_loc=§_1._Deontology's_Foil:_Consequentialism-32">[31]</a> The most prominent among them is <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a>, which states that the moral value of acts only depends on the <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">suffering</a> they cause.<a href="#cite_note-33">[32]</a> An alternative approach says that there are many different sources of value, which all contribute to one overall value.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander_2021_loc=§_1._Deontology's_Foil:_Consequentialism-32">[31]</a> Before the 20th century, consequentialists were only concerned with the total of value or the aggregate good. In the 20th century, alternative views were developed that additionally consider the distribution of value. One of them states that an equal distribution of goods is better than an unequal distribution even if the aggregate good is the same.<a href="#cite_note-34">[33]</a> There are disagreements about which consequences should be assessed. An important distinction is between act consequentialism and rule consequentialism. According to act consequentialism, the consequences of an act determine its moral value. This means that there is a direct relation between the consequences of an act and its moral value. Rule consequentialism, by contrast, holds that an act is right if it follows a certain set of rules. Rule consequentialism determines the best rules by considering their outcomes at a community level. People should follow the rules that lead to the best consequences when everyone in the community follows them. This implies that the relation between an act and its consequences is indirect. For example, if telling the truth is one of the best rules, then according to rule consequentialism, a person should tell the truth even in specific cases where lying would lead to better consequences.<a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> Another disagreement is between actual and expected consequentialism. According to the traditional view, only the actual consequences of an act affect its moral value. One difficulty of this view is that many consequences cannot be known in advance. This means that in some cases, even well-planned and intentioned acts are morally wrong if they inadvertently lead to negative outcomes. An alternative perspective states that what matters are not the actual consequences but the expected consequences. This view takes into account that when deciding what to do, people have to rely on their limited knowledge of the total consequences of their actions. According to this view, a course of action has positive moral value despite leading to an overall negative outcome if it had the highest <a href="/wiki/Expected_value" title="Expected value">expected value</a>, for example, because the negative outcome could not be anticipated or was unlikely.<a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a> A further difference is between <a href="/wiki/Maximization_(psychology)" title="Maximization (psychology)">maximizing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Satisficing" title="Satisficing">satisficing</a> consequentialism. According to maximizing consequentialism, only the best possible act is morally permitted. This means that acts with positive consequences are wrong if there are alternatives with even better consequences. One criticism of maximizing consequentialism is that it demands too much by requiring that people do significantly more than they are socially expected to. For example, if the best action for someone with a good salary would be to donate 70% of their income to charity, it would be morally wrong for them to only donate 65%. Satisficing consequentialism, by contrast, only requires that an act is "good enough" even if it is not the best possible alternative. According to this view, it is possible to do more than one is morally required to do.<a href="#cite_note-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[b]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a> is one of the earliest forms of consequentialism. It arose in the 5th century BCE and argued that political action should promote justice as a means to increase the welfare of the people.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Utilitarianism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></div> The most well-known form of consequentialism is utilitarianism. In its classical form, it is an act consequentialism that sees <a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">happiness</a> as the only source of intrinsic value. This means that an act is morally right if it produces "the greatest good for the greatest number" by increasing happiness and reducing suffering. Utilitarians do not deny that other things also have value, like health, friendship, and knowledge. However, they deny that these things have intrinsic value. Instead, they say that they have extrinsic value because they affect happiness and suffering. In this regard, they are desirable as a means but, unlike happiness, not as an end.<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> The view that pleasure is the only thing with intrinsic value is called ethical or <a href="/wiki/Evaluative_hedonism" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaluative hedonism">evaluative hedonism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:186px;max-width:186px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:250px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Jeremy Bentham" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/184px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="184" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/276px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/368px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:250px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company,_c1870.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of John Stuart Mill" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/200px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/300px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg/400px-John_Stuart_Mill_by_London_Stereoscopic_Company%2C_c1870.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1274" data-file-height="1600" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> are the founding fathers of classical utilitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a></div></div></div></div> Classical utilitarianism was initially formulated by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> at the end of the 18th century and further developed by <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a>. Bentham introduced the <a href="/wiki/Hedonic_calculus" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonic calculus">hedonic calculus</a> to assess the value of consequences. Two key aspects of the hedonic calculus are the intensity and the duration of pleasure. According to this view, a pleasurable experience has a high value if it has a high intensity and lasts for a long time. A common criticism of Bentham's utilitarianism argued that its focus on the intensity of pleasure promotes an immoral lifestyle centered around indulgence in sensory gratification. Mill responded to this criticism by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures. He stated that higher pleasures, like the intellectual satisfaction of reading a book, are more valuable than lower pleasures, like the sensory enjoyment of food and drink, even if their intensity and duration are the same.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> Since its original formulation, many variations of utilitarianism have developed, including the difference between <a href="/wiki/Act_utilitarianism" title="Act utilitarianism">act</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rule_utilitarianism" title="Rule utilitarianism">rule utilitarianism</a> and between maximizing and satisficing utilitarianism.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deontology">Deontology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Deontology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></div> Deontology assesses the moral rightness of actions based on a set of <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">norms</a> or principles. These norms describe the requirements that all actions need to follow.<a href="#cite_note-46">[44]</a> They may include principles like telling the truth, keeping <a href="/wiki/Promise" title="Promise">promises</a>, and not intentionally harming others.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> Unlike consequentialists, deontologists hold that the validity of general moral principles does not directly depend on their consequences. They state that these principles should be followed in every case since they express how actions are inherently right or wrong. According to moral philosopher <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">David Ross</a>, it is wrong to break a promise even if no harm comes from it.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> Deontologists are interested in which actions are right and often allow that there is a gap between what is right and what is good.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Many focus on prohibitions and describe which acts are forbidden under any circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-50">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Agent-centered_and_patient-centered">Agent-centered and patient-centered</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Agent-centered and patient-centered">edit</a>]</div> Agent-centered deontological theories focus on the <a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">person who acts</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">duties</a> they have. Agent-centered theories often focus on the motives and intentions behind people's actions, highlighting the importance of acting for the right reasons. They tend to be agent-relative, meaning that the reasons for which people should act depend on personal circumstances. For example, a parent has a special obligation to their child, while a stranger does not have this kind of obligation toward a child they do not know. Patient-centered theories, by contrast, focus on the people affected by actions and the rights they have. An example is the requirement to treat other people as ends and not merely as a means to an end.<a href="#cite_note-51">[49]</a> This requirement can be used to argue, for example, that it is wrong to kill a person against their will even if this act would save the lives of several others. Patient-centered deontological theories are usually agent-neutral, meaning that they apply equally to everyone in a situation, regardless of their specific role or position.<a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kantianism">Kantianism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kantianism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Oil painting of Immanuel Kant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/180px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/270px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg/360px-Immanuel_Kant_-_Gemaelde_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1009" data-file-height="1317" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> formulated a deontological system based on universal laws that apply to all <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> creatures.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) is one of the most well-known deontologists.<a href="#cite_note-53">[51]</a> He states that reaching outcomes that people desire, such as being happy, is not the main purpose of moral actions. Instead, he argues that there are universal principles that apply to everyone independent of their desires. He uses the term <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a> for these principles, saying that they have their source in the structure of <a href="/wiki/Practical_reason" title="Practical reason">practical reason</a> and are true for all <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rational</a> agents. According to Kant, to act morally is to act in agreement with reason as expressed by these principles<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> while violating them is both immoral and irrational.<a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a> Kant provided several formulations of the categorical imperative. One formulation says that a person should only follow <a href="/wiki/Maxim_(philosophy)" title="Maxim (philosophy)">maxims</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[c]</a> that can be <a href="/wiki/Universalizability" title="Universalizability">universalized</a>. This means that the person would want everyone to follow the same maxim as a universal law applicable to everyone. Another formulation states that one should treat other people always as ends in themselves and never as mere means to an end. This formulation focuses on respecting and valuing other people for their own sake rather than using them in the pursuit of personal goals.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> In either case, Kant says that what matters is to have a good will. A person has a good will if they respect the moral law and form their intentions and motives in agreement with it. Kant states that actions motivated in such a way are unconditionally good, meaning that they are good even in cases where they result in undesirable consequences.<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Others">Others</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Contractualism" title="Contractualism">Contractualism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse ethics</a></div> Divine command theory says that God is the source of morality. It states that moral laws are divine commands and that to act morally is to obey and follow <a href="/wiki/God%27s_will" class="mw-redirect" title="God's will">God's will</a>. While all divine command theorists agree that morality depends on God, there are disagreements about the precise content of the divine commands, and theorists belonging to different religions tend to propose different moral laws.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> For example, Christian and Jewish divine command theorists may argue that the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Commandments" title="Ten Commandments">Ten Commandments</a> express God's will<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> while Muslims may reserve this role for the teachings of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a>.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> Contractualists reject the reference to God as the source of morality and argue instead that morality is based on an explicit or implicit <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> between humans. They state that actual or hypothetical <a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">consent</a> to this contract is the source of moral norms and duties. To determine which duties people have, contractualists often rely on a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> about what rational people under ideal circumstances would agree on. For example, if they would agree that people should not lie then there is a moral obligation to refrain from lying. Because it relies on consent, contractualism is often understood as a patient-centered form of deontology.<a href="#cite_note-63">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[d]</a> Famous social contract theorists include <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[62]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JuergenHabermas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Jürgen Habermas" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/220px-JuergenHabermas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/330px-JuergenHabermas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/JuergenHabermas.jpg/440px-JuergenHabermas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2939" data-file-height="1959" /></a><figcaption>According to <a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">discourse ethics</a>, as formulated by <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>, moral norms are justified by <a href="/wiki/Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">rational discourse</a> within society. </figcaption></figure> Discourse ethics also focuses on social agreement on moral norms but says that this agreement is based on <a href="/wiki/Communicative_rationality" title="Communicative rationality">communicative rationality</a>. It aims to arrive at moral norms for pluralistic modern societies that encompass a diversity of viewpoints. A universal moral norm is seen as valid if all rational discourse participants do or would approve. This way, morality is not imposed by a single moral authority but arises from the moral discourse within society. This discourse should aim to establish an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_speech_situation" title="Ideal speech situation">ideal speech situation</a> to ensure fairness and inclusivity. In particular, this means that discourse participants are <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">free to voice</a> their different opinions without coercion but are at the same time required to justify them using rational argumentation.<a href="#cite_note-67">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Virtue_ethics">Virtue ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Virtue ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue ethics</a></div> The main concern of virtue ethics is how <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> are expressed in actions. As such, it is neither directly interested in the consequences of actions nor in universal moral duties.<a href="#cite_note-68">[64]</a> Virtues are positive character traits like <a href="/wiki/Honesty" title="Honesty">honesty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kindness" title="Kindness">kindness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>. They are usually understood as <a href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">dispositions</a> to feel, decide, and act in a certain manner by being wholeheartedly committed to this manner. Virtues contrast with <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">vices</a>, which are their harmful counterparts.<a href="#cite_note-69">[65]</a> Virtue theorists usually say that the mere possession of virtues by itself is not sufficient. Instead, people should manifest virtues in their actions. An important factor is the practical wisdom, also called <a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">phronesis</a>, of knowing when, how, and which virtue to express. For example, a lack of practical wisdom may lead courageous people to perform morally wrong actions by taking unnecessary risks that should better be avoided.<a href="#cite_note-70">[66]</a> Different types of virtue ethics differ on how they understand virtues and their role in practical life. <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonism</a> is the original form of virtue theory developed in Ancient Greek philosophy and draws a close relation between virtuous behavior and happiness. It states that people flourish by living a virtuous life. Eudaimonist theories often hold that virtues are positive potentials residing in human nature and that actualizing these potentials results in leading a good and happy life.<a href="#cite_note-Hursthouse_2023_loc=§_2._Forms_of_Virtue_Ethics-71">[67]</a> Agent-based theories, by contrast, see happiness only as a side effect and focus instead on the admirable traits and motivational characteristics expressed while acting. This is often combined with the idea that one can learn from <a href="/wiki/Role_model" title="Role model">exceptional individuals</a> what those characteristics are.<a href="#cite_note-Hursthouse_2023_loc=§_2._Forms_of_Virtue_Ethics-71">[67]</a> Feminist <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">ethics of care</a> are another form of virtue ethics. They emphasize the importance of <a href="/wiki/Interpersonal_relationship" title="Interpersonal relationship">interpersonal relationships</a> and say that benevolence by caring for the <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> of others is one of the key virtues.<a href="#cite_note-72">[68]</a> Influential schools of virtue ethics in ancient philosophy were <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE), each virtue<a href="#cite_note-74">[e]</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Golden_mean_(philosophy)" title="Golden mean (philosophy)">golden mean</a> between two types of vices: excess and deficiency. For example, courage is a virtue that lies between the deficient state of <a href="/wiki/Cowardice" title="Cowardice">cowardice</a> and the excessive state of <a href="/wiki/Recklessness_(psychology)" title="Recklessness (psychology)">recklessness</a>. Aristotle held that virtuous action leads to happiness and makes people flourish in life.<a href="#cite_note-75">[70]</a> Stoicism emerged about 300 BCE<a href="#cite_note-76">[71]</a> and taught that, through virtue alone, people can achieve happiness characterized by a <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">peaceful state of mind</a> free from emotional disturbances. The Stoics advocated rationality and self-mastery to achieve this state.<a href="#cite_note-77">[72]</a> In the 20th century, virtue ethics experienced a resurgence thanks to philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Anscombe" class="mw-redirect" title="Elizabeth Anscombe">Elizabeth Anscombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_traditions">Other traditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Other traditions">edit</a>]</div> There are many other schools of normative ethics in addition to the three main traditions. <a href="/wiki/Pragmatist_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatist ethics">Pragmatist ethics</a> focuses on the role of practice and holds that one of the key tasks of ethics is to solve practical problems in concrete situations. It has certain similarities to utilitarianism and its focus on consequences but concentrates more on how morality is embedded in and relative to social and cultural contexts. Pragmatists tend to give more importance to <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habits</a> than to conscious deliberation and understand morality as a habit that should be shaped in the right way.<a href="#cite_note-79">[74]</a> <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodern</a> ethics agrees with pragmatist ethics about the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural relativity">cultural relativity</a> of morality. It rejects the idea that there are objective moral principles that apply universally to all cultures and traditions. It asserts that there is no one coherent ethical code since morality itself is irrational and humans are morally ambivalent beings.<a href="#cite_note-80">[75]</a> Postmodern ethics instead focuses on how moral demands arise in specific situations as one encounters other people.<a href="#cite_note-81">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Buddha statue" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg/180px-EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="334" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg/270px-EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg/360px-EMB_-_Buddha_stehend.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="3420" /></a><figcaption>The practices of <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">compassion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">loving-kindness</a> are key elements of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a>.</figcaption></figure> Ethical egoism is the view that people should act in their <a href="/wiki/Self-interest" title="Self-interest">self-interest</a> or that an action is morally right if the person acts for their own benefit. It differs from <a href="/wiki/Psychological_egoism" title="Psychological egoism">psychological egoism</a>, which states that people actually follow their self-interest without claiming that they should do so. Ethical egoists may act in agreement with commonly accepted moral expectations and benefit other people, for example, by keeping promises, helping friends, and cooperating with others. However, they do so only as a means to promote their self-interest. Ethical egoism is often criticized as an immoral and <a href="/wiki/Contradictory" class="mw-redirect" title="Contradictory">contradictory</a> position.<a href="#cite_note-82">[77]</a> Normative ethics has a central place <a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">in most religions</a>. Key aspects of <a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish ethics</a> are to follow the <a href="/wiki/613_commandments" title="613 commandments">613 commandments of God</a> according to the <a href="/wiki/Mitzvah" title="Mitzvah">Mitzvah</a> duty found in the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Tikkun_Olam" class="mw-redirect" title="Tikkun Olam">take responsibility for societal welfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a> puts less emphasis on following precise laws and teaches instead the practice of <a href="/wiki/Agape" title="Agape">selfless love</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a> to "Love your neighbor as yourself".<a href="#cite_note-84">[79]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars of Islam</a> constitute a basic framework of Muslim ethics and focus on the practice of <a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">faith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salat" class="mw-redirect" title="Salat">prayer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">charity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sawm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sawm">fasting during Ramadan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">pilgrimage to Mecca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-85">[80]</a> Buddhists emphasize the importance of <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">compassion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mett%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Mettā">loving-kindness</a> towards all sentient entities.<a href="#cite_note-86">[81]</a> A similar outlook is found in <a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>, which has <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">non-violence</a> as its principal virtue.<a href="#cite_note-87">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Duty</a> is a central aspect of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu ethics">Hindu ethics</a> and is about fulfilling social obligations, which may vary depending on <a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">a person's social class</a> and <a href="/wiki/%C4%80%C5%9Brama_(stage)" title="Āśrama (stage)">stage of life</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[83]</a> <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> places great emphasis on harmony in society and sees <a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">benevolence</a> as a key virtue.<a href="#cite_note-89">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a> extends the importance of living in harmony to the whole world and teaches that people should practice <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">effortless action</a> by following <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">the natural flow of the universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[85]</a> Indigenous belief systems, like <a href="/wiki/Native_American_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American philosophy">Native American philosophy</a> and the African <a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Ubuntu philosophy</a>, often emphasize the interconnectedness of all living beings and the environment while stressing the importance of living in harmony with nature.<a href="#cite_note-91">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Metaethics">Metaethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Metaethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Metaethics</a></div> Metaethics is the branch of ethics that examines the nature, foundations, and scope of <a href="/wiki/Moral_reasoning" title="Moral reasoning">moral judgments</a>, concepts, and values. It is not interested in which <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">actions</a> are right but in what it means for an action to be right and whether moral judgments are <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> and can be true at all. It further examines the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">meaning</a> of morality and other moral terms.<a href="#cite_note-92">[87]</a> Metaethics is a <a href="/wiki/Metatheory" title="Metatheory">metatheory</a> that operates on a higher level of abstraction than normative ethics by investigating its underlying assumptions. Metaethical theories typically do not directly judge which normative ethical theories are correct. However, metaethical theories can still influence normative theories by examining their foundational principles.<a href="#cite_note-93">[88]</a> Metaethics overlaps with various branches of philosophy. On the level of <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontology</a>,<a href="#cite_note-95">[f]</a> it examines whether there are <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> moral facts.<a href="#cite_note-96">[90]</a> Concerning <a href="/wiki/Semantics" title="Semantics">semantics</a>, it asks what the meaning of moral terms are and whether moral statements have a <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[91]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Epistemological" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological">epistemological</a> side of metaethics discusses whether and how people can acquire moral knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-98">[92]</a> Metaethics overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a> because of its interest in how moral judgments motivate people to act. It also overlaps with <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a> since it aims to explain how <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">cross-cultural differences</a> affect moral assessments.<a href="#cite_note-99">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_concepts">Basic concepts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Basic concepts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deontic_square.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the deontic square" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Deontic_square.svg/260px-Deontic_square.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Deontic_square.svg/390px-Deontic_square.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Deontic_square.svg/520px-Deontic_square.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="460" /></a><figcaption>The deontic square visualizes the relations between possible moral statuses of an act.<a href="#cite_note-100">[94]</a></figcaption></figure> Metaethics examines basic ethical concepts and their relations. Ethics is primarily concerned with <a href="/wiki/Normative_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative statement">normative statements</a> about what <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">ought</a> to be the case, in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Positive_statement" class="mw-redirect" title="Positive statement">descriptive statements</a>, which are about what is the case.<a href="#cite_note-101">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-104">[g]</a> <a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duties</a> and <a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">obligations</a> express requirements of what people ought to do.<a href="#cite_note-105">[98]</a> Duties are sometimes defined as counterparts of the <a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">rights</a> that always accompany them. According to this view, someone has a duty to benefit another person if this other person has the right to receive that benefit.<a href="#cite_note-106">[99]</a> Obligation and <a href="/wiki/Permission_(philosophy)" title="Permission (philosophy)">permission</a> are contrasting terms that can be defined through each other: to be obligated to do something means that one is not permitted not to do it and to be permitted to do something means that one is not obligated not to do it.<a href="#cite_note-auto-107">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[h]</a> Some theorists define obligations in terms of <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">values</a> or what is <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a>. When used in a general sense, good contrasts with bad. When describing people and their intentions, the term <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> rather than bad is often employed.<a href="#cite_note-109">[101]</a> Obligations are used to assess the moral status of actions, <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motives</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Character_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Character trait">character traits</a>.<a href="#cite_note-110">[102]</a> An action is morally right if it is in tune with a person's obligations and morally wrong if it violates them.<a href="#cite_note-111">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/Supererogation" title="Supererogation">Supererogation</a> is a special moral status that applies to cases in which the agent does more than is morally required of them.<a href="#cite_note-112">[104]</a> To be <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">morally responsible</a> for an action usually means that the person possesses and exercises certain capacities or some form of <a href="/wiki/Control_(psychology)" title="Control (psychology)">control</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[i]</a> If a person is morally responsible then it is appropriate to respond to them in certain ways, for example, by <a href="/wiki/Praise" title="Praise">praising</a> or <a href="/wiki/Blame" title="Blame">blaming</a> them.<a href="#cite_note-115">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism,_relativism,_and_nihilism">Realism, relativism, and nihilism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Realism, relativism, and nihilism">edit</a>]</div> A major debate in metaethics is about the ontological status of morality, questioning whether ethical values and principles are real. It examines whether moral <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> exist as objective features independent of the human <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> and <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a> rather than as subjective constructs or expressions of personal preferences and <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">cultural norms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-116">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realists</a> accept the claim that there are objective moral facts. This view implies that moral values are mind-independent aspects of reality and that there is an absolute fact about whether a given action is right or wrong. A consequence of this view is that moral requirements have the same ontological status as non-moral facts: it is an objective fact whether there is an obligation to keep a promise just as it is an objective fact whether a thing is rectangular.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-116">[107]</a> Moral realism is often associated with the claim that there are universal ethical principles that apply equally to everyone.<a href="#cite_note-117">[108]</a> It implies that if two people disagree about a moral evaluation then at least one of them is wrong. This observation is sometimes taken as an argument against moral realism since moral disagreement is widespread in most fields.<a href="#cite_note-118">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Moral relativists</a> reject the idea that morality is an objective feature of reality. They argue instead that moral principles are human inventions. This means that a behavior is not objectively right or wrong but only subjectively right or wrong relative to a certain standpoint. Moral standpoints may differ between persons, cultures, and historical periods.<a href="#cite_note-119">[110]</a> For example, moral statements like "Slavery is wrong" or "Suicide is permissible" may be true in one culture and false in another.<a href="#cite_note-120">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[j]</a> Some moral relativists say that moral systems are constructed to serve certain goals such as social coordination. According to this view, different societies and different social groups within a society construct different moral systems based on their diverging purposes.<a href="#cite_note-123">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a> provides a different explanation, stating that morality arises from moral emotions, which are not the same for everyone.<a href="#cite_note-124">[114]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Moral nihilists</a> deny the existence of moral facts. They reject the existence of both objective moral facts defended by moral realism and subjective moral facts defended by moral relativism. They believe that the basic assumptions underlying moral claims are misguided. Some moral nihilists conclude from this that anything is allowed. A slightly different view emphasizes that moral nihilism is not itself a moral position about what is allowed and prohibited but the rejection of any moral position.<a href="#cite_note-125">[115]</a> Moral nihilism, like moral relativism, recognizes that people judge actions as right or wrong from different perspectives. However, it disagrees that this practice involves morality and sees it as just one type of human behavior.<a href="#cite_note-126">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Naturalism_and_non-naturalism">Naturalism and non-naturalism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Naturalism and non-naturalism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></div> A central disagreement among moral realists is between naturalism and non-naturalism. Naturalism states that moral properties are <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">natural</a> properties accessible to <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical observation</a>. They are similar to the natural properties investigated by the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, like color and shape.<a href="#cite_note-127">[117]</a> Some moral naturalists hold that moral properties are a unique and basic type of natural property.<a href="#cite_note-129">[k]</a> Another view states that moral properties are real but not a fundamental part of reality and can be reduced to other natural properties, such as properties describing the causes of <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[119]</a> Non-naturalism argues that moral properties form part of reality and argues that moral features are not identical or reducible to natural properties. This view is usually motivated by the idea that moral properties are unique because they express what should be the case.<a href="#cite_note-131">[120]</a> Proponents of this position often emphasize this uniqueness by claiming that it is a <a href="/wiki/Naturalistic_fallacy" title="Naturalistic fallacy">fallacy to define ethics in terms of natural entities</a> or to infer prescriptive from descriptive statements.<a href="#cite_note-132">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cognitivism_and_non-cognitivism">Cognitivism and non-cognitivism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cognitivism and non-cognitivism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a></div> The metaethical debate between cognitivism and non-cognitivism is about the meaning of moral statements and is a part of the study of semantics. According to cognitivism, moral statements like "Abortion is morally wrong" and "Going to war is never morally justified" are truth-apt, meaning that they all have a truth value: they are either true or false. Cognitivism claims that moral statements have a truth value but is not interested in which truth value they have. It is often seen as the default position since moral statements resemble other statements, like "Abortion is a medical procedure" or "Going to war is a political decision", which have a truth value.<a href="#cite_note-133">[122]</a> There is a close relation between the semantic theory of cognitivism and the ontological theory of moral realism. Moral realists assert that moral facts exist. This can be used to explain why moral statements are true or false: a statement is true if it is consistent with the facts and false otherwise. As a result, philosophers who accept one theory often accept the other as well. An exception is <a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">error theory</a>, which combines cognitivism with moral nihilism by claiming that all moral statements are false because there are no moral facts.<a href="#cite_note-134">[123]</a> Non-cognitivism is the view that moral statements lack a truth value. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" is neither true nor false. Some non-cognitivists claim that moral statements have no meaning at all. A different interpretation is that they have another type of meaning. Emotivism says that they articulate emotional attitudes. According to this view, the statement "Murder is wrong" expresses that the speaker has a negative moral attitude towards murder or disapproves of it. <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Prescriptivism</a>, by contrast, understands moral statements as <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">commands</a>. According to this view, stating that "Murder is wrong" expresses a command like "Do not commit murder".<a href="#cite_note-135">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_knowledge">Moral knowledge</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Moral knowledge">edit</a>]</div> The epistemology of ethics studies whether or how one can know moral truths. <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalist</a> views state that some moral beliefs are basic and do not require further justification. <a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Ethical intuitionism</a> is one such view that says that humans have a <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">special cognitive faculty</a> through which they can know right from wrong. Intuitionists often argue that general moral truths, like "Lying is wrong", are <a href="/wiki/Self-evident" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-evident">self-evident</a> and that it is possible to <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">know them without relying on empirical experience</a>. A different foundationalist position focuses on particular observations rather than general intuitions. It says that if people are confronted with a concrete moral situation, they can perceive whether right or wrong conduct was involved.<a href="#cite_note-Sayre-McCord_2023_loc=§_5._Moral_Epistemology-136">[125]</a> In contrast to foundationalists, <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentists</a> say that there are no basic moral beliefs. They argue that beliefs form a complex network and mutually support and justify one another. According to this view, a moral belief can only amount to knowledge if it coheres with the rest of the beliefs in the network.<a href="#cite_note-Sayre-McCord_2023_loc=§_5._Moral_Epistemology-136">[125]</a> <a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Moral skeptics</a> say that people are unable to distinguish between right and wrong behavior, thereby rejecting the idea that moral knowledge is possible. A common objection by critics of moral skepticism asserts that it leads to <a href="/wiki/Immoral" class="mw-redirect" title="Immoral">immoral</a> behavior.<a href="#cite_note-137">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trolley_Problem.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with only one person and a switch to change tracks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/280px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/420px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Trolley_Problem.svg/560px-Trolley_Problem.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1345" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Trolley_problem" title="Trolley problem">trolley problem</a> is a thought experiment about the moral difference between doing and allowing harm.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">Thought experiments</a> are used as a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_methodology" title="Philosophical methodology">method</a> in ethics to decide between competing theories. They usually present an imagined situation involving an <a href="/wiki/Ethical_dilemma" title="Ethical dilemma">ethical dilemma</a> and explore how people's intuitions of right and wrong change based on specific details in that situation.<a href="#cite_note-138">[127]</a> For example, in <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Trolley_problem" title="Trolley problem">trolley problem</a>, a person can flip a switch to redirect a trolley from one track to another, thereby sacrificing the life of one person to save five. This scenario explores how the difference between doing and allowing harm affects moral obligations.<a href="#cite_note-139">[128]</a> Another thought experiment, proposed by <a href="/wiki/Judith_Jarvis_Thomson" title="Judith Jarvis Thomson">Judith Jarvis Thomson</a>, examines the moral implications of <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> by imagining a situation in which a person gets connected without their consent <a href="/wiki/A_Defense_of_Abortion#The_violinist" title="A Defense of Abortion">to an ill violinist</a>. In this scenario, the violinist dies if the connection is severed, similar to how a fetus dies in the case of abortion. The thought experiment explores whether it would be morally permissible to sever the connection within the next nine months.<a href="#cite_note-140">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_motivation">Moral motivation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Moral motivation">edit</a>]</div> On the level of psychology, metaethics is interested in how moral beliefs and experiences affect behavior. According to <a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism#Moral_philosophy" title="Internalism and externalism">motivational internalists</a>, there is a direct link between moral judgments and action. This means that every judgment about what is right motivates the person to act accordingly. For example, <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> defends a strong form of motivational internalism by holding that a person can only perform an evil deed if they are <a href="/wiki/Ignorance" title="Ignorance">unaware</a> that it is evil. Weaker forms of motivational internalism say that people can act against their own moral judgments, for example, because of the <a href="/wiki/Weakness_of_the_will" class="mw-redirect" title="Weakness of the will">weakness of the will</a>. Motivational externalists accept that people can judge an act to be morally required without feeling a reason to engage in it. This means that moral judgments do not always provide motivational force.<a href="#cite_note-141">[130]</a> A closely related question is whether moral judgments can provide motivation on their own or need to be accompanied by other <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a>, such as a <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desire</a> to act morally.<a href="#cite_note-142">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applied_ethics">Applied ethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Applied ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></div> Applied ethics, also known as practical ethics,<a href="#cite_note-143">[132]</a> is the branch of ethics and <a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">applied philosophy</a> that examines concrete moral problems encountered in real-life situations. Unlike normative ethics, it is not concerned with discovering or justifying universal ethical principles. Instead, it studies how those principles can be applied to specific domains of practical life, what consequences they have in these fields, and whether additional domain-specific factors need to be considered.<a href="#cite_note-144">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cesarean_section.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of surgery" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cesarean_section.jpg/220px-Cesarean_section.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cesarean_section.jpg/330px-Cesarean_section.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Cesarean_section.jpg/440px-Cesarean_section.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5376" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>One of the difficulties of applied ethics is to determine how to apply general ethical principles to concrete situations, like <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">medical procedures</a>.</figcaption></figure> One of the main challenges of applied ethics is to breach the gap between abstract universal theories and their application to concrete situations.<a href="#cite_note-145">[134]</a> For example, an in-depth understanding of Kantianism or utilitarianism is usually not sufficient to decide how to analyze the moral implications of a <a href="/wiki/Medical_procedure" title="Medical procedure">medical procedure</a> like abortion. One reason is that it may not be clear how the Kantian requirement of respecting everyone's <a href="/wiki/Personhood" title="Personhood">personhood</a> applies to a fetus or, from a utilitarian perspective, what the long-term consequences are in terms of the greatest good for the greatest number.<a href="#cite_note-146">[135]</a> This difficulty is particularly relevant to applied ethicists who employ a top-down <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methodology</a> by starting from universal ethical principles and applying them to particular cases within a specific domain.<a href="#cite_note-147">[136]</a> A different approach is to use a bottom-up methodology, known as <a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">casuistry</a>. This method does not start from universal principles but from moral intuitions about particular cases. It seeks to arrive at moral principles relevant to a specific domain, which may not be applicable to other domains.<a href="#cite_note-148">[137]</a> In either case, inquiry into applied ethics is often triggered by <a href="/wiki/Ethical_dilemma" title="Ethical dilemma">ethical dilemmas</a> in which a person is subject to conflicting moral requirements.<a href="#cite_note-149">[138]</a> Applied ethics covers issues belonging to both the <a href="/wiki/Private_sphere" title="Private sphere">private sphere</a>, like right conduct in the family and close relationships, and the <a href="/wiki/Public_sphere" title="Public sphere">public sphere</a>, like moral problems posed by new technologies and duties toward future generations.<a href="#cite_note-150">[139]</a> Major branches include <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">business ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">professional ethics</a>. There are many other branches, and their domains of inquiry often overlap.<a href="#cite_note-151">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bioethics">Bioethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Bioethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></div> Bioethics covers moral problems associated with <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">living organisms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biological" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological">biological</a> disciplines.<a href="#cite_note-152">[141]</a> A key problem in bioethics is how features such as <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, being able to feel pleasure and pain, <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a>, and personhood affect the moral status of entities. These differences concern, for example, how to treat non-living entities like rocks and non-sentient entities like plants in contrast to animals, and whether humans have a different moral status than other animals.<a href="#cite_note-153">[142]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">anthropocentrism</a>, only humans have a basic moral status. This suggests that all other entities possess a derivative moral status only insofar as they impact human life. <a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a>, by contrast, extends an inherent moral status to all sentient beings. Further positions include <a href="/wiki/Biocentrism_(ethics)" title="Biocentrism (ethics)">biocentrism</a>, which also covers non-sentient lifeforms, and <a href="/wiki/Ecocentrism" title="Ecocentrism">ecocentrism</a>, which states that all of nature has a basic moral status.<a href="#cite_note-154">[143]</a> Bioethics is relevant to various aspects of life and many professions. It covers a wide range of moral problems associated with topics like <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">cloning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Stem cell research">stem cell research</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euthanasia" title="Euthanasia">euthanasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suicide" title="Suicide">suicide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">animal testing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">intensive animal farming</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">nuclear waste</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[144]</a> Bioethics can be divided into <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">animal ethics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">environmental ethics</a> based on whether the ethical problems relate to humans, other animals, or nature in general.<a href="#cite_note-156">[145]</a> Medical ethics is the oldest branch of bioethics. The <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Oath" title="Hippocratic Oath">Hippocratic Oath</a> is one of the earliest texts to engage in medical ethics by establishes ethical guidelines for medical practitioners like a <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics#Non-maleficence" title="Medical ethics">prohibition to harm the patient</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-157">[146]</a> Medical ethics often addresses issues related to the start and end of life. It examines the moral status of fetuses, for example, whether they are full-fledged persons and whether abortion is a form of <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[147]</a> Ethical issues also arise about whether a person has the right to end their life in cases of terminal illness or chronic suffering and if <a href="/wiki/Assisted_suicide" title="Assisted suicide">doctors may help them do so</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[148]</a> Other topics in medical ethics include <a href="/wiki/Medical_confidentiality" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical confidentiality">medical confidentiality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a>, research on human beings, <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">organ transplantation</a>, and access to <a href="/wiki/Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-157">[146]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battery_hens_-Bastos,_Sao_Paulo,_Brazil-31March2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of battery hens in Brazil" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg/180px-Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg/270px-Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Battery_hens_-Bastos%2C_Sao_Paulo%2C_Brazil-31March2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="321" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Harm done to animals is a particular concern in animal ethics, for example, as a result of <a href="/wiki/Intensive_animal_farming" title="Intensive animal farming">intensive animal farming</a>.</figcaption></figure> Animal ethics examines how humans should treat other animals. This field often emphasizes the importance of <a href="/wiki/Animal_welfare" title="Animal welfare">animal welfare</a> while arguing that humans should avoid or minimize the harm done to animals. There is wide agreement that it is wrong to <a href="/wiki/Cruelty_to_animals" title="Cruelty to animals">torture animals</a> for fun. The situation is more complicated in cases where harm is inflicted on animals as a side effect of the pursuit of human interests. This happens, for example, during factory farming, when using animals as food, and for research experiments on animals.<a href="#cite_note-160">[149]</a> A key topic in animal ethics is the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Animal_rights" title="Animal rights">animal rights</a>. Animal rights theorists assert that animals have a certain moral status and that humans should respect this status when interacting with them.<a href="#cite_note-161">[150]</a> Examples of suggested animal rights include the right to life, the right to be free from unnecessary suffering, and the right to natural behavior in a suitable environment.<a href="#cite_note-162">[151]</a> Environmental ethics deals with moral problems relating to the natural environment including animals, plants, <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>. In its widest sense, it covers the whole <a href="/wiki/Cosmos" title="Cosmos">cosmos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-163">[152]</a> In the domain of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, this concerns the circumstances under which the vegetation of an area may be cleared to use it for farming and the implications of planting <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_crops" title="Genetically modified crops">genetically modified crops</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[153]</a> On a wider scale, environmental ethics addresses the problem of <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> and people's responsibility on the individual and <a href="/wiki/Collective_responsibility" title="Collective responsibility">collective levels</a>, including topics like <a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">climate justice</a> and duties towards future generations. Environmental ethicists often promote <a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">sustainable practices</a> and policies directed at protecting and conserving ecosystems and <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Business_and_professional_ethics">Business and professional ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Business and professional ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business ethics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional ethics</a></div> Business ethics examines the moral implications of business conduct and how ethical principles apply to corporations and organizations.<a href="#cite_note-Rendtorff_1998_365–366-166">[155]</a> A key topic is <a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">corporate social responsibility</a>, which is the responsibility of corporations to act in a manner that benefits society at large. Corporate social responsibility is a complex issue since many stakeholders are directly and indirectly involved in corporate decisions, such as the <a href="/wiki/CEO" class="mw-redirect" title="CEO">CEO</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Board_of_directors" title="Board of directors">board of directors</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Shareholders" class="mw-redirect" title="Shareholders">shareholders</a>. A closely related topic is the question of whether corporations themselves, and not just their stakeholders, have moral agency.<a href="#cite_note-167">[156]</a> Business ethics further examines the role of honesty and fairness in business practices as well as the moral implications of <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflict of interest</a>, protection of investors and consumers, <a href="/wiki/Worker%27s_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Worker's rights">worker's rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethical_leadership" title="Ethical leadership">ethical leadership</a>, and corporate <a href="/wiki/Philanthropy" title="Philanthropy">philanthropy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rendtorff_1998_365–366-166">[155]</a> Professional ethics is a closely related field that studies ethical principles applying to members of a specific <a href="/wiki/Profession" title="Profession">profession</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medical_doctor" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical doctor">medical doctors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Teacher" title="Teacher">teachers</a>. It is a diverse field since different professions often have different responsibilities.<a href="#cite_note-168">[157]</a> Principles applying to many professions include that the professional has the required expertise for the intended work and that they have personal integrity and are trustworthy. Further principles are to serve the interest of their target group, follow <a href="/wiki/Client_confidentiality" title="Client confidentiality">client confidentiality</a>, and respect and uphold the client's rights, such as informed consent.<a href="#cite_note-169">[158]</a> More precise requirements often vary between professions. A cornerstone of <a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">engineering ethics</a> is to protect public safety, health, and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-170">[159]</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal ethics</a> emphasizes the importance of respect for justice, personal integrity, and confidentiality.<a href="#cite_note-171">[160]</a> Key factors in <a href="/wiki/Journalism_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Journalism ethics">journalism ethics</a> include accuracy, truthfulness, independence, and <a href="/wiki/Impartiality" title="Impartiality">impartiality</a> as well as proper <a href="/wiki/Attribution_(journalism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Attribution (journalism)">attribution</a> to avoid <a href="/wiki/Plagiarism" title="Plagiarism">plagiarism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-172">[161]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_subfields">Other subfields</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Other subfields">edit</a>]</div> Many other fields of applied ethics are discussed in the academic literature. <a href="/wiki/Communication_ethics" title="Communication ethics">Communication ethics</a> covers moral principles of <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communicative conduct</a>. Two key issues in it are <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> and speech responsibility. Freedom of speech concerns the ability to articulate one's opinions and ideas without the threats of punishment and censorship. Speech responsibility is about being accountable for the consequences of communicative action and inaction.<a href="#cite_note-173">[162]</a> A closely related field is <a href="/wiki/Information_ethics" title="Information ethics">information ethics</a>, which focuses on the moral implications of creating, controlling, disseminating, and using <a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">information</a>.<a href="#cite_note-174">[163]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Little_boy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of a nuclear weapon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/220px-Little_boy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/330px-Little_boy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Little_boy.jpg/440px-Little_boy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2860" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">Nuclear ethics</a> addresses the moral implications of nuclear technology, such as <a href="/wiki/Atom_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atom bomb">atom bombs</a>.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">ethics of technology</a> examines the moral issues associated with the creation and use of any artifact, from simple spears to high-tech computers and <a href="/wiki/Nanotechnology" title="Nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-175">[164]</a> Central topics in the ethics of technology include the risks associated with creating new technologies, their responsible use, and questions about human enhancement through technological means, such as <a href="/wiki/Performance-enhancing_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance-enhancing drugs">performance-enhancing drugs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_genetic_enhancement" title="Human genetic enhancement">genetic enhancement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-176">[165]</a> Important subfields include <a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">computer ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">ethics of artificial intelligence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">machine ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_nanotechnologies" title="Ethics of nanotechnologies">ethics of nanotechnology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_ethics" title="Nuclear ethics">nuclear ethics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[166]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics of war">ethics of war</a> investigates moral problems of war and violent conflicts. According to <a href="/wiki/Just_war_theory" title="Just war theory">just war theory</a>, waging war is morally justified if it fulfills certain conditions. These conditions are commonly divided into requirements concerning the <a href="/wiki/Jus_ad_bellum" title="Jus ad bellum">cause to initiate violent activities</a>, such as self-defense, and the <a href="/wiki/Jus_in_bello" class="mw-redirect" title="Jus in bello">way those violent activities are conducted</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)#International_humanitarian_law" title="Proportionality (law)">avoiding excessive harm to civilians</a> in the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Legitimate_military_target" title="Legitimate military target">legitimate military targets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[167]</a> Military ethics is a closely related field that is interested in the conduct of <a href="/wiki/Military_personnel" title="Military personnel">military personnel</a>. It governs questions of the circumstances under which they are permitted to kill enemies, destroy infrastructure, and put the lives of their own troops at risk.<a href="#cite_note-179">[168]</a> Additional topics are the recruitment, training, and discharge of military personnel.<a href="#cite_note-180">[169]</a> Further fields of applied ethics include <a href="/wiki/Political_ethics" title="Political ethics">political ethics</a>, which examines the moral dimensions of political decisions,<a href="#cite_note-181">[170]</a> educational ethics, which covers ethical issues related to proper teaching practices,<a href="#cite_note-182">[171]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">sexual ethics</a>, which addresses the moral implications of <a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">sexual behavior</a>.<a href="#cite_note-183">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_fields">Related fields</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Related fields">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Value_theory">Value theory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Value theory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Value_theory" title="Value theory">Value theory</a></div> Value theory, also called axiology,<a href="#cite_note-185">[l]</a> is the philosophical study of value. It examines the nature and types of value.<a href="#cite_note-186">[174]</a> A central distinction is between <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">intrinsic and instrumental value</a>. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. An entity has instrumental value if it is valuable as a means to something else, for example, by causing something that has intrinsic value.<a href="#cite_note-187">[175]</a> Further topics include what kinds of things have value and how valuable they are. For instance, axiological hedonists say that <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> is the only source of intrinsic value and that the magnitude of value corresponds to the degree of pleasure. Axiological pluralists, by contrast, hold that there are different sources of intrinsic value, such as happiness, knowledge, and beauty.<a href="#cite_note-188">[176]</a> There are disagreements about the exact relation between value theory and ethics. Some philosophers characterize value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics while others see value theory as the broader term that encompasses other fields besides ethics, such as <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[177]</a> A different characterization sees the two disciplines as overlapping but distinct fields.<a href="#cite_note-190">[178]</a> The term <a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">axiological ethics</a> is sometimes used for the discipline studying this overlap, that is, the part of ethics that studies values.<a href="#cite_note-191">[179]</a> The two disciplines are sometimes distinguished based on their focus: ethics is about moral behavior or what is right while value theory is about value or what is <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a>.<a href="#cite_note-192">[180]</a> Some ethical theories, like consequentialism, stand very close to value theory by defining what is right in terms of what is good. But this is not true for ethics in general and deontological theories tend to reject the idea that what is good can be used to define what is right.<a href="#cite_note-193">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[m]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Moral_psychology">Moral psychology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Moral psychology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></div> Moral psychology explores the psychological foundations and processes involved in moral behavior. It is an <a href="/wiki/Empirical_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical science">empirical science</a> that studies how humans think and act in moral contexts. It is interested in how <a href="/wiki/Moral_reasoning" title="Moral reasoning">moral reasoning</a> and judgments take place, how <a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">moral character</a> forms, what sensitivity people have to moral evaluations, and how people attribute and react to <a href="/wiki/Moral_responsibility" title="Moral responsibility">moral responsibility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-196">[183]</a> One of its key topics is <a href="/wiki/Moral_development" title="Moral development">moral development</a> or the question of how morality develops on a psychological level from infancy to adulthood.<a href="#cite_note-197">[184]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg" title="Lawrence Kohlberg">Lawrence Kohlberg</a>, children go through different <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Kohlberg%27s_stages_of_moral_development" title="Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development">stages of moral development</a> as they understand moral principles first as fixed rules governing reward and punishment, then as conventional social norms, and later as abstract principles of what is objectively right across societies.<a href="#cite_note-198">[185]</a> A closely related question is whether and how people can be <a href="/wiki/Moral_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral education">taught to act morally</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[186]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a>, a closely related field, explores how <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">evolutionary processes have shaped ethics</a>. One of its key ideas is that <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> is responsible for moral behavior and moral sensitivity. It interprets morality as an <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure" title="Evolutionary pressure">evolutionary pressure</a> that augments <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> by offering a selective advantage.<a href="#cite_note-200">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a>, for example, can provide benefits to group survival by improving cooperation.<a href="#cite_note-201">[188]</a> Some theorists, like <a href="/wiki/Mark_Rowlands" title="Mark Rowlands">Mark Rowlands</a>, argue that morality is not limited to humans, meaning that some non-human animals act based on <a href="/wiki/Moral_emotions" title="Moral emotions">moral emotions</a>. Others explore evolutionary precursors to morality in non-human animals.<a href="#cite_note-202">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptive_ethics">Descriptive ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Descriptive ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></div> Descriptive ethics, also called comparative ethics,<a href="#cite_note-203">[190]</a> studies existing moral codes, practices, and beliefs. It investigates and compares moral phenomena in different <a href="/wiki/Societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Societies">societies</a> and different groups within a society. It aims to provide a <a href="/wiki/Value-neutral" class="mw-redirect" title="Value-neutral">value-neutral</a> and empirical description without judging or justifying which practices are objectively right. For instance, the question of how nurses think about the ethical implications of abortion belongs to descriptive ethics. Another example is descriptive business ethics, which describes ethical standards in the context of business, including common practices, official policies, and employee opinions. Descriptive ethics also has a historical dimension by exploring how moral practices and beliefs have changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-204">[191]</a> Descriptive ethics is a multidisciplinary field that is covered by disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History" title="History">history</a>. Its empirical outlook contrasts with the philosophical inquiry into normative questions, such as which ethical principles are correct and how to justify them.<a href="#cite_note-205">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_(618-906_CE)_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Head of Laozi marble Tang Dynasty (618–906 CE) Shaanxi Province China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg/220px-Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg/330px-Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg/440px-Head_of_Laozi_marble_Tang_Dynasty_%28618-906_CE%29_Shaanxi_Province_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2952" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>According to <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>'s teachings of <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, humans should aim to live in harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">natural order of the universe</a>.</figcaption></figure> The history of ethics studies how moral philosophy has developed and evolved in the course of history.<a href="#cite_note-206">[193]</a> It has its origin in ancient civilizations. In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, the concept of <a href="/wiki/Maat" title="Maat">Maat</a> was used as an ethical principle to guide behavior and maintain order by emphasizing the importance of truth, balance, and harmony.<a href="#cite_note-207">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-209">[n]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient India">ancient India</a> starting in the 2nd millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-210">[196]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> were composed as the foundational texts of <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> and discussed the role of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">duty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">consequences of one's actions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-211">[197]</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist ethics</a> originated in ancient India between the sixth and the fifth centuries BCE and advocated <a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">compassion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">non-violence</a>, and the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[198]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">Ancient China</a> in the 6th century BCE<a href="#cite_note-214">[o]</a> saw the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, which focuses on moral conduct and <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a> by acting in agreement with virtues, and <a href="/wiki/Daoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Daoism">Daoism</a>, which teaches that human behavior should be in harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Dao" class="mw-redirect" title="Dao">natural order of the universe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-215">[200]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 469–399 BCE)<a href="#cite_note-216">[201]</a> emphasized the importance of inquiry into what a good life is by critically questioning established ideas and exploring concepts like virtue, justice, courage, and wisdom.<a href="#cite_note-217">[202]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 428–347 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-218">[203]</a> to lead a good life means that the different parts of the soul are in harmony with each other.<a href="#cite_note-219">[204]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE),<a href="#cite_note-220">[205]</a> a good life is associated with being happy by cultivating virtues and flourishing.<a href="#cite_note-221">[206]</a> Starting in the 4th century BCE, the close relation between right action and happiness was also explored by the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> schools of <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a>, which recommended a simple lifestyle without indulging in sensory pleasures, and <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, which advocated living in tune with reason and virtue while practicing self-mastery and becoming immune to disturbing emotions.<a href="#cite_note-222">[207]</a> Ethical thought in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a> was strongly influenced by religious teachings. <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian philosophers</a> interpreted moral principles as <a href="/wiki/Divine_command" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine command">divine commands</a> originating from God.<a href="#cite_note-223">[208]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (1224–1274 CE)<a href="#cite_note-224">[209]</a> developed <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> ethics by claiming that ethical behavior consists in following the laws and order of nature, which he believed were created by God.<a href="#cite_note-225">[210]</a> In the Islamic world, philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 878–950 CE)<a href="#cite_note-226">[211]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037 CE)<a href="#cite_note-227">[212]</a> synthesized ancient Greek philosophy with the ethical teachings of Islam while emphasizing the harmony between reason and faith.<a href="#cite_note-228">[213]</a> In medieval India, Hindu philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 700–750 CE)<a href="#cite_note-229">[214]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ramanuja" title="Ramanuja">Ramanuja</a> (1017–1137 CE)<a href="#cite_note-230">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[p]</a> saw the practice of spirituality to attain <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberation</a> as the highest goal of human behavior.<a href="#cite_note-233">[217]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_George_Edward_Moore_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of George Edward Moore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>'s book <a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> was partly responsible for the emergence of metaethics in the 20th century.</figcaption></figure> Moral philosophy in the modern period was characterized by a shift toward a secular approach to ethics. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> (1588–1679)<a href="#cite_note-234">[218]</a> identified self-interest as the primary drive of humans. He concluded that it would lead to "a war of every man against every man" unless a <a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> is established to avoid this outcome.<a href="#cite_note-235">[219]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711–1776)<a href="#cite_note-236">[220]</a> thought that only moral sentiments, like <a href="/wiki/Empathy" title="Empathy">empathy</a>, can motivate ethical actions while he saw reason not as a motivating factor but only as what anticipates the consequences of possible actions.<a href="#cite_note-237">[221]</a> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804),<a href="#cite_note-238">[222]</a> by contrast, saw reason as the source of morality. He formulated a <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontological theory</a>, according to which the ethical value of actions depends on their conformity with moral laws independent of their outcome. These laws take the form of <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperatives</a>, which are universal requirements that apply to every situation.<a href="#cite_note-239">[223]</a> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a> (1770–1831)<a href="#cite_note-240">[224]</a> saw Kant's categorical imperative on its own as an empty formalism and emphasized the role of social institutions in providing concrete content to moral duties.<a href="#cite_note-241">[225]</a> According to the Christian philosophy of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a> (1813–1855),<a href="#cite_note-242">[226]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Fear_and_Trembling#Teleological_suspension_of_the_ethical" title="Fear and Trembling">demands of ethical duties are sometimes suspended</a> when doing God's will.<a href="#cite_note-243">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> (1844–1900)<a href="#cite_note-244">[228]</a> formulated criticisms of both Christian and Kantian morality.<a href="#cite_note-245">[229]</a> Another influential development in this period was the formulation of <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> (1748–1832)<a href="#cite_note-246">[230]</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873).<a href="#cite_note-247">[231]</a> According to the utilitarian doctrine, actions should promote happiness while reducing suffering and the right action is the one that produces the greatest good for the greatest number of people.<a href="#cite_note-248">[232]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Simone de Beauvoir" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png/180px-Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png/270px-Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png/360px-Simone_de_Beauvoir2.png 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="780" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> explored moral philosophy from the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-249">[233]</a></figcaption></figure> An important development in <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_ethics" title="Contemporary ethics">20th-century ethics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic philosophy</a> was the emergence of metaethics.<a href="#cite_note-250">[234]</a> Significant early contributions to this field were made by <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> (1873–1958),<a href="#cite_note-251">[235]</a> who argued that moral values are essentially different from other <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> found in the natural world.<a href="#cite_note-252">[236]</a> <a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a> (1919–2002)<a href="#cite_note-253">[237]</a> followed this idea in formulating his <a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">prescriptivism</a>, which states that moral statements are commands that, unlike regular <a href="/wiki/Judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Judgment">judgments</a>, are neither true nor false.<a href="#cite_note-254">[238]</a> <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a> (1917–1981)<a href="#cite_note-255">[239]</a> suggested that every moral statement is false since there are no moral facts.<a href="#cite_note-256">[240]</a> An influential argument for moral realism was made by <a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a> (1942–2017),<a href="#cite_note-257">[241]</a> who argued that morality concerns objective features of reality that give people reasons to act in one way or another.<a href="#cite_note-258">[242]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a> (1929–2003)<a href="#cite_note-259">[243]</a> agreed with the close relation between reasons and ethics but defended a subjective view instead that sees reasons as internal <a href="/wiki/Mental_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental states">mental states</a> that may or may not reflect external reality.<a href="#cite_note-260">[244]</a> Another development in this period was the revival of ancient <a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">virtue ethics</a> by philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a> (1920–2010).<a href="#cite_note-261">[245]</a> In the field of political philosophy, <a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a> (1921–2002)<a href="#cite_note-262">[246]</a> relied on <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a> to analyze <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a> as <a href="/wiki/Justice_as_Fairness" title="Justice as Fairness">a form of fairness</a>.<a href="#cite_note-263">[247]</a> In continental philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenologists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a> (1874–1928)<a href="#cite_note-264">[248]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nicolai_Hartmann" title="Nicolai Hartmann">Nicolai Hartmann</a> (1882–1950)<a href="#cite_note-265">[249]</a> built ethical systems based on the claim that values have objective reality that can be investigated using the phenomenological method.<a href="#cite_note-266">[250]</a> Existentialists like <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (1905–1980)<a href="#cite_note-267">[251]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">Simone de Beauvoir</a> (1908–1986),<a href="#cite_note-268">[252]</a> by contrast, held that values are created by humans and explored the consequences of this view in relation to individual freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.<a href="#cite_note-269">[253]</a> This period also saw the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">feminist ethics</a>, which questions traditional ethical assumptions associated with a male perspective and puts alternative concepts, like <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">care</a>, at the center.<a href="#cite_note-270">[254]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index of ethics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ethics" title="Outline of ethics">Outline of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_morality" title="Science of morality">Science of morality</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> According to some theorists, teleological ethics is a wider term than consequentialism because it also covers certain forms of virtue ethics.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> This state is known as <a href="/wiki/Supererogation" title="Supererogation">supererogation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[37]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> A maxim is a rule that people can adopt to guide their action, like "If you want to make big money, you should go into sales" or "Thou shalt not commit murder".<a href="#cite_note-56">[54]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Some ethicists state that contractualism is not a normative ethical theory but a metaethical theory because of its emphasis on how moral norms are justified.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> The ancient Greeks used the word arête, which has the meaning of both 'virtue' and 'excellence'.<a href="#cite_note-73">[69]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> Ontology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature and categories of being.<a href="#cite_note-94">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> This contrast is closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">is–ought problem</a> problem, first articulated by <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, which states that one cannot deduce a normative statement from a descriptive statement.<a href="#cite_note-102">[96]</a> The exact relation between these types of statements is disputed.<a href="#cite_note-103">[97]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Deontic_logic" title="Deontic logic">Deontic logic</a> provides a <a href="/wiki/Formal_system" title="Formal system">formal system</a> describing the logical relations between these and similar concepts.<a href="#cite_note-auto-107">[100]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Some philosophers suggest that there is <a href="/wiki/Moral_luck" title="Moral luck">moral luck</a>, which occurs when factors outside a person's control influence the moral status of that person.<a href="#cite_note-113">[105]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> This position can be understood by analogy to <a href="/wiki/Einstein%27s_theory_of_relativity" class="mw-redirect" title="Einstein's theory of relativity">Einstein's theory of relativity</a>, which states that the magnitude of physical properties like mass, length, and duration depends on the <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> of the observer.<a href="#cite_note-121">[112]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> ethics, an influential position in <a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian ethics</a>, says that morality is based on a natural law created by God.<a href="#cite_note-128">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> There are disagreements in the academic literature about whether they are synonyms or whether one or the other is the wider term.<a href="#cite_note-184">[173]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> For example, the deontologist <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">David Ross</a> holds that the principles of right actions are distinct from the principles of value. He says that the terms good and right mean different things and should not be confused with one another.<a href="#cite_note-194">[182]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> The first explicit discussions of Maat as a concept date to about 2100 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-208">[195]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> The exact date for Daoism disputed and some theorists suggest a later date between the 4th and 3rd centuries BCE.<a href="#cite_note-213">[199]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Modern scholars have questioned these traditionally cited dates, suggesting that Ramanuja's life ran from 1077 to 1157.<a href="#cite_note-231">[216]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFVogt2017">Vogt 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DXAuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">42–43</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHollenbach2002">Hollenbach 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QEKQxJZq-a8C&pg=PA3">3</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFNorman2005">Norman 2005</a>, p. 622</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNagel2006">Nagel 2006</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2011">Crisp 2011</a>, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeigh1999">Deigh 1999</a>, pp. 284–285</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMulvaney2009">Mulvaney 2009</a>, pp. vii–xi</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPritchard2015">Pritchard 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EoH_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethic</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJacksonGoldschmidtCrummettChan2021">Jackson et al. 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SNlGEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–2</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFNagel2006">Nagel 2006</a>, § What Is Morality?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2011">Crisp 2011</a>, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaiming2021">Haiming 2021</a>, pp. 1–2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPaulElder2005">Paul & Elder 2005</a>, § Why a Mini-Guide on Ethical Reasoning?</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAHD_staff2022">AHD staff 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2011">Crisp 2011</a>, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeigh1999">Deigh 1999</a>, pp. 284–285</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, p. 156</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLiddellScott1889">Liddell & Scott 1889</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/intermediategree00lidd/page/n353/mode/2up?view=theater">349</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFProscurcin_Junior2014">Proscurcin Junior 2014</a>, pp. 162–168</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOED_Staff2002">OED Staff 2002</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, p. 300</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAthanassoulis2012">Athanassoulis 2012</a>, pp. 22–27</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDownie2005">Downie 2005</a>, p. 271</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlum2006">Blum 2006</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 1–2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGustafson2020">Gustafson 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-23514-1_1222-1">1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFThomas2022">Thomas 2022</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 1–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBarshLisewski2013">Barsh & Lisewski 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">29</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 18–19</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSims2017">Sims 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J6csDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBarshLisewski2013">Barsh & Lisewski 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tSzdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">29</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 7–10</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSulmasySugarman2010">Sulmasy & Sugarman 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QPvoTjDn0B4C&pg=PA11">11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPeraTonder2005">Pera & Tonder 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S11Eg3KjcOAC&pg=PA7">7</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGustafssonPietarinen2016">Gustafsson & Pietarinen 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UDUPDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA125">125–126</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 2–3 </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFThomas2022">Thomas 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, pp. 2, 11</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKagan1998">Kagan 1998</a>, p. 11</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M7ZFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA134">134</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcNaughtonRawling1998">McNaughton & Rawling 1998</a>, § 1. Act-consequentialism </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaines">Haines</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2023">Hooker 2023</a>, § 1. Utilitarianism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crisp_2005_200–201-22"><a href="#cite_ref-Crisp_2005_200–201_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurthy2009">Murthy 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzhEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">74</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, § 1. Classic Utilitarianism </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarlson2013">Carlson 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VHIlBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDorsey2020">Dorsey 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d0D8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">97–98</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaines">Haines</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman 2015</a>, p. 17</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFEdmundson2004">Edmundson 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QYh_vN7CqMEC&pg=PA158">158</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrink2020">Brink 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U0D8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA382">382</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section, § 5. Consequences of What? Rights, Relativity, and Rules</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHaines">Haines</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section, § 3. What Is Good? Hedonistic Vs. Pluralistic Consequentialisms</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander_2021_loc=§_1._Deontology's_Foil:_Consequentialism-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_2021_loc=§_1._Deontology's_Foil:_Consequentialism_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_2021_loc=§_1._Deontology's_Foil:_Consequentialism_32-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCummiskey1996">Cummiskey 1996</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYPmCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157">157–158</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, 5. Consequences of What? Rights, Relativity, and Rules</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2023">Hooker 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaines">Haines</a>, § 1f. Rule Consequentialism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, p. 164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, pp. 162–164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, § 1. Classic Utilitarianism, § 4. Which Consequences? Actual Vs. Expected Consequentialisms</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2005">Hooker 2005</a>, p. 164</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005">Slote 2005</a>, pp. 938–939</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinger2016">Singer 2016</a>, pp. 47–48</li><li><a href="#CITEREFByron2004">Byron 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bRFFsQE2BrQC&pg=PA9">9</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHeyd2019">Heyd 2019</a>, Lead section </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLittlejohn">Littlejohn</a>, § 1c. Mozi (c. 470-391 B.C.E.) and Mohism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZhang2023">Zhang 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ka8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">96</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005">Slote 2005</a>, pp. 936, 938</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, § 1. Classic Utilitarianism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoore2019">Moore 2019</a>, Lead section, § 2. Ethical Hedonism </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSuikkanen2020">Suikkanen 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=343mDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA24">24</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005">Slote 2005</a>, pp. 936, 938</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMendus2005">Mendus 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wYWGIpa7Qr4C&pg=PA141">141</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKivy2011">Kivy 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-c7ThZc5Rv0C&pg=PA238">238</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005">Slote 2005</a>, p. 938</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2014">Hooker 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z3zBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA281">281</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSatyanarayana2009">Satyanarayana 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gjiBTNR1g0kC&pg=PT76">76</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2. Deontological Theories</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSimpson">Simpson</a>, § 6c. Deontological Pluralism and Prima Facie Duties</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSimpson">Simpson</a>, § 6c. Deontological Pluralism and Prima Facie Duties</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism, § 2. Deontological Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurthy2009">Murthy 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tzhEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA74">74</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2. Deontological Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2. Deontological Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHale2017">Hale 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CQNLDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA216">216</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKummWalen2014">Kumm & Walen 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DXs9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">81</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2. Deontological Theories </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2.4 Deontological Theories and Kant </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJohnsonCureton2022">Johnson & Cureton 2022</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Neill">O'Neill</a>, § 1. Kant's Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJankowiak">Jankowiak</a>, § 5. Moral Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNadkarni2011">Nadkarni 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aoM8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT20">20</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJohnsonCureton2022">Johnson & Cureton 2022</a>, Lead section </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKerstein2009">Kerstein 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqemab0aXx8C&pg=PA128">128</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCardwell2015">Cardwell 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iEbKBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFO'Neill">O'Neill</a>, § 1. Kant's Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJankowiak">Jankowiak</a>, § 5. Moral Theory</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFJankowiak">Jankowiak</a>, § 5. Moral Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJohnsonCureton2022">Johnson & Cureton 2022</a>, § 2. Good Will, Moral Worth and Duty, § 3. Duty and Respect for Moral Law</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAustin">Austin</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2019">Murphy 2019</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2004">Miller 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=87hQ2AjcttEC&pg=PA13">13</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFlynn2012">Flynn 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pl3bToUqdAIC&pg=PA167">167</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFlynn2012">Flynn 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pl3bToUqdAIC&pg=PA167">167</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMyersNoebel2015">Myers & Noebel 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hzeACgAAQBAJ&pg=PA241">241</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2.3 Contractualist Deontological Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSullivan2001">Sullivan 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1vkgWX7GRr0C&pg=PA118">118</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAshfordMulgan2018">Ashford & Mulgan 2018</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 2.3 Contractualist Deontological Theories </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFriend">Friend</a>, Lead section </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChakraborti2023">Chakraborti 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">39</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMetselaarWiddershoven2016">Metselaar & Widdershoven 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-3-319-09483-0_145">895–896</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFinlaysonRees2023">Finlayson & Rees 2023</a>, § 3.3 The Principles of Discourse Ethics and Their Justification</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005a">Slote 2005a</a>, pp. 947–948</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, Lead section, § 1.1 Virtue</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSlote2005a">Slote 2005a</a>, pp. 947–948</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, § 1.2 Practical Wisdom</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCaroMarraffaVaccarezza2021">Caro, Marraffa & Vaccarezza 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QL4sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT31">31–33</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hursthouse_2023_loc=§_2._Forms_of_Virtue_Ethics-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hursthouse_2023_loc=§_2._Forms_of_Virtue_Ethics_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hursthouse_2023_loc=§_2._Forms_of_Virtue_Ethics_71-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, § 2. Forms of Virtue Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAthanassoulis">Athanassoulis</a>, § 3. Virtue Ethical Theories</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAthanassoulis">Athanassoulis</a>, § 3c. The Ethics of Care</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSander-Staudt">Sander-Staudt</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023">Hursthouse & Pettigrove 2023</a>, § 1. Preliminaries </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSkirbekkGilje2017">Skirbekk & Gilje 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_I00e3SQAwMC&pg=PA81">81</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKraut2022">Kraut 2022</a>, Lead section, § 5. 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The Normative Relevance of Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, Lead section, § 1. General Observations</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLowe2005">Lowe 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199264797.001.0001/acref-9780199264797-e-1806">671</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCampbell2006">Campbell 2006</a>, pp. 21–22</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCraig1998">Craig 1998</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, Lead section, § 4. Ontological Issues in Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, Lead section, § 3. Naturalism and Non-naturalism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, Lead section, § 3. Semantic Issues in Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, Lead section, § 4. Is/Ought and the Open Question Argument</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, Lead section, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, Lead section, § 5. Moral Epistemology</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, Lead section, § 5. Psychology and Metaethics, 7. Anthropological Considerations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, Lead section, § 6. Morals, Motives, and Reasons, § 7. Freedom and Responsibility</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcNamaraVan_De_Putte2022">McNamara & Van De Putte 2022</a>, Lead section, § 1.2 The Traditional Scheme and the Modal Analogies</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRibinoLodato2019">Ribino & Lodato 2019</a>, p. 3</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 1–4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLloydHansen2003">Lloyd & Hansen 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=agwMiPq5R1QC&pg=PA21">21</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFieser2000">Fieser 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jl2x7G1G90C&pg=PA159">159</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHudson1969">Hudson 1969</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m_-vCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">11–13</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFO'Neill2013">O'Neill 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KfeOAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA423">423–424 </a> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFStoljar1984">Stoljar 1984</a>, pp. 36–37</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFeibleman2012">Feibleman 2012</a>, pp. 121–122</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCorbin1924">Corbin 1924</a>, pp. 501–502</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_107-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcNamaraVan_De_Putte2022">McNamara & Van De Putte 2022</a>, § 1.2 The Traditional Scheme and the Modal Analogies</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBelzer">Belzer</a>, § 1. Standard Deontic Logic (SDL)</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHaiming2021">Haiming 2021</a>, pp. 75–76</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 4–5</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCalder2022">Calder 2022</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 4–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPick2004">Pick 2004</a>, pp. 159–160</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaiming2021">Haiming 2021</a>, pp. 88–89</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 5–6</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeyd2019">Heyd 2019</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 5–6</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLatus">Latus</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNelkin2023">Nelkin 2023</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTalbert2019">Talbert 2019</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWilliams">Williams</a>, Lead section, § 1. Introduction</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-116">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_116-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_116-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, Lead section, § 4a. Moral Realisms</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023a">Sayre-McCord 2023a</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4a. Moral Realisms </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023a">Sayre-McCord 2023a</a>, § 1. Moral Disagreement</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4a. Moral Realisms</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4b. Moral Relativisms</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGowans2021">Gowans 2021</a>, Lead section, § 2. Forms and Arguments</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWestacott">Westacott</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDreier2007">Dreier 2007</a>, pp. 240–241</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWestacott">Westacott</a>, § 2g. Moral Relativism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGowans2021">Gowans 2021</a>, § 6. Metaethical Moral Relativism</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDreier2007">Dreier 2007</a>, pp. 240–241 </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4b. Moral Relativisms</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGowans2021">Gowans 2021</a>, § 6. 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Key Features of Natural Law Theories</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLisska2015">Lisska 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Cgg1DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA635">635</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeNicola2018">DeNicola 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5uCGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA66">66</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLutz2023">Lutz 2023</a>, § 1. What Is Moral Naturalism?, § 2. Descriptivism and Reductivism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4a. 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Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 14–15</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 14–15</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord1988">Sayre-McCord 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-msmrkE-67IC&pg=PA10">10</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMiller2023">Miller 2023</a>, pp. 14–15</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 3a. Cognitivism Versus Non-Cognitivism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMorelandCraig2017">Moreland & Craig 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=deDeDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA417">417</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sayre-McCord_2023_loc=§_5._Moral_Epistemology-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sayre-McCord_2023_loc=§_5._Moral_Epistemology_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sayre-McCord_2023_loc=§_5._Moral_Epistemology_136-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 6. Epistemological Issues in Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, § 5. 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Moral Epistemology</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrun2017">Brun 2017</a>, pp. 195–196</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrownFehige2019">Brown & Fehige 2019</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBagginiFosl2024">Baggini & Fosl 2024</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mZvfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA284">284</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrun2017">Brun 2017</a>, p. 195</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoollardHoward-Snyder2022">Woollard & Howard-Snyder 2022</a>, § 3. 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Psychology and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord2023">Sayre-McCord 2023</a>, § 6. Morals, Motives, and Reasons</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRosati2016">Rosati 2016</a>, Lead section, § 3. Moral Judgment and Motivation</li><li><a href="#CITEREFReilly1977">Reilly 1977</a>, pp. 101–102</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMilevski2017">Milevski 2017</a>, p. 3</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRosati2016">Rosati 2016</a>, Lead section, § 3. Moral Judgment and Motivation </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDarwall2003">Darwall 2003</a>, p. 17</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChakraborti2023">Chakraborti 2023</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA619">619–620</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAlmond1998">Almond 1998</a>, Lead section, § 1. Definitions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, Lead section, § 1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPetersenRyberg2022">Petersen & Ryberg 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168">174–175</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168">175–176</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168">175–176</a></li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Abortion"">Gordon, "Abortion"</a>, Lead section, § 2. Personhood</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeaucham2003">Beaucham 2003</a>, pp. 7–9 </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBeaucham2003">Beaucham 2003</a>, pp. 7–9</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168">176–117</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlmond1998">Almond 1998</a>, § 2. Theory and Practice</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFives2016">Fives 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f78YDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA171">171</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlmond1998">Almond 1998</a>, § 2. Theory and Practice </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAlmond1998">Almond 1998</a>, § 1. Definitions </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRyberg2010">Ryberg 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZsCRosM367gC&pg=PA3">3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMeynellParon2023">Meynell & Paron 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VrTFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChakraborti2023">Chakraborti 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f5jXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA620">620</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWinkler1998">Winkler 1998</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780123739322000168">174–175</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 3. Bioethics</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGillon1998">Gillon 1998</a>, pp. 267–268</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 4. The Idea of Moral Status in Bioethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 4a. Theories of Moral Standing and Personhood</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2018">Holmes 2018</a>, pp. 288–289</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, § 3d. Environmental Ethics</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 3. Bioethics</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 1. Preliminary Distinctions</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 3a. Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPeppard2005">Peppard 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qFBgL8b4_JgC&pg=PR18">xviii</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrey1998">Frey 1998</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceC-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceC_157-1">b</a> <a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 3. Bioethics</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 3b. Medical Ethics</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDittmer">Dittmer</a>, § 3. Bioethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDelden1998">Delden 1998</a>, pp. 200–201</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWilson">Wilson</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, Lead section, § 3c. Animal Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHolmes2018">Holmes 2018</a>, pp. 317–319</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHolmes2018">Holmes 2018</a>, pp. 333–334 </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrancione2004">Francione 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ocbdJD2oUW0C&pg=PA115">115–116</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFYount2007">Yount 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R4jQ_upQZroC&pg=PA26">26</a></li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, § 3d. Environmental Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSandler1998">Sandler 1998</a>, pp. 105–106</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrennanLo2022">Brennan & Lo 2022</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBrennanLo2022">Brennan & Lo 2022</a>, § 1. Introduction: The Challenge of Environmental Ethics</li><li><a href="#Gordon,_"Bioethics"">Gordon, "Bioethics"</a>, § 3d. 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max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRanganathan">Ranganathan</a>, 1. 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Internal and External Reasons</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKriegel1999">Kriegel 1999</a>, pp. 281–282</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 262</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNorman2005">Norman 2005</a>, p. 627</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 589 </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDas2021">Das 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a4w4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT118">118–119</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWenar2021">Wenar 2021</a>, § 4. Justice as Fairness: Justice Within a Liberal Society</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 620 </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 296 </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006">Abelson & Nielsen 2006</a>, pp. 421–422 </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 168 </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 74 </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006">Abelson & Nielsen 2006</a>, pp. 426–428</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBergoffenBurke2023">Bergoffen & Burke 2023</a>, Lead section, § 5. The Ethics of Ambiguity: Bad Faith, the Appeal, the Artist</li></ul></div> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFNorlock2019">Norlock 2019</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFImafidon2015">Imafidon 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5_i_CQAAQBAJ&pg=PT211">211</a></li></ul></div> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006" class="citation book cs1">Abelson, Raziel; Nielsen, Kai (2006). 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Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1"><bdi>978-0-02-866072-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethics%2C+History+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866072-1&rft.aulast=Abelson&rft.aufirst=Raziel&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAHD_staff2022" class="citation web cs1">AHD staff (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ethics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Ethics"</a>. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language. HarperCollins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240106132027/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=ethics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2024. Retrieved January 6, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.atitle=Ethics&rft.date=2022&rft.au=AHD+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dethics%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAiraksinen1998" class="citation book cs1">Airaksinen, T. (1998). "Professional Ethics". In Chadwick, Ruth (ed.). Encyclopedia of Applied Ethics (2 ed.). Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373932-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-373932-2"><bdi>978-0-12-373932-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Professional+Ethics&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Applied+Ethics&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-12-373932-2&rft.aulast=Airaksinen&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021" class="citation web cs1">Alexander, Larry; Moore, Michael (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">"Deontological Ethics"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230620084241/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2023. Retrieved December 30, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Deontological+Ethics&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Moore%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-deontological%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlmond1998" class="citation book cs1">Almond, Brenda (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/applied-ethics/v-1">"Applied Ethics"</a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509453-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509453-4"><bdi>978-0-19-509453-4</bdi></a>. Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kantian+Consequentialism&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509453-4&rft.aulast=Cummiskey&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZYPmCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuneo2020" class="citation book cs1">Cuneo, Terence (2020). "Teleological Suspension of the Ethical". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780191835759.001.0001/acref-9780191835759-e-117">A Dictionary of Ethics</a>. 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Penguin Books India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341421-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341421-6"><bdi>978-0-14-341421-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hinduism%3A+An+Alphabetical+Guide&rft.pub=Penguin+Books+India&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-14-341421-6&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Roshen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDH0vmD8ghdMC%26pg%3DPA465&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalal2021" class="citation web cs1">Dalal, Neil (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/">"Śaṅkara"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220127111736/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/">Archived</a> from the original on January 27, 2022. Retrieved December 18, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85kara&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Dalal&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fshankara%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwall2003" class="citation book cs1">Darwall, Stephen L. (2003). "Theories of Ethics". In Frey, R. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-43681-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-43681-5"><bdi>978-1-000-43681-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 26, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Paradigm+of+Justice%3A+A+Contemporary+Debate+Between+John+Rawls+and+Amartya+Sen&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-000-43681-5&rft.aulast=Das&rft.aufirst=Kantilal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da4w4EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Bres2014" class="citation book cs1">de Bres, Helena (2014). 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The Journal of Ethics. 22 (3–4): 283–310. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10892-018-9275-3">10.1007/s10892-018-9275-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6404642">6404642</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30930677">30930677</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Ethics&rft.atitle=Animal+Morality%3A+What+It+Means+and+Why+It+Matters&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3%E2%80%934&rft.pages=283-310&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6404642%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30930677&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10892-018-9275-3&rft.aulast=Mons%C3%B3&rft.aufirst=Susana&rft.au=Benz-Schwarzburg%2C+Judith&rft.au=Bremhorst%2C+Annika&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6404642&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore2019" class="citation web cs1">Moore, Andrew (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/">"Hedonism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180918065934/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hedonism/">Archived</a> from the original on September 18, 2018. Retrieved December 31, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Hedonism&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fhedonism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorelandCraig2017" class="citation book cs1">Moreland, J. 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Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-600652-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-600652-7"><bdi>978-0-13-600652-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classical+Philosophical+Questions&rft.edition=13&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-13-600652-7&rft.aulast=Mulvaney&rft.aufirst=Robert+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2019" class="citation web cs1">Murphy, Mark (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/voluntarism-theological/">"Theological Voluntarism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 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Pearson Education India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-93-325-0649-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-93-325-0649-7"><bdi>978-93-325-0649-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics%2C+Ethics+and+Social+Responsibility+of+Business&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-93-325-0649-7&rft.aulast=Murthy&rft.aufirst=K.+V.+Bhanu&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtzhEBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMyersNoebel2015" class="citation book cs1">Myers, Jeff; Noebel, David A. 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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200423021516/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-realism/">Archived</a> from the original on April 23, 2020. Retrieved December 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Moral+Realism&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Sayre-McCord&rft.aufirst=Geoff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmoral-realism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder" class="citation web cs1">Schroeder, Doris. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/evol-eth/">"Evolutionary Ethics"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230928042720/https://iep.utm.edu/evol-eth/">Archived</a> from the original on September 28, 2023. Retrieved January 4, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Evolutionary+Ethics&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Doris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fevol-eth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchroeder2021" class="citation web cs1">Schroeder, Mark (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory/">"Value Theory"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201103939/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory/">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2024. Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Value+Theory&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvalue-theory%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShaver2023" class="citation web cs1">Shaver, Robert (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism/">"Egoism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220324001213/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egoism/">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2022. Retrieved December 31, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Egoism&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Shaver&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fegoism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimpson" class="citation web cs1">Simpson, David L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/ross-wd/">"Ross, William David"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190620123622/https://www.iep.utm.edu/ross-wd/">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2019. Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Ross%2C+William+David&rft.aulast=Simpson&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fross-wd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSims2017" class="citation book cs1">Sims, Ronald R. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=J6csDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">A Contemporary Look at Business Ethics</a>. IAP. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-68123-956-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-68123-956-9"><bdi>978-1-68123-956-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Contemporary+Look+at+Business+Ethics&rft.pub=IAP&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-68123-956-9&rft.aulast=Sims&rft.aufirst=Ronald+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJ6csDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinclair2022" class="citation book cs1">Sinclair, Rebekah (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yhwrEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">"Righting Names: The Importance of Native American Philosophies of Naming for Environmental Justice"</a>. In Dhillon, Jaskiran (ed.). Indigenous Resurgence: Decolonialization and Movements for Environmental Justice. Berghahn Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-80073-247-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-80073-247-6"><bdi>978-1-80073-247-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Righting+Names%3A+The+Importance+of+Native+American+Philosophies+of+Naming+for+Environmental+Justice&rft.btitle=Indigenous+Resurgence%3A+Decolonialization+and+Movements+for+Environmental+Justice&rft.pub=Berghahn+Books&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-80073-247-6&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=Rebekah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyhwrEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2016" class="citation book cs1">Singer, Peter (2016). Famine, Affluence, and Morality. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021920-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-021920-8"><bdi>978-0-19-021920-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Famine%2C+Affluence%2C+and+Morality&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-19-021920-8&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinha2014" class="citation book cs1">Sinha, Jai B. P. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Vp_cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81">Psycho-Social Analysis of the Indian Mindset</a>. Springer India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-322-1804-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-322-1804-3"><bdi>978-81-322-1804-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Psycho-Social+Analysis+of+the+Indian+Mindset&rft.pub=Springer+India&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-81-322-1804-3&rft.aulast=Sinha&rft.aufirst=Jai+B.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVp_cBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2019" class="citation web cs1">Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-moral/">"Moral Skepticism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806135129/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/skepticism-moral/">Archived</a> from the original on August 6, 2019. Retrieved December 21, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Moral+Skepticism&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Sinnott-Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fskepticism-moral%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023" class="citation web cs1">Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/">"Consequentialism"</a>. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230618171402/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism/">Archived</a> from the original on June 18, 2023. Retrieved December 28, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Consequentialism&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Sinnott-Armstrong&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fconsequentialism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkelton2022" class="citation web cs1">Skelton, Anthony (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/william-david-ross/">"William David Ross"</a>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-22604-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-22604-6"><bdi>978-1-135-22604-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Western+Thought%3A+From+Ancient+Greece+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-135-22604-6&rft.aulast=Skirbekk&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Gilje%2C+Nils&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_I00e3SQAwMC%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlingerland2007" class="citation book cs1">Slingerland, Edward (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77">Effortless Action: Wu-wei As Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987457-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-987457-6"><bdi>978-0-19-987457-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved December 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effortless+Action%3A+Wu-wei+As+Conceptual+Metaphor+and+Spiritual+Ideal+in+Early+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-987457-6&rft.aulast=Slingerland&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgSReaja3V3IC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlote2005" class="citation book cs1">Slote, Michael (2005). "Utilitarianism". 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Retrieved December 26, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=John+Rawls&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Wenar&rft.aufirst=Leif&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frawls%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerner2020" class="citation book cs1">Werner, Preston (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rWjxDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA148">"Getting a Moral Thing into a Thought: Metasemantics for Non-Naturalists"</a>. In Shafer-Landau, Russ (ed.). Oxford Studies in Metaethics. Vol. 15. 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Retrieved December 22, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Getting+a+Moral+Thing+into+a+Thought%3A+Metasemantics+for+Non-Naturalists&rft.btitle=Oxford+Studies+in+Metaethics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-260331-9&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=Preston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrWjxDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA148&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestacott" class="citation web cs1">Westacott, Emrys. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/">"Moral Relativism"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231216115535/https://iep.utm.edu/moral-re/">Archived</a> from the original on December 16, 2023. Retrieved December 19, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Moral+Relativism&rft.aulast=Westacott&rft.aufirst=Emrys&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiep.utm.edu%2Fmoral-re%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams" class="citation web cs1">Williams, Garrath. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/blame-and-praise/">"Praise and Blame"</a>. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231130065131/https://iep.utm.edu/blame-and-praise/">Archived</a> from the original on November 30, 2023. 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Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 47–76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230592803_4">10.1057/9780230592803_4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59280-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-59280-3"><bdi>978-0-230-59280-3</bdi></a>. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231005193642/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/doing-allowing/#TrolProb">Archived</a> from the original on October 5, 2023. Retrieved September 7, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Doing+Vs.+Allowing+Harm&rft.date=2022&rft.aulast=Woollard&rft.aufirst=Fiona&rft.au=Howard-Snyder%2C+Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fdoing-allowing%2F%23TrolProb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWuWokutch2008" class="citation book cs1">Wu, Jiyun; Wokutch, Richard E. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5m9yq0Eu-vsC&pg=PT474">"Confucianism"</a>. In Kolb, Robert W. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Business Ethics and Society. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1652-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-1652-3"><bdi>978-1-4129-1652-3</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved December 27, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Animal+Rights&rft.pub=Infobase+Publishing&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4381-3063-7&rft.aulast=Yount&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR4jQ_upQZroC%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhang2023" class="citation book cs1">Zhang, Feng (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2ka8EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">"The Conception of Morality in Moral Realism"</a>. In Xuetong, Yan; Yuanyuan, Fang (eds.). The Essence of Interstate Leadership: Debating Moral Realism. Policy Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5292-3263-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5292-3263-9"><bdi>978-1-5292-3263-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Conception+of+Morality+in+Moral+Realism&rft.btitle=The+Essence+of+Interstate+Leadership%3A+Debating+Moral+Realism&rft.pub=Policy+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-5292-3263-9&rft.aulast=Zhang&rft.aufirst=Feng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2ka8EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA96&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmerman2015" class="citation book cs1">Zimmerman, Michael J. (2015). "Value and Normativity". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). 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Retrieved January 3, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Intrinsic+Vs.+Extrinsic+Value&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Ben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvalue-intrinsic-extrinsic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEthics" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output 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class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ethics" class="extiw" title="wikt:ethics">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="/wiki/Template:Ethics" title="Template:Ethics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethics" title="Template talk:Ethics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_care" title="Ethics of care">Care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering-focused_ethics" title="Suffering-focused ethics">Suffering-focused</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_ethics" title="Animal ethics">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Ethics of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_ethics" title="Business ethics">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_ethics" title="Computer ethics">Computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_ethics" title="Discourse ethics">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_ethics" title="Engineering ethics">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land_ethic" title="Land ethic">Land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_ethics" title="Legal ethics">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_ethics" title="Machine ethics">Machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_eating_meat" title="Ethics of eating meat">Meat eating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_ethics" title="Media ethics">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_ethics" title="Professional ethics">Professional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programming_ethics" title="Programming ethics">Programming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">Sexual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_technology" title="Ethics of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_terraforming" title="Ethics of terraforming">Terraforming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_uncertain_sentience" title="Ethics of uncertain sentience">Uncertain sentience</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metaethics" title="Metaethics">Meta</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_subjectivism" title="Ethical subjectivism">Subjectivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_observer_theory" title="Ideal observer theory">Ideal observer theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divine_command_theory" title="Divine command theory">Divine command theory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_constructivism" title="Moral constructivism">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthyphro_dilemma" title="Euthyphro dilemma">Euthyphro dilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">Non-cognitivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">Expressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-realism" title="Quasi-realism">Quasi-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_prescriptivism" title="Universal prescriptivism">Universal prescriptivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_rationalism" title="Moral rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_relativism" title="Moral relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Value_pluralism" title="Value pluralism">Value monism – Value pluralism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_ethics" title="Jewish ethics">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rousseauism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseauism">Rousseauian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Tao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authority" title="Authority">Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">Common sense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">Compassion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_life" title="Culture of life">Culture of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dignity" title="Dignity">Dignity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_standard" title="Double standard">Double standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">Eudaimonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidelity" title="Fidelity">Fidelity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_and_evil" title="Good and evil">Good and evil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">Good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">Evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_(ethics)" title="Ideal (ethics)">Ideal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immorality" title="Immorality">Immorality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_agency" title="Moral agency">Moral agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_courage" title="Moral courage">Moral courage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_hierarchy" title="Moral hierarchy">Moral hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_imperative" title="Moral imperative">Moral imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Norm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">Political freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precept" title="Precept">Precept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-discipline">Self-discipline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torture" title="Torture">Torture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_value_(ethics)" title="Intrinsic value (ethics)">Intrinsic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_values" title="Japanese values">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_(Western_philosophy)" title="Values (Western philosophy)">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vow" title="Vow">Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethicists" title="List of ethicists">Ethicists </a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes" title="Diogenes">Diogenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiruvalluvar" title="Thiruvalluvar">Valluvar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Butler" title="Joseph Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Sidgwick" title="Henry Sidgwick">Sidgwick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Barth" title="Karl Barth">Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Bonhoeffer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Frankena" title="William Frankena">Frankena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Merrihew_Adams" title="Robert Merrihew Adams">Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joxe_Azurmendi" title="Joxe Azurmendi">Azurmendi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a> (c. 322 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics (Spinoza)</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Sermons_Preached_at_the_Rolls_Chapel" title="Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel">Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel</a> (1726)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_of_Human_Nature" title="A Treatise of Human Nature">A Treatise of Human Nature</a> (1740)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a> (1759)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Introduction_to_the_Principles_of_Morals_and_Legislation" title="An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation">An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation</a> (1780)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysics_of_Morals" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals</a> (1785)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a> (1788)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elements_of_the_Philosophy_of_Right" title="Elements of the Philosophy of Right">Elements of the Philosophy of Right</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Either/Or_(Kierkegaard_book)" title="Either/Or (Kierkegaard book)">Either/Or</a> (1843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism_(book)" title="Utilitarianism (book)">Utilitarianism</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Methods_of_Ethics" title="The Methods of Ethics">The Methods of Ethics</a> (1874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Genealogy_of_Morality" title="On the Genealogy of Morality">On the Genealogy of Morality</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principia_Ethica" title="Principia Ethica">Principia Ethica</a> (1903)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Theory_of_Justice" title="A Theory of Justice">A Theory of Justice</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_Ethics" title="Practical Ethics">Practical Ethics</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/After_Virtue" title="After Virtue">After Virtue</a> (1981)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reasons_and_Persons" title="Reasons and Persons">Reasons and Persons</a> (1984)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casuistry" title="Casuistry">Casuistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">Descriptive ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics_in_religion" title="Ethics in religion">Ethics in religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Evolutionary ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ethics" title="History of ethics">History of ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_psychology" title="Moral psychology">Moral psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Philosophy of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_ethics" title="Population ethics">Population ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_ethics" title="Secular ethics">Secular ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_ethics_articles" title="Index of ethics articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Ethics" title="Category:Ethics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a> (44 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a> (1486)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a> (1756)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a> (1835–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a> (1964)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a> (1967)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a> (1976)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a> (1979)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a> (1987)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a> (2010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9465#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority 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5.55% 168.531 11 Template:Navbox"," 3.77% 114.312 1 Template:Ethics"," 3.70% 112.411 12 Template:Lang"," 3.07% 93.207 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"2.133","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16345015,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAHD_staff2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAiraksinen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlmond1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmes2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArmour2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAshfordMulgan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAthanassoulis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAthanassoulis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAustin\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBagginiFosl2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarshLisewski2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaumann2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeach1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeamanStrumos2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeaucham2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBelzer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBergoffenBurke2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlidstein1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlum2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBollag2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoonin2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoydTimpe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrandon1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrannigan2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraunack-MayerStreetPalmer1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrennanLo2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrink2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownFehige2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrun2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunninYu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByron2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalder2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalida2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardwell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarlson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaroMarraffaVaccarezza2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCatalano2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChakraborti2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChappellSmyth2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChism2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowdhury2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristians2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCochrane\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConnor2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCorbin1924\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraig1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCummiskey1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCuneo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalai_Lama2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalal2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarwall2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDas2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLapp\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeNicola2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDehsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeigh1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDelden1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDittmer\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoniger2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorisStichPhillipsWalmsley2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorsey2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDownie2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDreier2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDynes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEaglestone2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmundson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElrodSmith2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEysenck2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeibleman2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernando2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFieser2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinlaysonRees2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzPatrick2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzpatrick2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFives2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlynn2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFotion1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrancione2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriend\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrowe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFunk2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGay2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGellman1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGillon1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGowans2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrayling2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrenzGuretzkiNordling2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGustafson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGustafssonPietarinen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaiming2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaines\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHale2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallSabl2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrison2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyd2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHillBlazejak2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiroseOlson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoad1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHollenbach2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooker2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooker2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooker2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHursthouse1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHursthousePettigrove2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFImafidon2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacksonGoldschmidtCrummettChan2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJankowiak\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonCureton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJunru2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKagan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarenga2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKendall2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKerstein2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKivy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraut2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrellenstein2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKriegel1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKummWalen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKupperman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKvalnes2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaFollette2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLatus\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazar2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazari-RadekSinger2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeggHookway2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeiter2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiddellScott1889\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinn1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLipsonBinkley2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLisska2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittlejohn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLloydHansen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLowe2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLutz2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatsubaMurzynHart2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMattila2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDonald2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcEwan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNamaraVan_De_Putte2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcNaughtonRawling1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedveckyLeach2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMendus2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMentan2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMesoudiDanielson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetselaarWiddershoven2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyer2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeynellParon2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilevski2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitcham2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonsóBenz-SchwarzburgBremhorst2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorelandCraig2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMulvaney2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2019a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurthy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyersNoebel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNadkarni2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelkin2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorlock2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNtuli2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neill\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Neill2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOED_Staff2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrtiz2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPappu2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParkerEvans2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatchingHirst2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaulElder2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeppard2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeraTonder2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrett2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetersenRyberg2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPick2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPost2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPritchard2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFProscurcin_Junior2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuka\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanganathan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReilly1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRendtorff1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRibinoLodato2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRice2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidge2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRini\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobsonTsou2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosati2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoserSeidel2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRudy-Hiller2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyberg2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSajoo2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSander-Staudt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSandler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSatyanarayana2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord2023a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaver2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSims2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinclair2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinha2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkelton2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkirbekkGilje2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlingerland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlote2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlote2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithThomas\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSorabjiRodin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStecker2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephens\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoljar1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuikkanen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSulmasySugarman2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSydnor2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTalbert2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThapar1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThoma2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTzafestas2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerhoeven2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVogt2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWenar2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerner2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestacott\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinkler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfendale2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoollardHoward-Snyder2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWuWokutch2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYount2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhang2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmerman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Bres2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFten_HavePatrão_Neves2021\"] = 1,\n [\"Defining_ethics\"] = 1,\n [\"Gordon,_\u0026quot;Abortion\u0026quot;\"] = 1,\n [\"Gordon,_\u0026quot;Bioethics\u0026quot;\"] = 1,\n [\"Military_ethics\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Anchor\"] = 2,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 125,\n [\"Circa\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 181,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 69,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 16,\n [\"Ethics\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 509,\n [\"InPho\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 9,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 17,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 171,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"PhilPapers\"] = 3,\n [\"Philosophy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Sister project links\"] = 1,\n [\"Social philosophy\"] = 1,\n [\"Use mdy dates\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","380","16.7"],["?","300","13.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","220","9.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","7.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","120","5.3"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","100","4.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","3.5"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","3.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","60","2.6"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","60","2.6"],["[others]","720","31.6"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-74d78f4769-d9cd5","timestamp":"20241127201705","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Ethics","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Ethics","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9465","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9465","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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