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Available in 62 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-62" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">62 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A0%E1%88%AD:%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="በር:ፍልስፍና – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="በር:ፍልስፍና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17580674 badge-featuredportal mw-list-item" title="featured portal badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A9:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="بوابة:فلسفة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بوابة:فلسفة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ok%E1%BA%BDndusu:Arandupykuaaty" title="Okẽndusu:Arandupykuaaty – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Okẽndusu:Arandupykuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Portal:Fəlsəfə – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Portal:Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%92%D8%B1%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="پوْرتال:فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پوْرتال:فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0:%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="প্রবেশদ্বার:দর্শন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রবেশদ্বার:দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Portal:Tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Portal:Tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Портал:Философия – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Портал:Философия" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Партал:Філязофія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Партал:Філязофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Портал:Философия – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Портал:Философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porched:Prederouriezh" title="Porched:Prederouriezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Porched:Prederouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filosofia" title="Portal:Filosofia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Portal:Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganghaan:Pilosopiya" title="Ganghaan:Pilosopiya – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Ganghaan:Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%C3%A1l:Filozofie" title="Portál:Filozofie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Portál:Filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="قيسارية:فلسفة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="قيسارية:فلسفة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17580674 badge-featuredportal mw-list-item" title="featured portal badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophie" title="Portal:Philosophie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Portal:Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%82%DE%AC%DE%83%DE%AA:%DE%8A%DE%A6%DE%8D%DE%B0%DE%90%DE%A6%DE%8A%DE%A7" title="ނެރު:ފަލްސަފާ – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ނެރު:ފަލްސަފާ" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portaal:Filosoofia" title="Portaal:Filosoofia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Portaal:Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Portal:Filosofía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Portal:Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="درگاه:فلسفه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="درگاه:فلسفه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portail:Philosophie" title="Portail:Philosophie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Portail:Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%AC%ED%84%B8:%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="포털:철학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="포털:철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0:%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="प्रवेशद्वार:दर्शनशास्त्र – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रवेशद्वार:दर्शनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filsafat" title="Portal:Filsafat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Portal:Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A1tt:Heimspeki" title="Gátt:Heimspeki – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gátt:Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portale:Filosofia" title="Portale:Filosofia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Portale:Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%98%D7%9C:%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פורטל:פילוסופיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פורטל:פילוסופיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Portal:Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kapampangan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Philosophie" title="Portal:Philosophie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Portal:Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikisritis:Filosofija" title="Vikisritis:Filosofija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vikisritis:Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port%C3%A1l:Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Portál:Filozófia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Portál:Filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Портал:Филозофија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Портал:Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Falsafah" title="Portal:Falsafah – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Portal:Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portaal:Filosofie" title="Portaal:Filosofie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Portaal:Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="Portal:哲学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="Portal:哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%B2:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Ков:Философи – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ков:Философи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A8%D9%87:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="تانبه:فلسفه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تانبه:فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filozofia" title="Portal:Filozofia – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Portal:Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filosofia" title="Portal:Filosofia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Portal:Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filozofie" title="Portal:Filozofie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Portal:Filozofie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Портал:Философия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Портал:Философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filozofi" title="Portal:Filozofi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Portal:Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BA:%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="ද්වාරය:දර්ශනය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ද්වාරය:දර්ශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%A8:%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88" title="باب:فلسفو – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="باب:فلسفو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DB%95%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B2%DB%95:%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="دەروازە:فەلسەفە – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دەروازە:فەلسەفە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB:%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Портал:Филозофија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Портал:Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teemasivu:Filosofia" title="Teemasivu:Filosofia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Teemasivu:Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Filosofi" title="Portal:Filosofi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Portal:Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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.portal-column-right-extra-narrow{float:inherit;width:inherit}}</style> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Wikipedia portal for content related to Philosophy</div> <div style="font-size:85%;"><span class="anchor" id="portals-browsebar"></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><div class="hlist noprint" style="text-align: center"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal topics</a></dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Human_activities" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Activities</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Culture_and_the_arts" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Culture</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Geography_and_places" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Geography</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Health_and_fitness" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Health</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#History_and_events" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">History</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Mathematics_and_logic" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Mathematics</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Natural_and_physical_sciences" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Nature</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#People_and_self" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">People</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Philosophy_and_thinking" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Philosophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Religion_and_belief_systems" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Religion</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Society_and_social_sciences" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Society</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals#Technology_and_applied_sciences" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Technology</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Special:RandomInCategory/All_portals" title="Special:RandomInCategory/All portals">Random portal</a></dd></dl> </div></div> <table width="100%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="5" style="background:white; border-style:solid; border-width:1px; border-color:black;"> <tbody><tr> <td width="55%" style="vertical-align:top; padding: 0; margin:0;"> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="The_Philosophy_Portal" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em"><big><b>The Philosophy Portal</b></big></h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <div style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size:95%;">A <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Portal" title="Wikipedia:Portal">portal</a> for Wikipedia's philosophy resources •  <a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">18,384 </a> articles in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg/162px-The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg" decoding="async" width="162" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg/243px-The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg/324px-The_Thinker_Musee_Rodin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/The_Thinker" title="The Thinker">The Thinker</a></i>, a statue by <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Rodin" title="Auguste Rodin">Auguste Rodin</a>, is often used to represent philosophy.</figcaption></figure> <div style="float:right"> <figure class="mw-halign-center noresize mw-ext-imagemap-desc-bottom-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Philbar_3.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="151" resource="/wiki/File:Philbar_3.png" /></span><figcaption>Left to right: <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kant" class="mw-redirect" title="Kant">Kant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nietzsche" class="mw-redirect" title="Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddha">Buddha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></figcaption></figure></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></b> ('love of wisdom' in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">value</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions. </p><p>Historically, many of the individual <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">sciences</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of philosophy</a> include <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Arabic–Persian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosophy</a>. Western philosophy originated in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a> and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>. Indian philosophy combines the <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritual</a> problem of how to reach <a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">enlightenment</a> with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a>. </p><p>Major branches of philosophy are <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of <a href="/wiki/Logical_reasoning" title="Logical reasoning">correct reasoning</a> and explores how good <a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">arguments</a> can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>, existence, <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>. Other subfields are <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">philosophy of science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">philosophy of history</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>. Within each branch, there are competing <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Schools of philosophy">schools of philosophy</a> that promote different principles, theories, or methods. </p><p>Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a>, reliance on <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a> and <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitions</a>, use of <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought experiments">thought experiments</a>, analysis of <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ordinary language">ordinary language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">description of experience</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Socratic_questioning" title="Socratic questioning">critical questioning</a>. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Business" title="Business">business</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Journalism" title="Journalism">journalism</a>. It provides an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinary" class="mw-redirect" title="Interdisciplinary">interdisciplinary</a> perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. 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ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox div,.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox p{padding-top:0;padding-bottom:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery.mw-gallery-slideshow:first-child{position:relative;left:50%;transform:translateX(-50%);display:inline-block;text-align:center;display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap;justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox{order:99999;flex-shrink:0}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child label{flex:0 0}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox{width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox>div,.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container ul.gallery:first-child .gallerybox>div>div{width:inherit!important;max-width:100%;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .randomSlideshow-container .nomobile+ul label{display:none!important}</style><div class="randomSlideshow-container excerptSlideshow-container" style="max-width:100%; margin:-4em auto;"><div class="nomobile"></div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-slideshow switcher-container"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 1 Why Marx Was Right is a 2011 non-fiction book by the British academic Terry Eagleton about the 19th-century philosopher Karl Marx and the schools of thought, collectively known as Marxism, that arose from his work. Written for laypeople, Why Marx Was Right outlines ten objections to Marxism that they may hold and aims to refute each one in turn. These include arguments that Marxism is irrelevant owing to changing social classes in the modern world, that it is deterministic and utopian, and that Marxists oppose all reforms and believe in an authoritarian state. In his counterarguments, Eagleton explains how class struggle is central to Marxism, and that history is seen as a progression of modes of production, like feudalism and capitalism, involving the materials, technology and social relations required to produce goods and services within the society. Under a capitalist economy, the working class, known as the proletariat, are those lacking significant autonomy over their labour conditions, and have no control over the means of production. Eagleton describes how revolutions could lead to a new mode of production—socialism—in which the working class have control, and an eventual communist society could make the state obsolete. He explores the failures of the Soviet Union and other Marxist–Leninist countries. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 1 Why Marx Was Right is a 2011 non-fiction book by the British academic Terry Eagleton about the 19th-century philosopher Karl Marx and the schools of thought, collectively known as Marxism, that arose from his work. Written for laypeople, Why Marx Was Right outlines ten objections to Marxism that they may hold and aims to refute each one in turn. These include arguments that Marxism is irrelevant owing to changing social classes in the modern world, that it is deterministic and utopian, and that Marxists oppose all reforms and believe in an authoritarian state. In his counterarguments, Eagleton explains how class struggle is central to Marxism, and that history is seen as a progression of modes of production, like feudalism and capitalism, involving the materials, technology and social relations required to produce goods and services within the society. Under a capitalist economy, the working class, known as the proletariat, are those lacking significant autonomy over their labour conditions, and have no control over the means of production. Eagleton describes how revolutions could lead to a new mode of production—socialism—in which the working class have control, and an eventual communist society could make the state obsolete. He explores the failures of the Soviet Union and other Marxist–Leninist countries. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 1</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><i><b><a href="/wiki/Why_Marx_Was_Right" title="Why Marx Was Right">Why Marx Was Right</a></b></i> is a 2011 <a href="/wiki/Non-fiction_book" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-fiction book">non-fiction book</a> by the British academic <a href="/wiki/Terry_Eagleton" title="Terry Eagleton">Terry Eagleton</a> about the 19th-century philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> and the schools of thought, collectively known as <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, that arose from his work. Written for <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/layperson" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:layperson">laypeople</a>, <i>Why Marx Was Right</i> outlines ten objections to Marxism that they may hold and aims to refute each one in turn. These include arguments that Marxism is irrelevant owing to changing <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social classes</a> in the modern world, that it is <a href="/wiki/Deterministic" class="mw-redirect" title="Deterministic">deterministic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Utopian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utopian">utopian</a>, and that Marxists oppose all <a href="/wiki/Reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Reforms">reforms</a> and believe in an <a href="/wiki/Authoritarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Authoritarian">authoritarian</a> state.<br /><br />In his counterarguments, Eagleton explains how <a href="/wiki/Class_struggle" class="mw-redirect" title="Class struggle">class struggle</a> is central to Marxism, and that history is seen as a progression of <a href="/wiki/Modes_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Modes of production">modes of production</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a>, involving the materials, technology and social relations required to produce goods and services within the society. Under a capitalist economy, the working class, known as the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a>, are those lacking significant autonomy over their <a href="/wiki/Wage_labour" title="Wage labour">labour</a> conditions, and have no control over the means of production. Eagleton describes how <a href="/wiki/Revolutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutions">revolutions</a> could lead to a new mode of production—<a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">socialism</a>—in which the working class have control, and an eventual <a href="/wiki/Communist" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist">communist</a> society could <a href="/wiki/Withering_away_of_the_state" title="Withering away of the state">make the state obsolete</a>. He explores the failures of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> and other Marxist–Leninist countries. (<b><a href="/wiki/Why_Marx_Was_Right" title="Why Marx Was Right">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 2 Eric Alfred Havelock (/ˈhævlɒk/; 3 June 1903 – 4 April 1988) was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States. He was a professor at the University of Toronto and was active in the Canadian socialist movement during the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s, he served as chair of the classics departments at both Harvard and Yale. Although he was trained in the turn-of-the-20th-century Oxbridge tradition of classical studies, which saw Greek intellectual history as an unbroken chain of related ideas, Havelock broke radically with his own teachers and proposed an entirely new model for understanding the classical world, based on a sharp division between literature of the 6th and 5th centuries BC on the one hand, and that of the 4th on the other. Much of Havelock's work was devoted to addressing a single thesis: that all of Western thought is informed by a profound shift in the kinds of ideas available to the human mind at the point that Greek philosophy converted from an oral to a literate form. The idea has been controversial in classical studies, and has been rejected outright both by many of Havelock's contemporaries and modern classicists. Havelock and his ideas have nonetheless had far-reaching influence, both in classical studies and other academic areas. He and Walter J. Ong (who was himself strongly influenced by Havelock) essentially founded the field that studies transitions from orality to literacy, and Havelock has been one of the most frequently cited theorists in that field; as an account of communication, his work profoundly affected the media theories of Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan. Havelock's influence has spread beyond the study of the classical world to that of analogous transitions in other times and places. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 2 Eric Alfred Havelock (/ˈhævlɒk/; 3 June 1903 – 4 April 1988) was a British classicist who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States. He was a professor at the University of Toronto and was active in the Canadian socialist movement during the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s, he served as chair of the classics departments at both Harvard and Yale. Although he was trained in the turn-of-the-20th-century Oxbridge tradition of classical studies, which saw Greek intellectual history as an unbroken chain of related ideas, Havelock broke radically with his own teachers and proposed an entirely new model for understanding the classical world, based on a sharp division between literature of the 6th and 5th centuries BC on the one hand, and that of the 4th on the other. Much of Havelock's work was devoted to addressing a single thesis: that all of Western thought is informed by a profound shift in the kinds of ideas available to the human mind at the point that Greek philosophy converted from an oral to a literate form. The idea has been controversial in classical studies, and has been rejected outright both by many of Havelock's contemporaries and modern classicists. Havelock and his ideas have nonetheless had far-reaching influence, both in classical studies and other academic areas. He and Walter J. Ong (who was himself strongly influenced by Havelock) essentially founded the field that studies transitions from orality to literacy, and Havelock has been one of the most frequently cited theorists in that field; as an account of communication, his work profoundly affected the media theories of Harold Innis and Marshall McLuhan. Havelock's influence has spread beyond the study of the classical world to that of analogous transitions in other times and places. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 2</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Eric_A._Havelock" title="Eric A. Havelock">Eric Alfred Havelock</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'h' in 'hi'">h</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span></span>/</a></span></span>; 3 June 1903 – 4 April 1988) was a British <a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">classicist</a> who spent most of his life in Canada and the United States. He was a professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> and was active in the Canadian socialist movement during the 1930s. In the 1960s and 1970s, he served as chair of the classics departments at both <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yale" class="mw-redirect" title="Yale">Yale</a>. Although he was trained in the turn-of-the-20th-century <a href="/wiki/Oxbridge" title="Oxbridge">Oxbridge</a> tradition of classical studies, which saw <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek intellectual history</a> as an unbroken chain of related ideas, Havelock broke radically with his own teachers and proposed an entirely new model for understanding the classical world, based on a sharp division between literature of the 6th and 5th centuries BC on the one hand, and that of the 4th on the other.<br /><br />Much of Havelock's work was devoted to addressing a single thesis: that all of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western thought</a> is informed by a profound shift in the kinds of ideas available to the human mind at the point that <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek philosophy</a> converted from an <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literate</a> form. The idea has been controversial in classical studies, and has been rejected outright both by many of Havelock's contemporaries and modern classicists. Havelock and his ideas have nonetheless had far-reaching influence, both in classical studies and other academic areas. He and <a href="/wiki/Walter_J._Ong" title="Walter J. Ong">Walter J. Ong</a> (who was himself strongly influenced by Havelock) essentially founded the field that studies transitions from <a href="/wiki/Orality" title="Orality">orality</a> to literacy, and Havelock has been one of the most frequently cited theorists in that field; as an account of communication, his work profoundly affected the media theories of <a href="/wiki/Harold_Innis" title="Harold Innis">Harold Innis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a>. Havelock's influence has spread beyond the study of the classical world to that of analogous transitions in other times and places. (<b><a href="/wiki/Eric_A._Havelock" title="Eric A. Havelock">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 3 Title page from the first English edition of Part I The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a work by English and American political activist Thomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position of deism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the Bible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807. It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a deistic revival. British audiences, fearing increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution, received it with more hostility. The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place of revelation, leading him to reject miracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. In The Age of Reason, he promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 3 Title page from the first English edition of Part I The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology is a work by English and American political activist Thomas Paine, arguing for the philosophical position of deism. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the Bible. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807. It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a deistic revival. British audiences, fearing increased political radicalism as a result of the French Revolution, received it with more hostility. The Age of Reason presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the Christian Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place of revelation, leading him to reject miracles and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. In The Age of Reason, he promotes natural religion and argues for the existence of a creator god. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 3</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:PaineAgeReason.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/PaineAgeReason.png/220px-PaineAgeReason.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="355" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/PaineAgeReason.png/330px-PaineAgeReason.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/PaineAgeReason.png 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="642" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Title page from the first English edition of Part I</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason" title="The Age of Reason"><i>The Age of Reason; Being an Investigation of True and Fabulous Theology</i></a></b> is a work by English and American political activist <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Paine" title="Thomas Paine">Thomas Paine</a>, arguing for the philosophical position of <a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">deism</a>. It follows in the tradition of 18th-century British deism, and challenges institutionalized religion and the legitimacy of the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a>. It was published in three parts in 1794, 1795, and 1807.<br /><br />It was a best-seller in the United States, where it caused a deistic <a href="/wiki/Revival_meeting" title="Revival meeting">revival</a>. British audiences, fearing increased <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)#United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">political radicalism</a> as a result of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, received it with more hostility. <i>The Age of Reason</i> presents common deistic arguments; for example, it highlights what Paine saw as corruption of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> Church and criticizes its efforts to acquire political power. Paine advocates reason in the place of <a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">revelation</a>, leading him to reject <a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">miracles</a> and to view the Bible as an ordinary piece of literature, rather than a divinely-inspired text. In <i>The Age of Reason</i>, he promotes <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural religion</a> and argues for the existence of a creator god. (<b><a href="/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason" title="The Age of Reason">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 4 Icon of St. Maximus Maximus the Confessor (Greek: Μάξιμος ὁ Ὁμολογητής, romanized: Maximos ho Homologētēs), also spelled Maximos, otherwise known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople (c. 580 – 13 August 662), was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 4 Icon of St. Maximus Maximus the Confessor (Greek: Μάξιμος ὁ Ὁμολογητής, romanized: Maximos ho Homologētēs), also spelled Maximos, otherwise known as Maximus the Theologian and Maximus of Constantinople (c. 580 – 13 August 662), was a Christian monk, theologian, and scholar. In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, and Proclus. When one of his friends began espousing the Christological position known as Monothelitism, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the Chalcedonian formula on the basis of which it was asserted that Jesus had both a human and a divine will. Maximus is venerated in both the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 4</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Maximus_Confessor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Maximus_Confessor.jpg/220px-Maximus_Confessor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Maximus_Confessor.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="315" data-file-height="442" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center"><a href="/wiki/Icon" title="Icon">Icon</a> of St. Maximus</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Maximus the Confessor</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el">Μάξιμος ὁ <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%AE%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ομολογητής">Ὁμολογητής</a></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Greek" title="Romanization of Greek">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Greek-language romanization"><i lang="el-Latn">Maximos ho Homologētēs</i></span>), also spelled <b>Maximos</b>, otherwise known as <b>Maximus the Theologian</b> and <b>Maximus of Constantinople</b> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 580</span> – 13 August 662), was a <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>, and scholar.<br /><br />In his early life, Maximus was a civil servant, and an aide to the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Emperor">Byzantine Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Heraclius" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a>. He gave up this life in the political sphere to enter the monastic life. Maximus had studied diverse schools of philosophy, and certainly what was common for his time, the Platonic dialogues, the works of Aristotle, and numerous later Platonic commentators on Aristotle and Plato, like <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iamblichus" title="Iamblichus">Iamblichus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a>. When one of his friends began espousing the <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christological</a> position known as <a href="/wiki/Monothelitism" title="Monothelitism">Monothelitism</a>, Maximus was drawn into the controversy, in which he supported an interpretation of the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian" class="mw-redirect" title="Chalcedonian">Chalcedonian</a> formula on the basis of which it was asserted that <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> had both a human and a divine <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a>. Maximus is <a href="/wiki/Veneration" title="Veneration">venerated</a> in both the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox</a> Churches. He was eventually persecuted for his Christological positions; following a trial, his tongue and right hand were mutilated. (<b><a href="/wiki/Maximus_the_Confessor" title="Maximus the Confessor">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 5 Portrait c. 1550 John Calvin (/ˈkælvɪn/; Middle French: Jehan Cauvin; French: Jean Calvin [ʒɑ̃ kalvɛ̃]; 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, including its doctrines of predestination and of God's absolute sovereignty in the salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. Calvinist doctrines were influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian and other Christian traditions. Various Congregational, Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a tireless polemicist and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to his seminal Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents, and various other theological treatises. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 5 Portrait c. 1550 John Calvin (/ˈkælvɪn/; Middle French: Jehan Cauvin; French: Jean Calvin [ʒɑ̃ kalvɛ̃]; 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was a French theologian, pastor and reformer in Geneva during the Protestant Reformation. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of Christian theology later called Calvinism, including its doctrines of predestination and of God's absolute sovereignty in the salvation of the human soul from death and eternal damnation. Calvinist doctrines were influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian and other Christian traditions. Various Congregational, Reformed and Presbyterian churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world. Calvin was a tireless polemicist and apologetic writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including Philipp Melanchthon and Heinrich Bullinger. In addition to his seminal Institutes of the Christian Religion, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, confessional documents, and various other theological treatises. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 5</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/220px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/330px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png/440px-John_Calvin_Museum_Catharijneconvent_RMCC_s84_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="4457" data-file-height="6187" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Portrait <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1550</span></div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">John Calvin</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Middle_French_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle French language">Middle French</a>: <i lang="frm">Jehan Cauvin</i>; French: <i lang="fr">Jean Calvin</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="fr-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[ʒɑ̃<span class="wrap"> </span>kalvɛ̃]</a></span>; 10 July 1509 – 27 May 1564) was a French <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theologian</a>, pastor and <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformers" title="Protestant Reformers">reformer</a> in Geneva during the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a>. He was a principal figure in the development of the system of <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> later called <a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a>, including its doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Predestination" title="Predestination">predestination</a> and of God's <a href="/wiki/Monergism" title="Monergism">absolute sovereignty</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_soteriology" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian soteriology">salvation</a> of the human soul from death and <a href="/wiki/Damnation" title="Damnation">eternal damnation</a>. Calvinist doctrines were <a href="/wiki/Augustinian_soteriology" title="Augustinian soteriology">influenced by and elaborated upon the Augustinian</a> and other Christian traditions. Various <a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregational</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed churches">Reformed</a> and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> churches, which look to Calvin as the chief expositor of their beliefs, have spread throughout the world.<br /><br />Calvin was a tireless <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">apologetic</a> writer who generated much controversy. He also exchanged cordial and supportive letters with many reformers, including <a href="/wiki/Philipp_Melanchthon" class="mw-redirect" title="Philipp Melanchthon">Philipp Melanchthon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Bullinger" title="Heinrich Bullinger">Heinrich Bullinger</a>. In addition to his seminal <i><a href="/wiki/Institutes_of_the_Christian_Religion" title="Institutes of the Christian Religion">Institutes of the Christian Religion</a></i>, Calvin wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible, <a href="/wiki/Confession_of_faith" class="mw-redirect" title="Confession of faith">confessional documents</a>, and various other theological treatises. (<b><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 6 Archimedes Thoughtful by Domenico Fetti (1620) Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/ AR-kim-EE-deez; c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Regarded as the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems. These include the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral. Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi (π), defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral, and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, working on statics and hydrostatics. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the lever, the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity, and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy known as Archimedes' principle. He is also credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 6 Archimedes Thoughtful by Domenico Fetti (1620) Archimedes of Syracuse (/ˌɑːrkɪˈmiːdiːz/ AR-kim-EE-deez; c. 287 – c. 212 BC) was an Ancient Greek mathematician, physicist, engineer, astronomer, and inventor from the ancient city of Syracuse in Sicily. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in classical antiquity. Regarded as the greatest mathematician of ancient history, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern calculus and analysis by applying the concept of the infinitely small and the method of exhaustion to derive and rigorously prove a range of geometrical theorems. These include the area of a circle, the surface area and volume of a sphere, the area of an ellipse, the area under a parabola, the volume of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution, the volume of a segment of a hyperboloid of revolution, and the area of a spiral. Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an approximation of pi (π), defining and investigating the Archimedean spiral, and devising a system using exponentiation for expressing very large numbers. He was also one of the first to apply mathematics to physical phenomena, working on statics and hydrostatics. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the lever, the widespread use of the concept of center of gravity, and the enunciation of the law of buoyancy known as Archimedes' principle. He is also credited with designing innovative machines, such as his screw pump, compound pulleys, and defensive war machines to protect his native Syracuse from invasion. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 6</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg/220px-Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg/330px-Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg/440px-Domenico-Fetti_Archimedes_1620.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1364" data-file-height="1818" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center"><i>Archimedes Thoughtful</i><br />by <a href="/wiki/Domenico_Fetti" title="Domenico Fetti">Domenico Fetti</a> (1620)</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes of Syracuse</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˌ/: secondary stress follows">ˌ</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AR</span>-kim-<span style="font-size:90%">EE</span>-deez</i></a>; <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 287</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 212<span class="nowrap"> </span>BC</span>) was an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">mathematician</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventor</a> from the ancient city of <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Greek_and_Hellenistic_Sicily" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Greek and Hellenistic Sicily">Sicily</a>. Although few details of his life are known, he is regarded as one of the leading scientists in <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a>. Regarded as the greatest mathematician of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient history</a>, and one of the greatest of all time, Archimedes anticipated modern <a href="/wiki/Calculus" title="Calculus">calculus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">analysis</a> by applying the concept of the <a href="/wiki/Cavalieri%27s_principle" title="Cavalieri's principle">infinitely small</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">method of exhaustion</a> to derive and rigorously prove a range of <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometrical</a> <a href="/wiki/Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a>. These include the <a href="/wiki/Area_of_a_circle" title="Area of a circle">area of a circle</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Surface_area" title="Surface area">surface area</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volume" title="Volume">volume</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Sphere" title="Sphere">sphere</a>, the area of an <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipse</a>, the area under a <a href="/wiki/Parabola" title="Parabola">parabola</a>, the volume of a segment of a <a href="/wiki/Paraboloid_of_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraboloid of revolution">paraboloid of revolution</a>, the volume of a segment of a <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_of_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperboloid of revolution">hyperboloid of revolution</a>, and the area of a <a href="/wiki/Spiral" title="Spiral">spiral</a>.<br /><br />Archimedes' other mathematical achievements include deriving an <a href="/wiki/Approximations_of_%CF%80" title="Approximations of π">approximation of pi (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">π</span>)</a>, defining and investigating the <a href="/wiki/Archimedean_spiral" title="Archimedean spiral">Archimedean spiral</a>, and devising a system using <a href="/wiki/Exponentiation" title="Exponentiation">exponentiation</a> for expressing <a href="/wiki/Large_numbers" title="Large numbers">very large numbers</a>. He was also one of the first to <a href="/wiki/Applied_mathematics" title="Applied mathematics">apply mathematics</a> to <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physical phenomena</a>, working on <a href="/wiki/Statics" title="Statics">statics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">hydrostatics</a>. Archimedes' achievements in this area include a proof of the law of the <a href="/wiki/Lever" title="Lever">lever</a>, the widespread use of the concept of <a href="/wiki/Center_of_mass#History" title="Center of mass">center of gravity</a>, and the enunciation of the law of <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyancy</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_principle" title="Archimedes' principle">Archimedes' principle</a>. He is also credited with designing innovative <a href="/wiki/Machine" title="Machine">machines</a>, such as his <a href="/wiki/Archimedes%27_screw" title="Archimedes' screw">screw pump</a>, <a href="/wiki/Block_and_tackle" title="Block and tackle">compound pulleys</a>, and defensive war machines to protect his native <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_Sicily" title="Syracuse, Sicily">Syracuse</a> from invasion. (<b><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 7 Bohr in 1922 Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [ˈne̝ls ˈpoɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 7 Bohr in 1922 Niels Henrik David Bohr (Danish: [ˈne̝ls ˈpoɐ̯ˀ]; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research. Bohr developed the Bohr model of the atom, in which he proposed that energy levels of electrons are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the atomic nucleus but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of complementarity: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a wave or a stream of particles. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 7</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/220px-Niels_Bohr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/330px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Niels_Bohr.jpg/440px-Niels_Bohr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1456" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Bohr in 1922</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Henrik David Bohr</a></b> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Danish:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="da-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Danish" title="Help:IPA/Danish">[ˈne̝ls<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈpoɐ̯ˀ]</a></span>; 7 October 1885 – 18 November 1962) was a Danish <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who made foundational contributions to understanding <a href="/wiki/Atomic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic structure">atomic structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_quantum_theory" title="Old quantum theory">quantum theory</a>, for which he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1922. Bohr was also a <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and a promoter of scientific research.<br /><br />Bohr developed the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>, in which he proposed that energy levels of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a> are discrete and that the electrons revolve in stable orbits around the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> but can jump from one energy level (or orbit) to another. Although the Bohr model has been supplanted by other models, its underlying principles remain valid. He conceived the principle of <a href="/wiki/Complementarity_(physics)" title="Complementarity (physics)">complementarity</a>: that items could be separately analysed in terms of contradictory properties, like behaving as a <a href="/wiki/Wave%E2%80%93particle_duality" title="Wave–particle duality">wave or a stream of particles</a>. The notion of complementarity dominated Bohr's thinking in both science and philosophy. (<b><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 8 Cover of the first edition The Fountainhead is a 1943 novel by Russian-American author Ayn Rand, her first major literary success. The novel's protagonist, Howard Roark, is an intransigent young architect who battles against conventional standards and refuses to compromise with an architectural establishment unwilling to accept innovation. Roark embodies what Rand believed to be the ideal man, and his struggle reflects Rand's belief that individualism is superior to collectivism. Roark is opposed by what he calls "second-handers", who value conformity over independence and integrity. These include Roark's former classmate, Peter Keating, who succeeds by following popular styles but turns to Roark for help with design problems. Ellsworth Toohey, a socialist architecture critic who uses his influence to promote his political and social agenda, tries to destroy Roark's career. Tabloid newspaper publisher Gail Wynand seeks to shape popular opinion; he befriends Roark, then betrays him when public opinion turns in a direction he cannot control. The novel's most controversial character is Roark's lover, Dominique Francon. She believes that non-conformity has no chance of winning, so she alternates between helping Roark and working to undermine him. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 8 Cover of the first edition The Fountainhead is a 1943 novel by Russian-American author Ayn Rand, her first major literary success. The novel's protagonist, Howard Roark, is an intransigent young architect who battles against conventional standards and refuses to compromise with an architectural establishment unwilling to accept innovation. Roark embodies what Rand believed to be the ideal man, and his struggle reflects Rand's belief that individualism is superior to collectivism. Roark is opposed by what he calls "second-handers", who value conformity over independence and integrity. These include Roark's former classmate, Peter Keating, who succeeds by following popular styles but turns to Roark for help with design problems. Ellsworth Toohey, a socialist architecture critic who uses his influence to promote his political and social agenda, tries to destroy Roark's career. Tabloid newspaper publisher Gail Wynand seeks to shape popular opinion; he befriends Roark, then betrays him when public opinion turns in a direction he cannot control. The novel's most controversial character is Roark's lover, Dominique Francon. She believes that non-conformity has no chance of winning, so she alternates between helping Roark and working to undermine him. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 8</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Fountain_Head_(1943_1st_ed)_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg/220px-The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg/330px-The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg/440px-The_Fountain_Head_%281943_1st_ed%29_-_Ayn_Rand.jpg 2x" data-file-width="810" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Cover of the first edition</div></div></div></div><br /><i><b><a href="/wiki/The_Fountainhead" title="The Fountainhead">The Fountainhead</a></b></i> is a 1943 novel by Russian-American author <a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a>, her first major literary success. The novel's protagonist, Howard Roark, is an intransigent young <a href="/wiki/Architect" title="Architect">architect</a> who battles against conventional standards and refuses to compromise with an architectural establishment unwilling to accept innovation. Roark embodies what Rand believed to be the ideal man, and his struggle reflects Rand's belief that <a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">individualism</a> is superior to <a href="/wiki/Collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism">collectivism</a>.<br /><br />Roark is opposed by what he calls "second-handers", who value conformity over independence and integrity. These include Roark's former classmate, Peter Keating, who succeeds by following popular styles but turns to Roark for help with design problems. Ellsworth Toohey, a socialist <a href="/wiki/Architecture_critic" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture critic">architecture critic</a> who uses his influence to promote his political and social agenda, tries to destroy Roark's career. <a href="/wiki/Tabloid_journalism" title="Tabloid journalism">Tabloid</a> newspaper publisher Gail Wynand seeks to shape popular opinion; he befriends Roark, then betrays him when public opinion turns in a direction he cannot control. The novel's most controversial character is Roark's lover, Dominique Francon. She believes that non-conformity has no chance of winning, so she alternates between helping Roark and working to undermine him. (<b><a href="/wiki/The_Fountainhead" title="The Fountainhead">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 9 Lenin in 1920 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist who was the founder and first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until his death in 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death. The founder and leader of the Bolsheviks, Lenin led the October Revolution which established the world's first socialist state. His government won the Russian Civil War and consolidated power in a one-party state under the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism. Born into a middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree before relocating to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and becoming a prominent Marxist activist. In 1897, Lenin was arrested for sedition and exiled to Siberia for three years. He then moved to Western Europe, where he became a key figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In the party's 1903 schism, he led his Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Lenin briefly returned to Russia during the failed Revolution of 1905, and during the First World War campaigned for its transformation into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the end of capitalism and the rise of socialism. After the February Revolution of 1917 ousted Tsar Nicholas II and established a Provisional Government, Lenin returned to Russia and played a leading role in the October Revolution, in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the regime. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 9 Lenin in 1920 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov (22 April [O.S. 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist who was the founder and first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until his death in 1924, and of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death. The founder and leader of the Bolsheviks, Lenin led the October Revolution which established the world's first socialist state. His government won the Russian Civil War and consolidated power in a one-party state under the Communist Party. Ideologically a Marxist, his developments to the ideology are called Leninism. Born into a middle-class family in Simbirsk, Lenin embraced revolutionary socialist politics following his brother's 1887 execution. Expelled from Kazan Imperial University for participating in protests against the Tsarist government, he devoted the following years to a law degree before relocating to Saint Petersburg in 1893 and becoming a prominent Marxist activist. In 1897, Lenin was arrested for sedition and exiled to Siberia for three years. He then moved to Western Europe, where he became a key figure in the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party. In the party's 1903 schism, he led his Bolshevik faction against Julius Martov's Mensheviks. Lenin briefly returned to Russia during the failed Revolution of 1905, and during the First World War campaigned for its transformation into a Europe-wide proletarian revolution, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the end of capitalism and the rise of socialism. After the February Revolution of 1917 ousted Tsar Nicholas II and established a Provisional Government, Lenin returned to Russia and played a leading role in the October Revolution, in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the regime. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 9</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lenin_in_1920_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Lenin_in_1920_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1835" data-file-height="2447" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Lenin in 1920</div></div></div></div><br /><b>Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov</b> (22 April [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 10 April] 1870 – 21 January 1924), better known as <b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></b>, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist who was the founder and first <a href="/wiki/Head_of_government" title="Head of government">head of government</a> of <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Russia">Soviet Russia</a> from 1917 until <a href="/wiki/Death_and_state_funeral_of_Vladimir_Lenin" title="Death and state funeral of Vladimir Lenin">his death</a> in 1924, and of the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> from 1922 until his death. The founder and leader of the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a>, Lenin led the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a> which established the world's first <a href="/wiki/Socialist_state" title="Socialist state">socialist state</a>. His government won the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> and consolidated power in a <a href="/wiki/One-party_state" title="One-party state">one-party state</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Communist Party</a>. Ideologically a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a>, his developments to the ideology are called <a href="/wiki/Leninism" title="Leninism">Leninism</a>.<br /><br /><br />Born into a middle-class family in <a href="/wiki/Simbirsk" class="mw-redirect" title="Simbirsk">Simbirsk</a>, Lenin embraced <a href="/wiki/Revolutionary_socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolutionary socialist">revolutionary socialist</a> politics following <a href="/wiki/Aleksandr_Ulyanov" title="Aleksandr Ulyanov">his brother</a>'s 1887 execution. Expelled from <a href="/wiki/Kazan_Imperial_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Kazan Imperial University">Kazan Imperial University</a> for participating in protests against the <a href="/wiki/Tsarist_autocracy" title="Tsarist autocracy">Tsarist government</a>, he devoted the following years to a law degree before relocating to <a href="/wiki/Saint_Petersburg" title="Saint Petersburg">Saint Petersburg</a> in 1893 and becoming a prominent Marxist activist. In 1897, Lenin was arrested for <a href="/wiki/Sedition" title="Sedition">sedition</a> and exiled to Siberia for three years. He then moved to Western Europe, where he became a key figure in the Marxist <a href="/wiki/Russian_Social_Democratic_Labour_Party" title="Russian Social Democratic Labour Party">Russian Social Democratic Labour Party</a>. In the party's 1903 schism, he led his Bolshevik faction against <a href="/wiki/Julius_Martov" title="Julius Martov">Julius Martov</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mensheviks" title="Mensheviks">Mensheviks</a>. Lenin briefly returned to Russia during the failed <a href="/wiki/Revolution_of_1905" class="mw-redirect" title="Revolution of 1905">Revolution of 1905</a>, and during the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a> campaigned for its transformation into a Europe-wide <a href="/wiki/Proletarian_revolution" title="Proletarian revolution">proletarian revolution</a>, which, as a Marxist, he believed would cause the end of <a href="/wiki/Capitalist_mode_of_production_(Marxist_theory)" title="Capitalist mode of production (Marxist theory)">capitalism</a> and the rise of <a href="/wiki/Socialist_mode_of_production" title="Socialist mode of production">socialism</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/February_Revolution" title="February Revolution">February Revolution</a> of 1917 ousted Tsar <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_II_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nicholas II of Russia">Nicholas II</a> and established a <a href="/wiki/Russian_Provisional_Government" title="Russian Provisional Government">Provisional Government</a>, Lenin returned to Russia and played a leading role in the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, in which the Bolsheviks overthrew the regime. (<b><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 10 Title page from the second edition of A Vindication of the Rights of Men, the first to carry Wollstonecraft's name A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) is a political pamphlet, written by the 18th-century British writer and women's rights advocate Mary Wollstonecraft, which attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism. Wollstonecraft's was the first response in a pamphlet war sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), a defense of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England. Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege, but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for Marie Antoinette, but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke's gendered language. By saying the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia Johnson describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 10 Title page from the second edition of A Vindication of the Rights of Men, the first to carry Wollstonecraft's name A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790) is a political pamphlet, written by the 18th-century British writer and women's rights advocate Mary Wollstonecraft, which attacks aristocracy and advocates republicanism. Wollstonecraft's was the first response in a pamphlet war sparked by the publication of Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), a defense of constitutional monarchy, aristocracy, and the Church of England. Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege, but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for Marie Antoinette, but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke's gendered language. By saying the sublime and the beautiful, terms first established by Burke himself in A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1756), she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar Claudia Johnson describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 10</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WollstonecraftVRM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Page reads "A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France. By Mary Wollstonecraft. The Second Edition. London: Printed for J. Johnson, No. 72, St. Paul's Church-Yard. M.DCC.XC."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/WollstonecraftVRM.jpg/220px-WollstonecraftVRM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="415" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/WollstonecraftVRM.jpg/330px-WollstonecraftVRM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/WollstonecraftVRM.jpg/440px-WollstonecraftVRM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="2679" /></a><figcaption>Title page from the second edition of <i>A Vindication of the Rights of Men</i>, the first to carry <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Wollstonecraft's</a> name</figcaption></figure><br /><br /><b><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Men" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Men"><i>A Vindication of the Rights of Men, in a Letter to the Right Honourable Edmund Burke; Occasioned by His Reflections on the Revolution in France</i></a></b> (1790) is a political <a href="/wiki/Pamphlet" title="Pamphlet">pamphlet</a>, written by the 18th-century British writer and women's rights advocate <a href="/wiki/Mary_Wollstonecraft" title="Mary Wollstonecraft">Mary Wollstonecraft</a>, which attacks <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a> and advocates <a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">republicanism</a>. Wollstonecraft's was the first response in a <a href="/wiki/Revolution_Controversy" title="Revolution Controversy">pamphlet war</a> sparked by the publication of <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Edmund Burke's</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Reflections_on_the_Revolution_in_France" title="Reflections on the Revolution in France">Reflections on the Revolution in France</a></i> (1790), a defense of <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_monarchy#England,_Scotland_and_the_United_Kingdom" title="Constitutional monarchy">constitutional monarchy</a>, aristocracy, and the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_England" title="Church of England">Church of England</a>.<br /><br />Wollstonecraft attacked not only hereditary privilege, but also the rhetoric that Burke used to defend it. Most of Burke's detractors deplored what they viewed as his theatrical pity for <a href="/wiki/Marie_Antoinette" title="Marie Antoinette">Marie Antoinette</a>, but Wollstonecraft was unique in her love of Burke's gendered language. By saying the <i><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">sublime</a></i> and the <i>beautiful</i>, terms first established by Burke himself in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Philosophical_Enquiry_into_the_Origin_of_Our_Ideas_of_the_Sublime_and_Beautiful" title="A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful">A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</a></i> (1756), she kept his rhetoric as well as his argument. In her first unabashedly feminist critique, which Wollstonecraft scholar <a href="/wiki/Claudia_L._Johnson_(scholar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudia L. Johnson (scholar)">Claudia Johnson</a> describes as unsurpassed in its argumentative force, Wollstonecraft indicts Burke's justification of an equal society founded on the passivity of women. (<b><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_the_Rights_of_Men" title="A Vindication of the Rights of Men">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 11 Portrait by Joshua Reynolds, c. 1772 Samuel Johnson (18 September [O.S. 7 September] 1709 – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, literary critic, sermonist, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography calls him "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, he attended Pembroke College, Oxford, until lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London and began writing for The Gentleman's Magazine. Early works include Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes and the play Irene. After nine years' effort, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language appeared in 1755, and was acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship". Later work included essays, an annotated The Plays of William Shakespeare, and the apologue The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. In 1763 he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland, as Johnson described in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Near the end of his life came a massive, influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets of the 17th and 18th centuries. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 11 Portrait by Joshua Reynolds, c. 1772 Samuel Johnson (18 September [O.S. 7 September] 1709 – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, literary critic, sermonist, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography calls him "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". Born in Lichfield, Staffordshire, he attended Pembroke College, Oxford, until lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London and began writing for The Gentleman's Magazine. Early works include Life of Mr Richard Savage, the poems London and The Vanity of Human Wishes and the play Irene. After nine years' effort, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language appeared in 1755, and was acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship". Later work included essays, an annotated The Plays of William Shakespeare, and the apologue The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia. In 1763 he befriended James Boswell, with whom he travelled to Scotland, as Johnson described in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland. Near the end of his life came a massive, influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets of the 17th and 18th centuries. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 11</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg/220px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg/330px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg/440px-Samuel_Johnson_by_Joshua_Reynolds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1252" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Reynolds" title="Joshua Reynolds">Joshua Reynolds</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1772</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Samuel Johnson</a></b> (18 September [<a href="/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates" title="Old Style and New Style dates">O.S.</a> 7 September] 1709 – 13 December 1784), often called <b>Dr Johnson</b>, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary critic</a>, sermonist, biographer, editor, and <a href="/wiki/Lexicographer" class="mw-redirect" title="Lexicographer">lexicographer</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxford Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> calls him "arguably the most distinguished <a href="/wiki/Man_of_letters" class="mw-redirect" title="Man of letters">man of letters</a> in English history".<br /><br />Born in <a href="/wiki/Lichfield" title="Lichfield">Lichfield</a>, Staffordshire, he attended <a href="/wiki/Pembroke_College,_Oxford" title="Pembroke College, Oxford">Pembroke College, Oxford</a>, until lack of funds forced him to leave. After working as a teacher, he moved to London and began writing for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Gentleman%27s_Magazine" title="The Gentleman's Magazine">The Gentleman's Magazine</a></i>. Early works include <i><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Mr_Richard_Savage" title="Life of Mr Richard Savage">Life of Mr Richard Savage</a></i>, the poems <i><a href="/wiki/London_(Samuel_Johnson_poem)" title="London (Samuel Johnson poem)">London</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Vanity_of_Human_Wishes" title="The Vanity of Human Wishes">The Vanity of Human Wishes</a></i> and the play <i><a href="/wiki/Irene_(play)" title="Irene (play)">Irene</a></i>. After nine years' effort, Johnson's <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="A Dictionary of the English Language">A Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> appeared in 1755, and was acclaimed as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship". Later work included essays, an annotated <i><a href="/wiki/The_Plays_of_William_Shakespeare" title="The Plays of William Shakespeare">The Plays of William Shakespeare</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Apologue" title="Apologue">apologue</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Rasselas,_Prince_of_Abissinia" title="The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia">The History of Rasselas, Prince of Abissinia</a></i>. In 1763 he befriended <a href="/wiki/James_Boswell" title="James Boswell">James Boswell</a>, with whom he travelled to Scotland, as Johnson described in <i><a href="/wiki/A_Journey_to_the_Western_Islands_of_Scotland" title="A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland">A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland</a></i>. Near the end of his life came a massive, influential <i><a href="/wiki/Lives_of_the_Most_Eminent_English_Poets" title="Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets">Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets</a></i> of the 17th and 18th centuries. (<b><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Johnson" title="Samuel Johnson">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 12 The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God, religious language has the potential to be meaningless. Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless, or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful. One prevalent position in Islamic philosophy holds that religious language is meaningful and positive, demonstrating the shared attributes of God and His creatures. According to this view, the semantic commonality of attributes between God and humans indicates ontological commonalities between them. This is because factual concepts refer to and are abstracted from realities in the external world. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 12 The problem of religious language considers whether it is possible to talk about God meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God, religious language has the potential to be meaningless. Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless, or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful. One prevalent position in Islamic philosophy holds that religious language is meaningful and positive, demonstrating the shared attributes of God and His creatures. According to this view, the semantic commonality of attributes between God and humans indicates ontological commonalities between them. This is because factual concepts refer to and are abstracted from realities in the external world. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 12</span></span><div style="text-align:left;">The <b><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">problem of religious language</a></b> considers whether it is possible to talk about <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> meaningfully if the traditional conceptions of God as being incorporeal, infinite, and timeless, are accepted. Because these traditional conceptions of God make it difficult to describe God, religious language has the potential to be meaningless. Theories of religious language either attempt to demonstrate that such language is meaningless, or attempt to show how religious language can still be meaningful.<br /><br />One prevalent position in Islamic philosophy holds that religious language is meaningful and positive, demonstrating the shared attributes of God and His creatures. According to this view, the semantic commonality of attributes between God and humans indicates ontological commonalities between them. This is because factual concepts refer to and are abstracted from realities in the external world. (<b><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_religious_language" title="Problem of religious language">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 13 Du Bois in 1907 William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (/duːˈbɔɪs/ doo-BOYSS; February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American sociologist, socialist, historian, and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. After completing graduate work at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin and Harvard University, where he was its first African American to earn a doctorate, Du Bois rose to national prominence as a leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of black civil rights activists seeking equal rights. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Compromise. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the talented tenth, a concept under the umbrella of racial uplift, and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 13 Du Bois in 1907 William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (/duːˈbɔɪs/ doo-BOYSS; February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American sociologist, socialist, historian, and Pan-Africanist civil rights activist. Born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and integrated community. After completing graduate work at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin and Harvard University, where he was its first African American to earn a doctorate, Du Bois rose to national prominence as a leader of the Niagara Movement, a group of black civil rights activists seeking equal rights. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the Atlanta Compromise. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the talented tenth, a concept under the umbrella of racial uplift, and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 13</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy,_1907.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/220px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/330px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg/440px-W.E.B._Du_Bois_by_James_E._Purdy%2C_1907.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3528" data-file-height="5092" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Du Bois in 1907</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">William Edward Burghardt Du Bois</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="/uː/: 'oo' in 'goose'">uː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɔɪ/: 'oi' in 'choice'">ɔɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">doo-<span style="font-size:90%">BOYSS</span></i></a>; February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Socialist">socialist</a>, historian, and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan-Africanist">Pan-Africanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_activist" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights activist">civil rights activist</a>.<br /><br />Born in <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrington,_Massachusetts" title="Great Barrington, Massachusetts">Great Barrington, Massachusetts</a>, Du Bois grew up in a relatively tolerant and <a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">integrated</a> community. After completing graduate work at the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_University_of_Berlin" title="Humboldt University of Berlin">Friedrich Wilhelm University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>, where he was its first African American to earn a doctorate, Du Bois rose to national prominence as a leader of the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Movement" title="Niagara Movement">Niagara Movement</a>, a group of black civil rights activists seeking equal rights. Du Bois and his supporters opposed the <a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Compromise" title="Atlanta Compromise">Atlanta Compromise</a>. Instead, Du Bois insisted on full civil rights and increased political representation, which he believed would be brought about by the African-American intellectual elite. He referred to this group as the <a href="/wiki/Talented_tenth" title="Talented tenth">talented tenth</a>, a concept under the umbrella of <a href="/wiki/Racial_uplift" title="Racial uplift">racial uplift</a>, and believed that African Americans needed the chances for advanced education to develop its leadership. (<b><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 14 Portrait of Priestley, 1801 Joseph Priestley FRS (/ˈpriːstli/; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, Unitarian, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator and classical liberal political theorist. He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science. Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of oxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 14 Portrait of Priestley, 1801 Joseph Priestley FRS (/ˈpriːstli/; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English chemist, Unitarian, natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian, multi-subject educator and classical liberal political theorist. He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science. Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of oxygen by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston theory and to reject what would become the chemical revolution eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 14</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Joseph_Priestley.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Joseph_Priestley.jpeg/220px-Joseph_Priestley.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Joseph_Priestley.jpeg 1.5x" data-file-width="247" data-file-height="312" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Portrait of Priestley, 1801</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a></b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:;"><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></span></span> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span></span>/</a></span></span>; 24 March 1733 – 6 February 1804) was an English <a href="/wiki/Chemist" title="Chemist">chemist</a>, Unitarian, <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/English_Separatist" class="mw-redirect" title="English Separatist">separatist</a> <a href="/wiki/Theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Theologian">theologian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguist" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguist">grammarian</a>, multi-subject educator and <a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">classical liberal</a> <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political theorist</a>. He published over 150 works, and conducted experiments in several areas of science.<br /><br />Priestley is credited with his independent discovery of <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> by the thermal decomposition of mercuric oxide, having isolated it in 1774. During his lifetime, Priestley's considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention of <a href="/wiki/Carbonated_water" title="Carbonated water">carbonated water</a>, his writings on <a href="/wiki/Electricity" title="Electricity">electricity</a>, and his discovery of several "airs" (gases), the most famous being what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" (oxygen). Priestley's determination to defend <a href="/wiki/Phlogiston_theory" title="Phlogiston theory">phlogiston theory</a> and to reject what would become the <a href="/wiki/Chemical_revolution" title="Chemical revolution">chemical revolution</a> eventually left him isolated within the scientific community. (<b><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 15 Portrait of Rădulescu, by Mișu Popp Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as Eliade or Eliade Rădulescu; Romanian pronunciation: [ˈi.on heliˈade rəduˈlesku]; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, he was also the author of books on linguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of the Romanian Academy. Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association with Gheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education in Greek. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italian neologisms into the Romanian lexis. A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals, Heliade was among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocratic boyars in Romanian history, he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empire and clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 15 Portrait of Rădulescu, by Mișu Popp Ion Heliade Rădulescu or Ion Heliade (also known as Eliade or Eliade Rădulescu; Romanian pronunciation: [ˈi.on heliˈade rəduˈlesku]; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a Wallachian, later Romanian academic, Romantic and Classicist poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into Romanian, he was also the author of books on linguistics and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at Saint Sava College in Bucharest, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of the Romanian Academy. Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of Romanian culture from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association with Gheorghe Lazăr and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education in Greek. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of Italian neologisms into the Romanian lexis. A Romantic nationalist landowner siding with moderate liberals, Heliade was among the leaders of the 1848 Wallachian revolution, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocratic boyars in Romanian history, he was rewarded for supporting the Ottoman Empire and clashed with the radical wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 15</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tleft" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ion_Heliade_Radulescu_Popp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ion_Heliade_Radulescu_Popp.jpg/220px-Ion_Heliade_Radulescu_Popp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b3/Ion_Heliade_Radulescu_Popp.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="478" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Portrait of Rădulescu, by <a href="/wiki/Mi%C8%99u_Popp" title="Mișu Popp">Mișu Popp</a></div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Ion Heliade Rădulescu</a></b> or <b>Ion Heliade</b> (also known as <i>Eliade</i> or <i>Eliade Rădulescu</i>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Romanian pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ro-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Romanian" title="Help:IPA/Romanian">[ˈi.on<span class="wrap"> </span>heliˈade<span class="wrap"> </span>rəduˈlesku]</a></span>; 6 January 1802 – 27 April 1872) was a <a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachian</a>, later <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romanian</a> academic, <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classicism" title="Classicism">Classicist</a> poet, essayist, memoirist, short story writer, newspaper editor and politician. A prolific translator of foreign literature into <a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, he was also the author of books on <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> and history. For much of his life, Heliade Rădulescu was a teacher at <a href="/wiki/Saint_Sava_College" title="Saint Sava College">Saint Sava College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bucharest" title="Bucharest">Bucharest</a>, which he helped reopen. He was a founding member and first president of the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_Academy" title="Romanian Academy">Romanian Academy</a>.<br /><br />Heliade Rădulescu is considered one of the foremost champions of <a href="/wiki/Romanian_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Romanian culture">Romanian culture</a> from the first half of the 19th century, having first risen to prominence through his association with <a href="/wiki/Gheorghe_Laz%C4%83r" title="Gheorghe Lazăr">Gheorghe Lazăr</a> and his support of Lazăr's drive for discontinuing education in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>. Over the following decades, he had a major role in shaping the modern Romanian language, but caused controversy when he advocated the massive introduction of <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">neologisms</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Romanian_lexis" title="Romanian lexis">Romanian lexis</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Romantic_nationalism" title="Romantic nationalism">Romantic nationalist</a> landowner siding with moderate <a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_radicalism_in_Romania" title="Liberalism and radicalism in Romania">liberals</a>, Heliade was among the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/1848_Wallachian_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1848 Wallachian revolution">1848 Wallachian revolution</a>, after which he was forced to spend several years in exile. Adopting an original form of conservatism, which emphasized the role of the aristocratic <a href="/wiki/Boyar" title="Boyar">boyars</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Romania" title="History of Romania">Romanian history</a>, he was rewarded for supporting the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and clashed with the <a href="/wiki/Radicalism_(historical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radicalism (historical)">radical</a> wing of the 1848 revolutionaries. (<b><a href="/wiki/Ion_Heliade_R%C4%83dulescu" title="Ion Heliade Rădulescu">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> </ul></div> </div> <div class="noprint" style="margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy/Featured_articles" title="Portal:Philosophy/Featured articles">More featured articles</a></b></div><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Did_you_know_(auto-generated)_-_load_new_batch" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em"><span id="Did_you_know_.28auto-generated.29_-_load_new_batch"></span>Did you know <small>(auto-generated)</small> - <span class="noprint plainlinks purgelink"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Philosophy&action=purge"><span title="Purge this page"><small><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkblue"><i>load new batch</i></span></small></span></a></span></h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg/47px-Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="47" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg/71px-Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg/94px-Nuvola_apps_filetypes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>... that the book <i><b><a href="/wiki/Working_from_Within:_The_Nature_and_Development_of_Quine%27s_Naturalism" title="Working from Within: The Nature and Development of Quine's Naturalism">Working from Within</a></b></i> details how <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. Quine</a> only began to use the term "<a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>" years after he had already developed the key tenets of the philosophy?</li> <li>... that <b><a href="/wiki/E._Graham_Howe" title="E. Graham Howe">E. Graham Howe</a></b> "introduced <a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Psychotherapy" title="Psychotherapy">psychotherapy</a> in England"?</li> <li>... that diverse fields study the <b><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a></b>, including <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>?</li> <li>... that the barracks at the <b><a href="/wiki/Xifeng_concentration_camp" title="Xifeng concentration camp">Xifeng concentration camp</a></b> were named for <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> tenets such as <a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">righteousness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>?</li> <li>... that physics, chemistry, and biology were all part of <b><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></b> before they became separate disciplines?</li> <li>... that in his book <i><b><a href="/wiki/How_to_Be_Perfect" title="How to Be Perfect">How to Be Perfect</a></b></i>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Schur" title="Michael Schur">Michael Schur</a> sought to "wade into some deeply confusing and painful applications of moral philosophy ... but in a <i>fun</i> way"?</li> <li>... that the <b><a href="/wiki/Correspondence_of_Paul_and_Seneca" title="Correspondence of Paul and Seneca">Correspondence of Paul and Seneca</a></b> was cited in the Middle Ages to claim that <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, a Roman philosopher of <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a>, had converted to Christianity?</li> <li>... that artist <b><a href="/wiki/Tove_Jansson" title="Tove Jansson">Tove Jansson</a></b> based the children's book character <a href="/wiki/Snufkin" title="Snufkin">Snufkin</a> on <a href="/wiki/Atos_Wirtanen" title="Atos Wirtanen">a political philosopher</a> whom she had dated?</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Selected_philosopher_of_the_week" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Selected philosopher of the week</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Ayn Rand</a></b> was a <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russian</a>-born <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> novelist and philosopher best known for developing <a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a> and for writing the novels <i><a href="/wiki/We_the_Living" title="We the Living">We the Living</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Fountainhead" title="The Fountainhead">The Fountainhead</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Atlas_Shrugged" title="Atlas Shrugged">Atlas Shrugged</a></i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Anthem_(novel)" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthem (novel)">Anthem</a></i>. A broadly influential figure in post-WWII America, her work attracted both enthusiastic admiration and scathing denunciations. </p><p>Rand's writing emphasizes the philosophic concepts of objective reality, <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rational_egoism" title="Rational egoism">rational egoism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_capitalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Laissez-faire capitalism">laissez-faire capitalism</a>, while attacking what she saw as the irrationality and immorality of <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">collectivism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>. She believed that people must choose their values and actions by reason; that the individual has a right to exist for his or her own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and that no one has the right to take what belongs to others by physical force or fraud, or impose their moral code on others by physical force. Her politics have been described as <a href="/wiki/Minarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Minarchism">minarchism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarianism</a>, though she never used the first term and detested the second. </p> <table width="100%" border="0" style="clear:both;padding:0;margin:0;background:#FFF1DD;"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy/Selected_philosopher" title="Portal:Philosophy/Selected philosopher">...Archive</a></b></div></td> <td> <div style="text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Ayn_Rand" title="Ayn Rand">Read more...</a></b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Selected_article_of_the_week" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Selected article of the week</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></b> is the branch of the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical</a> study of <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a> concerned with classifying actions as right and wrong, as opposed to <a href="/wiki/Descriptive_ethics" title="Descriptive ethics">descriptive ethics</a>. Normative ethics regards ethics as a set of <a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">norms</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">actions</a>. </p><p>Descriptive ethics deal with what the population believes to be right and wrong, while normative ethics deal with what the population <i>should</i> believe to be right and wrong. </p><p>Moreover, because it examines standards for the rightness and wrongness of actions, normative ethics is distinct from <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a>, which studies the nature of moral statements, and from <a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">applied ethics</a>, which places normative rules in practical contexts. </p> <table width="100%" border="0" style="padding: 0; margin:0; background:#FFF1DD"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy/Selected_article" title="Portal:Philosophy/Selected article">...Archive/schedule</a></b></div></td> <td> <div style="text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Read more...</a></b></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div></div><div class="flex-columns-column"><div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Good_articles_-_load_new_batch" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_support_vote.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/38px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> Good articles - <span class="noprint plainlinks purgelink"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Philosophy&action=purge"><span title="Purge this page"><small><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkblue"><i>load new batch</i></span></small></span></a></span></h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <div style="text-align: center;"><i><small>These are <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:GA" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:GA">Good articles</a>, which meet a core set of high editorial standards.</small></i></div> <hr /> <div style="font-size:105%;"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r987512734"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1021884966"><div class="randomSlideshow-container excerptSlideshow-container" style="max-width:100%; margin:-4em auto;"><div class="nomobile"></div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-slideshow switcher-container"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 1 The Upanishads (/ʊˈpʌnɪʃədz/; Sanskrit: उपनिषद्, IAST: Upaniṣad, pronounced [ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd]) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hinduism. They are the most recent addition to the Vedas -- the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge. Earlier parts of the Vedas dealt with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices. While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads document a wide variety of "rites, incantations, and esoteric knowledge" departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions. The Upanishads are widely known, and their diverse ideas, interpreted in various ways, informed later traditions of Hinduism. The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person, postulating Ātman and Brahman as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe", but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 1 The Upanishads (/ʊˈpʌnɪʃədz/; Sanskrit: उपनिषद्, IAST: Upaniṣad, pronounced [ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd]) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hinduism. They are the most recent addition to the Vedas -- the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and deal with meditation, philosophy, consciousness, and ontological knowledge. Earlier parts of the Vedas dealt with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices. While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads document a wide variety of "rites, incantations, and esoteric knowledge" departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions. The Upanishads are widely known, and their diverse ideas, interpreted in various ways, informed later traditions of Hinduism. The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person, postulating Ātman and Brahman as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe", but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 1</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg/220px-Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg/330px-Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg/440px-Guru_and_DiscipleI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3975" data-file-height="2775" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><br />The <b><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʊ/: 'u' in 'push'">ʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'p' in 'pie'">p</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="/ʃ/: 'sh' in 'shy'">ʃ</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">उपनिषद्</span>, <a href="/wiki/IAST" class="mw-redirect" title="IAST">IAST</a>: <i><span title="International Alphabet of Sanskrit transliteration"><i lang="sa-Latn">Upaniṣad</i></span></i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">pronounced</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="sa-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit" title="Help:IPA/Sanskrit">[ˈʊpɐnɪʂɐd]</a></span>) are <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">late Vedic</a> and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>. They are the most recent addition to the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a> -- the oldest scriptures of Hinduism, and deal with meditation, <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">ontological</a> knowledge. Earlier parts of the Vedas dealt with mantras, benedictions, rituals, ceremonies, and sacrifices.<br /><br />While among the most important literature in the history of Indian religions and culture, the Upanishads document a wide variety of "rites, incantations, and esoteric knowledge" departing from Vedic ritualism and interpreted in various ways in the later commentarial traditions. The Upanishads are widely known, and their diverse ideas, interpreted in various ways, informed later traditions of Hinduism. The central concern of all Upanishads is to discover the relations between ritual, cosmic realities (including gods), and the human body/person, postulating <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">Ātman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a> as the "summit of the hierarchically arranged and interconnected universe", but various ideas about the relation between Atman and Brahman can be found. (<b><a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 2 Jain temples on Shatrunjaya hill near Palitana, Gujarat Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/ JAY-niz-əm), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of Dharma), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān, or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul, distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth. Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization, which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 2 Jain temples on Shatrunjaya hill near Palitana, Gujarat Jainism (/ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/ JAY-niz-əm), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of Dharma), with the first in the current time cycle being Rishabhadeva, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha, whom historians date to the 9th century BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara Mahavira, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every time cycle of the cosmology. Central to understanding Jain philosophy is the concept of bhedvigyān, or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every soul, distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of birth and rebirth. Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of samyak darshan or self realization, which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards liberation. The three main pillars of Jainism are ahiṃsā (non-violence), anekāntavāda (non-absolutism), and aparigraha (asceticism). Jain monks take five main vows: ahiṃsā (non-violence), satya (truth), asteya (not stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly lacto-vegetarian lifestyle. Parasparopagraho jīvānām (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the Namokar Mantra is its most common and strongest prayer. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 2</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Palitana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Palitana.jpg/220px-Palitana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="272" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Palitana.jpg/330px-Palitana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Palitana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="363" data-file-height="449" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Jain temples on <a href="/wiki/Shatrunjaya" title="Shatrunjaya">Shatrunjaya</a> hill near <a href="/wiki/Palitana" title="Palitana">Palitana</a>, Gujarat</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/eɪ/: 'a' in 'face'">eɪ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'z' in 'zoom'">z</span><span title="/əm/: 'm' in 'rhythm'">əm</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">JAY</span>-niz-əm</i></a>), also known as <b>Jain Dharma</b>, is an <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian religion</a>. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four <a href="/wiki/Tirthankar" class="mw-redirect" title="Tirthankar"><i>tirthankara</i>s</a> (supreme preachers of <i>Dharma</i>), with the first in the current time cycle being <a href="/wiki/Rishabhadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Rishabhadeva">Rishabhadeva</a>, whom the tradition holds to have lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third <i>tirthankara</i> <a href="/wiki/Parshvanatha" title="Parshvanatha">Parshvanatha</a>, whom historians date to the 9th century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE</a>, and the twenty-fourth <i>tirthankara</i> <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81v%C4%ABra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahāvīra">Mahavira</a>, around 600 BCE. Jainism is considered an eternal <i><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dharma</a></i> with the <i>tirthankaras</i> guiding every time cycle of the <a href="/wiki/Jain_cosmology" title="Jain cosmology">cosmology</a>. Central to understanding <a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain philosophy</a> is the concept of <i>bhedvigyān</i>, or the clear distinction in the nature of the soul and non-soul entities. This principle underscores the innate purity and potential for liberation within every <a href="/wiki/J%C4%ABva_(Jainism)" title="Jīva (Jainism)">soul</a>, distinct from the physical and mental elements that bind it to the cycle of <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Jainism)" title="Saṃsāra (Jainism)">birth and rebirth</a>. Recognizing and internalizing this separation is essential for spiritual progress and the attainment of <i>samyak darshan</i> or <a href="/wiki/Self_realization" class="mw-redirect" title="Self realization">self realization</a>, which marks the beginning of the aspirant's journey towards <a href="/wiki/Moksha_(Jainism)" title="Moksha (Jainism)">liberation</a>. The three main pillars of Jainism are <i><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa_in_Jainism" title="Ahimsa in Jainism">ahiṃsā</a></i> (non-violence), <i><a href="/wiki/Anek%C4%81ntav%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Anekāntavāda">anekāntavāda</a></i> (non-absolutism), and <i><a href="/wiki/Aparigraha" class="mw-redirect" title="Aparigraha">aparigraha</a></i> (asceticism).<br /><br />Jain monks take five main vows: <i>ahiṃsā</i> (non-violence), <i><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">satya</a></i> (truth), <i><a href="/wiki/Achourya" title="Achourya">asteya</a></i> (not stealing), <i><a href="/wiki/Brahmacharya" title="Brahmacharya">brahmacharya</a></i> (chastity), and <i>aparigraha</i> (non-possessiveness). These principles have affected Jain culture in many ways, such as leading to a predominantly <a href="/wiki/Lacto-vegetarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Lacto-vegetarian">lacto-vegetarian</a> lifestyle. <i><a href="/wiki/Parasparopagraho_J%C4%ABv%C4%81n%C4%81m" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasparopagraho Jīvānām">Parasparopagraho jīvānām</a></i> (the function of souls is to help one another) is the faith's motto, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Namokar_Mantra" title="Namokar Mantra">Namokar Mantra</a></i> is its most common and strongest prayer. (<b><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 3 Rothbard in the 1970s Murray Newton Rothbard (/ˈrɒθbɑːrd/; March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American economist of the Austrian School, economic historian, political theorist, and activist. Rothbard was a central figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, particularly its right-wing strands, and was a founder and leading theoretician of anarcho-capitalism. He wrote over twenty books on political theory, history, economics, and other subjects. Rothbard argued that all services provided by the "monopoly system of the corporate state" could be provided more efficiently by the private sector and wrote that the state is "the organization of robbery systematized and writ large". He called fractional-reserve banking a form of fraud and opposed central banking. He categorically opposed all military, political, and economic interventionism in the affairs of other nations. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 3 Rothbard in the 1970s Murray Newton Rothbard (/ˈrɒθbɑːrd/; March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American economist of the Austrian School, economic historian, political theorist, and activist. Rothbard was a central figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement, particularly its right-wing strands, and was a founder and leading theoretician of anarcho-capitalism. He wrote over twenty books on political theory, history, economics, and other subjects. Rothbard argued that all services provided by the "monopoly system of the corporate state" could be provided more efficiently by the private sector and wrote that the state is "the organization of robbery systematized and writ large". He called fractional-reserve banking a form of fraud and opposed central banking. He categorically opposed all military, political, and economic interventionism in the affairs of other nations. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 3</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Rothbard_%2770s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rothbard_%2770s.jpg/220px-Rothbard_%2770s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rothbard_%2770s.jpg/330px-Rothbard_%2770s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Rothbard_%2770s.jpg/440px-Rothbard_%2770s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Rothbard in the 1970s</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Murray Newton Rothbard</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="/θ/: 'th' in 'thigh'">θ</span><span title="'b' in 'buy'">b</span><span title="/ɑːr/: 'ar' in 'far'">ɑːr</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>/</a></span></span>; March 2, 1926 – January 7, 1995) was an American economist of the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Austrian School">Austrian School</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic historian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political theorist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">activist</a>. Rothbard was a central figure in the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/American_libertarian_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="American libertarian movement">American libertarian movement</a>, particularly its <a href="/wiki/Right-libertarianism" title="Right-libertarianism">right-wing</a> strands, and was a founder and leading theoretician of <a href="/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism" title="Anarcho-capitalism">anarcho-capitalism</a>. He wrote over twenty books on political theory, history, economics, and other subjects.<br /><br />Rothbard argued that all services provided by the "monopoly system of the corporate state" could be provided more efficiently by the private sector and wrote that the <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> is "the organization of robbery systematized and writ large". He called <a href="/wiki/Fractional-reserve_banking" title="Fractional-reserve banking">fractional-reserve banking</a> a form of fraud and opposed <a href="/wiki/Central_bank" title="Central bank">central banking</a>. He categorically opposed all <a href="/wiki/Military_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Military interventionism">military</a>, political, and <a href="/wiki/Economic_interventionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic interventionism">economic interventionism</a> in the affairs of other nations. (<b><a href="/wiki/Murray_Rothbard" title="Murray Rothbard">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 4 The Bhikshuka Upanishad describes Hindu mendicants who seek spiritual liberation through the practise of yoga The Bhikshuka Upanishad (Sanskrit: भिक्षुक उपनिषत्, IAST: Bhikṣuka Upaniṣad), also known as Bhikshukopanishad, is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism and is written in Sanskrit. The Upanishad describes four kinds of sannyasins (Hindu monks), their eating habits and lifestyle. Yoga is the path of spiritual liberation for all four. Of these, the Paramahamsa monks are discussed in this text at greater length, and described as loners who are patient with everyone, free from dualism in their thoughts, and who meditate on their soul and the Brahman. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 4 The Bhikshuka Upanishad describes Hindu mendicants who seek spiritual liberation through the practise of yoga The Bhikshuka Upanishad (Sanskrit: भिक्षुक उपनिषत्, IAST: Bhikṣuka Upaniṣad), also known as Bhikshukopanishad, is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism and is written in Sanskrit. The Upanishad describes four kinds of sannyasins (Hindu monks), their eating habits and lifestyle. Yoga is the path of spiritual liberation for all four. Of these, the Paramahamsa monks are discussed in this text at greater length, and described as loners who are patient with everyone, free from dualism in their thoughts, and who meditate on their soul and the Brahman. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 4</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg/220px-People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="329" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg/330px-People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg/440px-People_of_Varanasi_006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">The <i>Bhikshuka Upanishad</i> describes <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> mendicants who seek spiritual liberation through the practise of yoga</div></div></div></div><br />The <i><b><a href="/wiki/Bhikshuka_Upanishad" title="Bhikshuka Upanishad">Bhikshuka Upanishad</a></b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">भिक्षुक उपनिषत्</span>, <a href="/wiki/IAST" class="mw-redirect" title="IAST">IAST</a>: Bhikṣuka Upaniṣad), also known as <i><b>Bhikshukopanishad</b></i>, is one of the minor <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> and is written in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>.<br /><br />The Upanishad describes four kinds of <i><a href="/wiki/Sannyasa" title="Sannyasa">sannyasins</a></i> (Hindu monks), their eating habits and lifestyle. Yoga is the path of spiritual liberation for all four. Of these, the <i>Paramahamsa</i> monks are discussed in this text at greater length, and described as loners who are patient with everyone, free from <a href="/wiki/Dualism_(Indian_philosophy)" title="Dualism (Indian philosophy)">dualism</a> in their thoughts, and who meditate on their <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">soul</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>. (<b><a href="/wiki/Bhikshuka_Upanishad" title="Bhikshuka Upanishad">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 5 Vishnu in a boar (Varaha) avatar rescues Bhudevi (earth) Varaha Upanishad (Sanskrit: वराह उपनिषद्, "boar") is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE. Composed in Sanskrit, it is listed as one of the 32 Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads, and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads. The text has five chapters, structured primarily as a discussion between Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) avatar and the sage Ribhu. The discussion covers the subjects of Tattvas, the nature and relationship between the individual soul (Self, Atman) and the Ultimate Reality (Brahman), the seven stages of learning, the characteristics of Jivanmukti (inner sense of freedom while living), and the four types of Jivanmuktas (liberated persons). The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga, its goals and methods. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 5 Vishnu in a boar (Varaha) avatar rescues Bhudevi (earth) Varaha Upanishad (Sanskrit: वराह उपनिषद्, "boar") is a minor Upanishad of Hinduism composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE. Composed in Sanskrit, it is listed as one of the 32 Krishna Yajurveda Upanishads, and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads. The text has five chapters, structured primarily as a discussion between Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) avatar and the sage Ribhu. The discussion covers the subjects of Tattvas, the nature and relationship between the individual soul (Self, Atman) and the Ultimate Reality (Brahman), the seven stages of learning, the characteristics of Jivanmukti (inner sense of freedom while living), and the four types of Jivanmuktas (liberated persons). The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga, its goals and methods. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 5</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Aihole_si05-1470.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aihole_si05-1470.jpg/220px-Aihole_si05-1470.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aihole_si05-1470.jpg/330px-Aihole_si05-1470.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Aihole_si05-1470.jpg/440px-Aihole_si05-1470.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center"><a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> in a boar (Varaha) avatar rescues <a href="/wiki/Bhudevi" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhudevi">Bhudevi</a> (earth)</div></div></div></div><br /><i><b><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Upanishad" title="Varaha Upanishad">Varaha Upanishad</a></b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanskrit language">Sanskrit</a>: <span lang="sa">वराह उपनिषद्</span>, "boar") is a minor <a href="/wiki/Upanishad" class="mw-redirect" title="Upanishad">Upanishad</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> composed between the 13th and 16th centuries CE. Composed in <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>, it is listed as one of the 32 <a href="/wiki/Krishna_Yajurveda" class="mw-redirect" title="Krishna Yajurveda">Krishna Yajurveda</a> Upanishads, and classified as one of 20 Yoga Upanishads.<br /><br />The text has five chapters, structured primarily as a discussion between <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> in his <a href="/wiki/Varaha" title="Varaha">Varaha</a> (boar) avatar and the sage Ribhu. The discussion covers the subjects of <a href="/wiki/Tattvas" class="mw-redirect" title="Tattvas">Tattvas</a>, the nature and relationship between the individual soul (Self, <a href="/wiki/Atman_(Hinduism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Atman (Hinduism)">Atman</a>) and the Ultimate Reality (<a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">Brahman</a>), the seven stages of learning, the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Jivanmukti" class="mw-redirect" title="Jivanmukti">Jivanmukti</a> (inner sense of freedom while living), and the four types of <i>Jivanmuktas</i> (liberated persons). The last chapter of the text is dedicated to Yoga, its goals and methods. (<b><a href="/wiki/Varaha_Upanishad" title="Varaha Upanishad">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 6 Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Pythagoras of Samos (Ancient Greek: Πυθαγόρας; c. 570 – c. 495 BC) was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher, polymath, and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His political and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, the West in general. Knowledge of his life is clouded by legend; modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but they do agree that, around 530 BC, he travelled to Croton in southern Italy, where he founded a school in which initiates were sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle. In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries, including the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the five regular solids, the Theory of Proportions, the sphericity of the Earth, and the identity of the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of wisdom") and that he was the first to divide the globe into five climatic zones. Classical historians debate whether Pythagoras made these discoveries, and many of the accomplishments credited to him likely originated earlier or were made by his colleagues or successors. Some accounts mention that the philosophy associated with Pythagoras was related to mathematics and that numbers were important, but it is debated to what extent, if at all, he actually contributed to mathematics or natural philosophy. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 6 Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the Capitoline Museums, Rome Pythagoras of Samos (Ancient Greek: Πυθαγόρας; c. 570 – c. 495 BC) was an ancient Ionian Greek philosopher, polymath, and the eponymous founder of Pythagoreanism. His political and religious teachings were well known in Magna Graecia and influenced the philosophies of Plato, Aristotle, and, through them, the West in general. Knowledge of his life is clouded by legend; modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but they do agree that, around 530 BC, he travelled to Croton in southern Italy, where he founded a school in which initiates were sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, ascetic lifestyle. In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries, including the Pythagorean theorem, Pythagorean tuning, the five regular solids, the Theory of Proportions, the sphericity of the Earth, and the identity of the morning and evening stars as the planet Venus. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of wisdom") and that he was the first to divide the globe into five climatic zones. Classical historians debate whether Pythagoras made these discoveries, and many of the accomplishments credited to him likely originated earlier or were made by his colleagues or successors. Some accounts mention that the philosophy associated with Pythagoras was related to mathematics and that numbers were important, but it is debated to what extent, if at all, he actually contributed to mathematics or natural philosophy. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 6</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum,_Colosseum.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/220px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="318" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/330px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg/440px-Pythagoras_in_the_Roman_Forum%2C_Colosseum.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2862" data-file-height="4140" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Bust of Pythagoras of Samos in the<br /><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras of Samos</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">Πυθαγόρας</span>; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:circa">c.</a><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 570</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 495</span> BC) was an ancient <a href="/wiki/Ionians" title="Ionians">Ionian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, and the eponymous founder of <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a>. His political and religious teachings were well known in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> and influenced the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and, through them, the <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">West</a> in general. Knowledge of his life is clouded by legend; modern scholars disagree regarding Pythagoras's education and influences, but they do agree that, around 530 BC, he travelled to <a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Croton</a> in southern Italy, where he founded a school in which initiates were sworn to secrecy and lived a communal, <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">ascetic</a> lifestyle.<br /><br />In antiquity, Pythagoras was credited with many mathematical and scientific discoveries, including the <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_tuning" title="Pythagorean tuning">Pythagorean tuning</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Platonic_solids" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic solids">five regular solids</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(mathematics)" title="Proportionality (mathematics)">Theory of Proportions</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">sphericity of the Earth</a>, and the identity of the <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_(morning_star)" title="Phosphorus (morning star)">morning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hesperus" title="Hesperus">evening stars</a> as the planet <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>. It was said that he was the first man to call himself a philosopher ("lover of wisdom") and that he was the first to divide the globe into <a href="/wiki/Geographical_zone" title="Geographical zone">five climatic zones</a>. Classical historians debate whether Pythagoras made these discoveries, and many of the accomplishments credited to him likely originated earlier or were made by his colleagues or successors. Some accounts mention that the philosophy associated with Pythagoras was related to mathematics and that numbers were important, but it is debated to what extent, if at all, he actually contributed to mathematics or <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>. (<b><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 7 Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs au̯ˈreːliʊs antoːˈniːnʊs]; English: /ɔːˈriːliəs/ or-EE-lee-əs; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace, calm, and stability for the Roman Empire lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus Aurelius was the son of the praetor Marcus Annius Verus and his wife, Domitia Calvilla. He was related through marriage to the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Marcus was three when his father died, and was raised by his mother and paternal grandfather. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, Hadrian adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He married Antoninus's daughter Faustina in 145. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 7 Marble bust, Musée Saint-Raymond Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: [ˈmaːrkʊs au̯ˈreːliʊs antoːˈniːnʊs]; English: /ɔːˈriːliəs/ or-EE-lee-əs; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 and a Stoic philosopher. He was a member of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty, the last of the rulers later known as the Five Good Emperors and the last emperor of the Pax Romana, an age of relative peace, calm, and stability for the Roman Empire lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. He served as Roman consul in 140, 145, and 161. Marcus Aurelius was the son of the praetor Marcus Annius Verus and his wife, Domitia Calvilla. He was related through marriage to the emperors Trajan and Hadrian. Marcus was three when his father died, and was raised by his mother and paternal grandfather. After Hadrian's adoptive son, Aelius Caesar, died in 138, Hadrian adopted Marcus's uncle Antoninus Pius as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and Lucius, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as Herodes Atticus and Marcus Cornelius Fronto. He married Antoninus's daughter Faustina in 145. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 7</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/220px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/330px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg/440px-MSR-ra-61-b-1-DM.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Marble bust, <a href="/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_Saint-Raymond" title="Musée Saint-Raymond">Musée Saint-Raymond</a></div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius Antoninus</a></b> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Latin:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="la-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Latin" title="Help:IPA/Latin">[ˈmaːrkʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>au̯ˈreːliʊs<span class="wrap"> </span>antoːˈniːnʊs]</a></span>; English: <span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ɔː/: 'au' in 'fraud'">ɔː</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/iː/: 'ee' in 'fleece'">iː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/i/: 'y' in 'happy'">i</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling">or-<span style="font-size:90%">EE</span>-lee-əs</i></a>; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> from 161 to 180 and a <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> philosopher. He was a member of the <a href="/wiki/Nerva%E2%80%93Antonine_dynasty" title="Nerva–Antonine dynasty">Nerva–Antonine dynasty</a>, the last of the rulers later known as the <a href="/wiki/Five_Good_Emperors" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Good Emperors">Five Good Emperors</a> and the last emperor of the <a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a>, an age of relative peace, calm, and stability for the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> lasting from 27 BC to 180 AD. He served as <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Roman consul</a> in 140, 145, and 161.<br /><br />Marcus Aurelius was the son of the <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Annius_Verus_(III)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Annius Verus (III)">Marcus Annius Verus</a> and his wife, <a href="/wiki/Domitia_Calvilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Domitia Calvilla">Domitia Calvilla</a>. He was related through marriage to the emperors <a href="/wiki/Trajan" title="Trajan">Trajan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadrian" title="Hadrian">Hadrian</a>. Marcus was three when his father died, and was raised by his mother and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Annius_Verus_(II)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Annius Verus (II)">paternal grandfather</a>. After Hadrian's <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adoptive</a> son, <a href="/wiki/Aelius_Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Aelius Caesar">Aelius Caesar</a>, died in 138, Hadrian adopted Marcus's uncle <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> as his new heir. In turn, Antoninus adopted Marcus and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius</a>, the son of Aelius. Hadrian died that year, and Antoninus became emperor. Now heir to the throne, Marcus studied Greek and Latin under tutors such as <a href="/wiki/Herodes_Atticus" title="Herodes Atticus">Herodes Atticus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Marcus Cornelius Fronto</a>. He married Antoninus's daughter <a href="/wiki/Faustina_the_Younger" title="Faustina the Younger">Faustina</a> in 145. (<b><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 8 Speculative portrait by William Faithorne Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, c. 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridiculed superstition, religious practices, and belief in the paranormal. Although his native language was probably Syriac, all of his extant works are written entirely in ancient Greek (mostly in the Attic Greek dialect popular during the Second Sophistic period). Everything that is known about Lucian's life comes from his own writings, which are often difficult to interpret because of his extensive use of sarcasm. According to his oration The Dream, he was the son of a lower middle class family from the city of Samosata along the banks of the Euphrates in the remote Roman province of Syria. As a young man, he was apprenticed to his uncle to become a sculptor, but, after a failed attempt at sculpting, he ran away to pursue an education in Ionia. He may have become a travelling lecturer and visited universities throughout the Roman Empire. After acquiring fame and wealth through his teaching, Lucian finally settled down in Athens for a decade, during which he wrote most of his extant works. In his fifties, he may have been appointed as a highly paid government official in Egypt, after which point he disappears from the historical record. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 8 Speculative portrait by William Faithorne Lucian of Samosata (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, c. 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized Syrian satirist, rhetorician and pamphleteer who is best known for his characteristic tongue-in-cheek style, with which he frequently ridiculed superstition, religious practices, and belief in the paranormal. Although his native language was probably Syriac, all of his extant works are written entirely in ancient Greek (mostly in the Attic Greek dialect popular during the Second Sophistic period). Everything that is known about Lucian's life comes from his own writings, which are often difficult to interpret because of his extensive use of sarcasm. According to his oration The Dream, he was the son of a lower middle class family from the city of Samosata along the banks of the Euphrates in the remote Roman province of Syria. As a young man, he was apprenticed to his uncle to become a sculptor, but, after a failed attempt at sculpting, he ran away to pursue an education in Ionia. He may have become a travelling lecturer and visited universities throughout the Roman Empire. After acquiring fame and wealth through his teaching, Lucian finally settled down in Athens for a decade, during which he wrote most of his extant works. In his fifties, he may have been appointed as a highly paid government official in Egypt, after which point he disappears from the historical record. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 8</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lucian_of_Samosata.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lucian_of_Samosata.png/220px-Lucian_of_Samosata.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="348" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lucian_of_Samosata.png/330px-Lucian_of_Samosata.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lucian_of_Samosata.png/440px-Lucian_of_Samosata.png 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Speculative portrait by <a href="/wiki/William_Faithorne" title="William Faithorne">William Faithorne</a></div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian of Samosata</a></b> (Λουκιανὸς ὁ Σαμοσατεύς, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 125 – after 180) was a Hellenized <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetorician</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pamphleteer" title="Pamphleteer">pamphleteer</a> who is best known for his characteristic <a href="/wiki/Tongue-in-cheek" title="Tongue-in-cheek">tongue-in-cheek</a> style, with which he frequently ridiculed superstition, religious practices, and belief in the paranormal. Although his native language was probably <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac</a>, all of his extant works are written entirely in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> (mostly in the <a href="/wiki/Attic_Greek" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a> dialect popular during the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a> period).<br /><br />Everything that is known about Lucian's life comes from his own writings, which are often difficult to interpret because of his extensive use of sarcasm. According to his oration <i>The Dream</i>, he was the son of a <a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">lower middle class</a> family from the city of <a href="/wiki/Samosata" class="mw-redirect" title="Samosata">Samosata</a> along the banks of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> in the remote Roman province of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Syria</a>. As a young man, he was apprenticed to his uncle to become a sculptor, but, after a failed attempt at sculpting, he ran away to pursue an education in <a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>. He may have become a travelling lecturer and visited universities throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>. After acquiring fame and wealth through his teaching, Lucian finally settled down in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a> for a decade, during which he wrote most of his extant works. In his fifties, he may have been appointed as a highly paid government official in <a href="/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>, after which point he disappears from the historical record. (<b><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 9 J. Hunter Guthrie in 1949 Joseph Hunter Guthrie SJ (January 8, 1901 – November 11, 1974) was an American academic philosopher, writer, Jesuit, and Catholic priest. Born in New York City, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1917, and began his studies at Woodstock College. Following his undergraduate and graduate work there, he taught at Jesuit institutions in the Philippines until 1927. Following his ordination in 1930, he received doctorates in theology and philosophy from the Pontifical Gregorian University and the University of Paris, respectively. He then returned to the United States, where he became a professor of philosophy at Woodstock College and Fordham University. In 1943, Guthrie became the chairman of graduate philosophy at Georgetown University and dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. In this role, he admitted the first women to the school on equal terms as men. For twenty years, he promoted the belief that intellectuals must play a central role in combatting the ideologies that led to World War II. To that end, he was a member of the drafting committee of the UNESCO charter, was a co-founder of an American academy of Catholic intellectuals, and travelled the world with the U.S. State Department, for which he received honors from several countries and organizations. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 9 J. Hunter Guthrie in 1949 Joseph Hunter Guthrie SJ (January 8, 1901 – November 11, 1974) was an American academic philosopher, writer, Jesuit, and Catholic priest. Born in New York City, he entered the Society of Jesus in 1917, and began his studies at Woodstock College. Following his undergraduate and graduate work there, he taught at Jesuit institutions in the Philippines until 1927. Following his ordination in 1930, he received doctorates in theology and philosophy from the Pontifical Gregorian University and the University of Paris, respectively. He then returned to the United States, where he became a professor of philosophy at Woodstock College and Fordham University. In 1943, Guthrie became the chairman of graduate philosophy at Georgetown University and dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. In this role, he admitted the first women to the school on equal terms as men. For twenty years, he promoted the belief that intellectuals must play a central role in combatting the ideologies that led to World War II. To that end, he was a member of the drafting committee of the UNESCO charter, was a co-founder of an American academy of Catholic intellectuals, and travelled the world with the U.S. State Department, for which he received honors from several countries and organizations. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 9</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png/220px-J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png/330px-J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/J._Hunter_Guthrie_fall_1949_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="338" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">J. Hunter Guthrie in 1949</div></div></div></div><br /><b><a href="/wiki/J._Hunter_Guthrie" title="J. Hunter Guthrie">Joseph Hunter Guthrie</a></b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">SJ</a></span> (January 8, 1901 – November 11, 1974) was an American academic <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, writer, <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuit</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> priest. Born in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, he entered the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> in 1917, and began his studies at <a href="/wiki/Woodstock_College" title="Woodstock College">Woodstock College</a>. Following his undergraduate and graduate work there, he taught at Jesuit institutions in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> until 1927. Following his <a href="/wiki/Holy_orders_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Holy orders in the Catholic Church">ordination</a> in 1930, he received <a href="/wiki/Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorates</a> in <a href="/wiki/Catholic_theology" title="Catholic theology">theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Gregorian_University" title="Pontifical Gregorian University">Pontifical Gregorian University</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">University of Paris</a>, respectively. He then returned to the United States, where he became a professor of philosophy at Woodstock College and <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>.<br /><br />In 1943, Guthrie became the chairman of graduate philosophy at <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University" title="Georgetown University">Georgetown University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dean_(education)" title="Dean (education)">dean</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University_Graduate_School_of_Arts_and_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgetown University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences">Graduate School of Arts and Sciences</a>. In this role, he admitted the first women to the school on equal terms as men. For twenty years, he promoted the belief that intellectuals must play a central role in combatting the ideologies that led to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. To that end, he was a member of the drafting committee of the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> charter, was a co-founder of an American academy of Catholic intellectuals, and travelled the world with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State" title="United States Department of State">U.S. State Department</a>, for which he received honors from several countries and organizations. (<b><a href="/wiki/J._Hunter_Guthrie" title="J. Hunter Guthrie">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 10 Werner Erhard: The Transformation of a Man, The Founding of est is a biography of Werner Erhard by philosophy professor William Warren Bartley, III. The book was published in 1978 by Clarkson Potter. Bartley was a graduate of Erhard Seminars Training and served on its advisory board. Erhard wrote a foreword to the book. The book's structure describes Erhard's education, transformation, reconnection with his family, and the theories of the est training. The book went through five editions in its first year. Reviewers generally commented that the book was favorable to Erhard, and a number of critics felt that it was unduly so, or lacked objectivity, citing Bartley's close relationship to Erhard. Responses to the writing were mixed; while some reviewers found it well written and entertaining, others felt the tone was too slick, promotional, or hagiographic. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 10 Werner Erhard: The Transformation of a Man, The Founding of est is a biography of Werner Erhard by philosophy professor William Warren Bartley, III. The book was published in 1978 by Clarkson Potter. Bartley was a graduate of Erhard Seminars Training and served on its advisory board. Erhard wrote a foreword to the book. The book's structure describes Erhard's education, transformation, reconnection with his family, and the theories of the est training. The book went through five editions in its first year. Reviewers generally commented that the book was favorable to Erhard, and a number of critics felt that it was unduly so, or lacked objectivity, citing Bartley's close relationship to Erhard. Responses to the writing were mixed; while some reviewers found it well written and entertaining, others felt the tone was too slick, promotional, or hagiographic. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 10</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Werner_Erhard_(book)" title="Werner Erhard (book)"><i>Werner Erhard: The Transformation of a Man, The Founding of est</i></a></b> is a <a href="/wiki/Biography" title="Biography">biography</a> of <a href="/wiki/Werner_Erhard" title="Werner Erhard">Werner Erhard</a> by philosophy professor <a href="/wiki/William_Warren_Bartley" class="mw-redirect" title="William Warren Bartley">William Warren Bartley, III</a>. The book was published in 1978 by <a href="/wiki/Clarkson_Potter" title="Clarkson Potter">Clarkson Potter</a>. Bartley was a graduate of <a href="/wiki/Erhard_Seminars_Training" title="Erhard Seminars Training">Erhard Seminars Training</a> and served on its advisory board. Erhard wrote a foreword to the book. The book's structure describes Erhard's education, transformation, reconnection with his family, and the theories of the est training.<br /><br />The book went through five editions in its first year. Reviewers generally commented that the book was favorable to Erhard, and a number of critics felt that it was unduly so, or lacked objectivity, citing Bartley's close relationship to Erhard. Responses to the writing were mixed; while some reviewers found it well written and entertaining, others felt the tone was too slick, promotional, or <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiographic</a>. (<b><a href="/wiki/Werner_Erhard_(book)" title="Werner Erhard (book)">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 11 The unity of the intellect thesis was proposed by Averroes, painted here by the 14th century artist Andrea Bonaiuto. The unity of the intellect (also called the unicity of the intellect or monopsychism), a philosophical theory proposed by the medieval Andalusian philosopher Averroes (1126–1198), asserted that all humans share the same intellect. Averroes expounded his theory in his long commentary on Aristotle's On the Soul to explain how universal knowledge is possible within the Aristotelian philosophy of mind. Averroes's theory was influenced by related ideas propounded by previous thinkers such as Aristotle himself, Plotinus, Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Avempace (Ibn Bajja). Once Latin translations of Averroes's works became available in the 13th century, this theory was taken up and expanded by Averroists in the Christian West, such as Siger of Brabant (c. 1240 – c. 1284), John of Jandun (c. 1285 – 1328) and John Baconthorpe (c. 1290 – 1347). It also influenced the secularist political philosophy of Dante Alighieri (c. 1265 – 1321) in the fourteenth century. However, it was rejected by other philosophers—including Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), who wrote a detailed critique—and Averroes received condemnation from Catholic Church authorities. In modern times, the theory is no longer seen as tenable; historian of philosophy Peter Adamson regards it as a product of Averroes's time. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 11 The unity of the intellect thesis was proposed by Averroes, painted here by the 14th century artist Andrea Bonaiuto. The unity of the intellect (also called the unicity of the intellect or monopsychism), a philosophical theory proposed by the medieval Andalusian philosopher Averroes (1126–1198), asserted that all humans share the same intellect. Averroes expounded his theory in his long commentary on Aristotle's On the Soul to explain how universal knowledge is possible within the Aristotelian philosophy of mind. Averroes's theory was influenced by related ideas propounded by previous thinkers such as Aristotle himself, Plotinus, Al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Avempace (Ibn Bajja). Once Latin translations of Averroes's works became available in the 13th century, this theory was taken up and expanded by Averroists in the Christian West, such as Siger of Brabant (c. 1240 – c. 1284), John of Jandun (c. 1285 – 1328) and John Baconthorpe (c. 1290 – 1347). It also influenced the secularist political philosophy of Dante Alighieri (c. 1265 – 1321) in the fourteenth century. However, it was rejected by other philosophers—including Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), who wrote a detailed critique—and Averroes received condemnation from Catholic Church authorities. In modern times, the theory is no longer seen as tenable; historian of philosophy Peter Adamson regards it as a product of Averroes's time. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 11</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AverroesColor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/220px-AverroesColor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg/330px-AverroesColor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/AverroesColor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="352" data-file-height="276" /></a><figcaption>The unity of the intellect thesis was proposed by <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a>, painted here by the 14th century artist <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Bonaiuto" class="mw-redirect" title="Andrea Bonaiuto">Andrea Bonaiuto</a>.</figcaption></figure><br /><br />The <b><a href="/wiki/Averroes%27s_theory_of_the_unity_of_the_intellect" title="Averroes's theory of the unity of the intellect">unity of the intellect</a></b> (also called the <b>unicity of the intellect</b> or <b>monopsychism</b>), a philosophical theory proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">medieval Andalusian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> (1126–1198), asserted that all humans share the same <a href="/wiki/Nous" title="Nous"> intellect</a>. Averroes expounded his theory in his long commentary on <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Soul" title="On the Soul">On the Soul</a></i> to explain how <a href="/wiki/Universality_(philosophy)" title="Universality (philosophy)">universal</a> knowledge is possible within the <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism"> Aristotelian</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>. Averroes's theory was influenced by related ideas propounded by previous thinkers such as Aristotle himself, <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sina) and <a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a> (Ibn Bajja).<br /><br />Once Latin translations of Averroes's works became available in the 13th century, this theory was taken up and expanded by <a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism"> Averroists</a> in the Christian West, such as <a href="/wiki/Siger_of_Brabant" title="Siger of Brabant">Siger of Brabant</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1240</span> – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1284</span>), <a href="/wiki/John_of_Jandun" title="John of Jandun">John of Jandun</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1285</span> – 1328) and <a href="/wiki/John_Baconthorpe" title="John Baconthorpe">John Baconthorpe</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1290</span> – 1347). It also influenced the secularist political philosophy of <a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante Alighieri</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1265 – 1321) in the fourteenth century. However, it was rejected by other philosophers—including <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (1225 – 1274), who wrote a detailed critique—and Averroes received condemnation from <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> authorities. In modern times, the theory is no longer seen as tenable; historian of philosophy <a href="/wiki/Peter_Adamson_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Adamson (academic)">Peter Adamson</a> regards it as a product of Averroes's time. (<b><a href="/wiki/Averroes%27s_theory_of_the_unity_of_the_intellect" title="Averroes's theory of the unity of the intellect">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 12 1799 portrait Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name Novalis (/noʊˈvɑːlɪs/; German: [noˈvaːlɪs]), was a German aristocrat and polymath, who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and mystic. He is regarded as an influential figure of Jena Romanticism. Novalis was born into a minor aristocratic family in Electoral Saxony. He was the second of eleven children; his early household observed a strict Pietist faith. He studied law at the University of Jena, the University of Leipzig, and the University of Wittenberg. While at Jena, he published his first poem and befriended the playwright and fellow poet Friedrich Schiller. In Leipzig, he then met Friedrich Schlegel, becoming lifelong friends. Novalis completed his law degree in 1794 at the age of 22. He then worked as a legal assistant in Tennstedt immediately after graduating. There, he met Sophie von Kühn. The following year Novalis and Sophie became secretly engaged. Sophie became severely ill soon after the engagement and died just after her 15th birthday. Sophie's early death had a life-long impact on Novalis and his writing. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 12 1799 portrait Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name Novalis (/noʊˈvɑːlɪs/; German: [noˈvaːlɪs]), was a German aristocrat and polymath, who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and mystic. He is regarded as an influential figure of Jena Romanticism. Novalis was born into a minor aristocratic family in Electoral Saxony. He was the second of eleven children; his early household observed a strict Pietist faith. He studied law at the University of Jena, the University of Leipzig, and the University of Wittenberg. While at Jena, he published his first poem and befriended the playwright and fellow poet Friedrich Schiller. In Leipzig, he then met Friedrich Schlegel, becoming lifelong friends. Novalis completed his law degree in 1794 at the age of 22. He then worked as a legal assistant in Tennstedt immediately after graduating. There, he met Sophie von Kühn. The following year Novalis and Sophie became secretly engaged. Sophie became severely ill soon after the engagement and died just after her 15th birthday. Sophie's early death had a life-long impact on Novalis and his writing. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 12</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Novalis-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Novalis-1.jpg/220px-Novalis-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Novalis-1.jpg/330px-Novalis-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Novalis-1.jpg/440px-Novalis-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="999" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">1799 portrait</div></div></div></div><br /><b>Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg</b> (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name <b><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Novalis</a></b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="/oʊ/: 'o' in 'code'">oʊ</span><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span></span>/</a></span></span>; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">German:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="de-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Standard_German" title="Help:IPA/Standard German">[noˈvaːlɪs]</a></span>), was a <a href="/wiki/German_nobility" title="German nobility">German aristocrat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mystic</a>. He is regarded as an influential figure of <a href="/wiki/Jena_Romanticism" title="Jena Romanticism">Jena Romanticism</a>.<br /><br />Novalis was born into a minor aristocratic family in <a href="/wiki/Electoral_Saxony" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral Saxony">Electoral Saxony</a>. He was the second of eleven children; his early household observed a strict <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietist</a> faith. He studied law at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Jena" title="University of Jena">University of Jena</a>, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Leipzig" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Leipzig">University of Leipzig</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Wittenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Wittenberg">University of Wittenberg</a>. While at Jena, he published his first poem and befriended the playwright and fellow poet <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a>. In Leipzig, he then met <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schlegel" title="Friedrich Schlegel">Friedrich Schlegel</a>, becoming lifelong friends. Novalis completed his law degree in 1794 at the age of 22. He then worked as a legal assistant in <a href="/wiki/Bad_Tennstedt" title="Bad Tennstedt">Tennstedt</a> immediately after graduating. There, he met <a href="/wiki/Sophie_von_K%C3%BChn" title="Sophie von Kühn">Sophie von Kühn</a>. The following year Novalis and Sophie became secretly engaged. Sophie became severely ill soon after the engagement and died just after her 15th birthday. Sophie's early death had a life-long impact on Novalis and his writing. (<b><a href="/wiki/Novalis" title="Novalis">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 13 Historia animalium et al., Constantinople, 12th century (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, pluteo 87.4) History of Animals (‹See Tfd›Greek: Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν, Ton peri ta zoia historion, "Inquiries on Animals"; Latin: Historia Animalium, "History of Animals") is one of the major texts on biology by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who had studied at Plato's Academy in Athens. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC. Generally seen as a pioneering work of zoology, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the what (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the why (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the natural world. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all birds have feathers, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a universal. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 13 Historia animalium et al., Constantinople, 12th century (Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, pluteo 87.4) History of Animals (‹See Tfd›Greek: Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν, Ton peri ta zoia historion, "Inquiries on Animals"; Latin: Historia Animalium, "History of Animals") is one of the major texts on biology by the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle, who had studied at Plato's Academy in Athens. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC. Generally seen as a pioneering work of zoology, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the what (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the why (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the natural world. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all birds have feathers, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a universal. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 13</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costantinopoli,_aristotele,_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti,_xii_sec.,_pluteo_87,4.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/330px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG" decoding="async" width="330" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/495px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG/660px-Costantinopoli%2C_aristotele%2C_historia_animalium_e_altri_scritti%2C_xii_sec.%2C_pluteo_87%2C4.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2778" data-file-height="1974" /></a><figcaption><i><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Historia animalium</i></span> et al.</i>, <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, 12th century (<a href="/wiki/Biblioteca_Medicea_Laurenziana" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana">Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana</a>, pluteo 87.4)</figcaption></figure><br /><i><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">History of Animals</a></b></i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248666159">.mw-parser-output .tfd-dated{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .tfd-default{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);clear:both;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tfd-tiny{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .tfd-inline{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1)}.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{border-bottom:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);text-align:center;position:relative}@media(min-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .tfd-sidebar{clear:right;float:right;width:22em}}</style><span class="tfd tfd-dated tfd-tiny"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Templates_for_discussion/Log/2024_November_12#Template:Lang-grc-gre" title="Wikipedia:Templates for discussion/Log/2024 November 12">‹See Tfd›</a></span><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Τῶν περὶ τὰ ζῷα ἱστοριῶν</span></span>, <i>Ton peri ta zoia historion</i>, "Inquiries on Animals"; <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">Historia Animalium</i>, "History of Animals") is one of the major <a href="/wiki/Aristotle%27s_biology" title="Aristotle's biology">texts on biology</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, who had studied at <a href="/wiki/Plato%27s_Academy" class="mw-redirect" title="Plato's Academy">Plato's Academy</a> in <a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>. It was written in the fourth century BC; Aristotle died in 322 BC.<br /><br />Generally seen as a pioneering work of <a href="/wiki/Zoology" title="Zoology">zoology</a>, Aristotle frames his text by explaining that he is investigating the <i>what</i> (the existing facts about animals) prior to establishing the <i>why</i> (the causes of these characteristics). The book is thus an attempt to apply philosophy to part of the <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">natural world</a>. Throughout the work, Aristotle seeks to identify differences, both between individuals and between groups. A group is established when it is seen that all members have the same set of distinguishing features; for example, that all <a href="/wiki/Birds" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds">birds</a> have <a href="/wiki/Feather" title="Feather">feathers</a>, wings, and beaks. This relationship between the birds and their features is recognized as a <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universal</a>. (<b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Animals" title="History of Animals">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 14 Chernyi, c. 1923 Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov (Russian: Па́вел Дми́триевич Турчани́нов, IPA: [ˈpavʲɪl ˈdmʲitrʲɪjɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrtɕɪˈnʲinəf]; 1878–1921), commonly known by his pseudonym Lev Chernyi (Russian: Лев Чёрный, IPA: [ˈlʲef ˈtɕɵrnɨj] ⓘ) was a Russian individualist anarchist. Having joined the anarchist movement during the Russian Revolution of 1905, during which he developed his individualist theory of "associational anarchism", Chernyi was arrested and exiled to Siberia for his revolutionary activities. After several escape attempts, one of which resulted in mutinous exiles capturing Turukhansk, he managed to flee to Paris, where he stayed until the Russian Revolution of 1917. After returning to Russia, he acted as secretary for the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups and organised the Black Guards, the federation's armed wing. As political repression against anarchists intensified after the Bolsheviks took power, Chernyi joined an underground anarchist group, which bombed a Russian Communist Party meeting. In 1921, Chernyi and Fanya Baron were arrested on charges of counterfeiting and were executed by shooting by the Cheka. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 14 Chernyi, c. 1923 Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov (Russian: Па́вел Дми́триевич Турчани́нов, IPA: [ˈpavʲɪl ˈdmʲitrʲɪjɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrtɕɪˈnʲinəf]; 1878–1921), commonly known by his pseudonym Lev Chernyi (Russian: Лев Чёрный, IPA: [ˈlʲef ˈtɕɵrnɨj] ⓘ) was a Russian individualist anarchist. Having joined the anarchist movement during the Russian Revolution of 1905, during which he developed his individualist theory of "associational anarchism", Chernyi was arrested and exiled to Siberia for his revolutionary activities. After several escape attempts, one of which resulted in mutinous exiles capturing Turukhansk, he managed to flee to Paris, where he stayed until the Russian Revolution of 1917. After returning to Russia, he acted as secretary for the Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups and organised the Black Guards, the federation's armed wing. As political repression against anarchists intensified after the Bolsheviks took power, Chernyi joined an underground anarchist group, which bombed a Russian Communist Party meeting. In 1921, Chernyi and Fanya Baron were arrested on charges of counterfeiting and were executed by shooting by the Cheka. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 14</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="thumb tright" style="overflow:hidden;width:auto;max-width:308px"><div class="thumbinner"><div class="noresize" style="width:auto;overflow:auto;"><div style="white-space:normal"><br /><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-none" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lev_Chernyi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Lev_Chernyi.jpg/220px-Lev_Chernyi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="341" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Lev_Chernyi.jpg/330px-Lev_Chernyi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Lev_Chernyi.jpg/440px-Lev_Chernyi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="485" data-file-height="751" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="center">Chernyi, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1923</span></div></div></div></div><br /><b>Pavel Dmitrievich Turchaninov</b> (Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Па́вел Дми́триевич Турчани́нов</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ˈpavʲɪl<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈdmʲitrʲɪjɪvʲɪtɕ<span class="wrap"> </span>tʊrtɕɪˈnʲinəf]</a></span>; 1878–1921), commonly known by his pseudonym <b><a href="/wiki/Lev_Chernyi" title="Lev Chernyi">Lev Chernyi</a></b> (Russian: <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Лев Чёрный</span></span>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1177148991"><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">IPA:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ru-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Russian" title="Help:IPA/Russian">[ˈlʲef<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈtɕɵrnɨj]</a></span> <span class="noprint"><span class="ext-phonos"><span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/a\/a2\/Lyev_Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga\/Lyev_Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Lyev Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/a/a2/Lyev_Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga/Lyev_Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"><span class="oo-ui-iconElement-icon oo-ui-icon-volumeUp"></span><span class="oo-ui-labelElement-label"></span><span class="oo-ui-indicatorElement-indicator oo-ui-indicatorElement-noIndicator"></span></a></span><sup class="ext-phonos-attribution noexcerpt navigation-not-searchable"><a href="/wiki/File:Lyev_Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga" title="File:Lyev Chyornyy.ru.vorb.oga">ⓘ</a></sup></span></span>) was a <a href="/wiki/Russians" title="Russians">Russian</a> <a href="/wiki/Individualist_anarchism" title="Individualist anarchism">individualist anarchist</a>. Having joined the <a href="/wiki/Anarchism_in_Russia" title="Anarchism in Russia">anarchist movement</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution_of_1905" title="Russian Revolution of 1905">Russian Revolution of 1905</a>, during which he developed his individualist theory of "associational anarchism", Chernyi was arrested and exiled to <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> for his revolutionary activities. After several escape attempts, one of which resulted in mutinous exiles capturing <a href="/wiki/Turukhansk" title="Turukhansk">Turukhansk</a>, he managed to flee to <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>, where he stayed until the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution of 1917</a>. After returning to Russia, he acted as secretary for the <a href="/wiki/Moscow_Federation_of_Anarchist_Groups" title="Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups">Moscow Federation of Anarchist Groups</a> and organised the <a href="/wiki/Black_Guards" title="Black Guards">Black Guards</a>, the federation's armed wing. As <a href="/wiki/Political_repression_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Political repression in the Soviet Union">political repression</a> against anarchists intensified after the <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> took power, Chernyi joined an underground anarchist group, which <a href="/wiki/Explosion_in_Leontievsky_Lane" title="Explosion in Leontievsky Lane">bombed</a> a <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Communist Party of the Soviet Union">Russian Communist Party</a> meeting. In 1921, Chernyi and <a href="/wiki/Fanya_Baron" title="Fanya Baron">Fanya Baron</a> were arrested on charges of <a href="/wiki/Counterfeit" title="Counterfeit">counterfeiting</a> and were <a href="/wiki/Executed_by_shooting" class="mw-redirect" title="Executed by shooting">executed by shooting</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Cheka" title="Cheka">Cheka</a>. (<b><a href="/wiki/Lev_Chernyi" title="Lev Chernyi">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Blank.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 15 Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that is based on the notion that "I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law." It is also associated with the idea that "it is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good will." The theory was developed in the context of Enlightenment rationalism. It states that an action can only be moral if it is motivated by a sense of duty, and its maxim may be rationally willed a universal, objective law. Central to Kant's theory of the moral law is the categorical imperative. Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways. His principle of universalizability requires that, for an action to be permissible, it must be possible to apply it to all people without a contradiction occurring. Kant's formulation of humanity, the second formulation of the categorical imperative, states that as an end in itself, humans are required never to treat others merely as a means to an end, but always as ends in themselves. The formulation of autonomy concludes that rational agents are bound to the moral law by their own will, while Kant's concept of the Kingdom of Ends requires that people act as if the principles of their actions establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom. (Full article...)"><img alt="Image 15 Kantian ethics refers to a deontological ethical theory developed by German philosopher Immanuel Kant that is based on the notion that "I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law." It is also associated with the idea that "it is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good will." The theory was developed in the context of Enlightenment rationalism. It states that an action can only be moral if it is motivated by a sense of duty, and its maxim may be rationally willed a universal, objective law. Central to Kant's theory of the moral law is the categorical imperative. Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways. His principle of universalizability requires that, for an action to be permissible, it must be possible to apply it to all people without a contradiction occurring. Kant's formulation of humanity, the second formulation of the categorical imperative, states that as an end in itself, humans are required never to treat others merely as a means to an end, but always as ends in themselves. The formulation of autonomy concludes that rational agents are bound to the moral law by their own will, while Kant's concept of the Kingdom of Ends requires that people act as if the principles of their actions establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom. (Full article...)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 15</span></span><div style="text-align:left;"><b><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></b> refers to a deontological <a href="/wiki/Ethical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical theory">ethical theory</a> developed by German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> that is based on the notion that "I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law." It is also associated with the idea that "it is impossible to think of anything at all in the world, or indeed even beyond it, that could be considered good without limitation except a good <a href="/wiki/Volition_(psychology)" title="Volition (psychology)">will</a>." The theory was developed in the context of <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a> <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a>. It states that an action can only be moral if it is motivated by a sense of duty, <em>and</em> its maxim may be rationally willed a universal, objective law.<br /><br />Central to Kant's theory of the moral law is the <a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">categorical imperative</a>. Kant formulated the categorical imperative in various ways. His principle of <a href="/wiki/Universalizability" title="Universalizability">universalizability</a> requires that, for an action to be permissible, it must be possible to apply it to all people without a <a href="/wiki/Contradiction" title="Contradiction">contradiction</a> occurring. Kant's formulation of humanity, the second formulation of the categorical imperative, states that as an <i>end in itself</i>, humans are required never to treat others merely as a <i><a href="/wiki/Means_to_an_end" class="mw-redirect" title="Means to an end">means to an end</a></i>, but always as <i>ends in themselves</i>. The formulation of <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> concludes that <a href="/wiki/Rational_agent" title="Rational agent">rational agents</a> are bound to the moral law by their own will, while Kant's concept of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a> requires that people act as if the principles of their actions establish a law for a hypothetical kingdom. (<b><a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Full article...</a></b>)</div></div> </li> </ul></div></div> <div class="noprint" style="margin:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; padding:0.3em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy/Good_articles" title="Portal:Philosophy/Good articles">More good articles</a></b></div><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="General_images_-_load_new_batch" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">General images - <span class="noprint plainlinks purgelink"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portal:Philosophy&action=purge"><span title="Purge this page"><small><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494"><span class="tmp-color" style="color:darkblue"><i>load new batch</i></span></small></span></a></span></h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><small><b>The following are images from various philosophy-related articles on Wikipedia.</b></small></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1021884966"><div class="randomSlideshow-container" style="max-width:100%; margin:-4em auto;"><div class="nomobile"></div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-slideshow switcher-container"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 1Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century (from Medieval philosophy)"><img alt="Image 1Portrait by Philippe de Champaigne, 17th century (from Medieval philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/94px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/141px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/188px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3135" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 1</span></span>Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Philippe_de_Champaigne" title="Philippe de Champaigne">Philippe de Champaigne</a>, 17th century (from <b><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FukuzawaYukichi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 2Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 2Fukuzawa Yukichi (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/95px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/143px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/FukuzawaYukichi.jpg/190px-FukuzawaYukichi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1493" data-file-height="1882" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 2</span></span><a href="/wiki/Fukuzawa_Yukichi" title="Fukuzawa Yukichi">Fukuzawa Yukichi</a> (1862) a key civil rights activist and liberal thinker (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:G.W.F._Hegel_(by_Sichling,_after_Sebbers).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 3Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, steel engraving, after 1828 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 3Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, steel engraving, after 1828 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/105px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/157px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/209px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="573" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 3</span></span><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, steel engraving, after 1828 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Konfuzius-1770.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 4Confucius (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 4Confucius (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/85px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/127px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Konfuzius-1770.jpg/170px-Konfuzius-1770.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1132" data-file-height="1600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 4</span></span><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 5Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 5Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari, Campo de' Fiori, Rome (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/66px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" decoding="async" width="66" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/99px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/132px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 5</span></span>Bronze statue of <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Ferrari" title="Ettore Ferrari">Ettore Ferrari</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campo_de%27_Fiori" title="Campo de' Fiori">Campo de' Fiori</a>, Rome (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Heidegger_2_(1960).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 6Martin Heidegger (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 6Martin Heidegger (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/85px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/128px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg/170px-Heidegger_2_%281960%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="356" data-file-height="502" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 6</span></span><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 7From left to right: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, G. Bonet Maury. Parliament of World Religions, 1893 (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 7From left to right: Virchand Gandhi, Anagarika Dharmapala, Swami Vivekananda, G. Bonet Maury. Parliament of World Religions, 1893 (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/120px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/180px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg/240px-Swami_Vivekananda_at_Parliament_of_Religions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1123" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 7</span></span>From left to right: <a href="/wiki/Virchand_Gandhi" title="Virchand Gandhi">Virchand Gandhi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anagarika_Dharmapala" title="Anagarika Dharmapala">Anagarika Dharmapala</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Swami Vivekananda</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._Bonet_Maury" class="mw-redirect" title="G. Bonet Maury">G. Bonet Maury</a>. <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_World%27s_Religions" title="Parliament of the World's Religions">Parliament of World Religions</a>, 1893 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 8Saint Augustine. (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 8Saint Augustine. (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/94px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg" decoding="async" width="94" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/141px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg/188px-Saint_Augustine_by_Philippe_de_Champaigne.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3135" data-file-height="4000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 8</span></span>Saint Augustine. (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 9Hu Shih and DT Suzuki during his visit to China in 1934 (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 9Hu Shih and DT Suzuki during his visit to China in 1934 (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/120px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/180px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg/240px-Hu_Shih_and_D._T._Suzuki.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="572" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 9</span></span><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a> and <a href="/wiki/DT_Suzuki" class="mw-redirect" title="DT Suzuki">DT Suzuki</a> during his visit to China in 1934 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 10Patricia Churchland, 2005 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 10Patricia Churchland, 2005 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/105px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/157px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg/210px-Patricia_Churchland_at_STEP_2005_a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="343" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 10</span></span><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a>, 2005 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 11Portrait of Immanuel Kant, c. 1790 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 11Portrait of Immanuel Kant, c. 1790 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/108px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="108" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/161px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/215px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 11</span></span>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1790</span> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:MacedonEmpire.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 12Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho of Elis took to India (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 12Map of Alexander the Great's empire and the route he and Pyrrho of Elis took to India (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/120px-MacedonEmpire.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="57" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/180px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/MacedonEmpire.jpg/240px-MacedonEmpire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1990" data-file-height="951" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 12</span></span>Map of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>'s empire and the route he and <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a> took to India (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 13The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, embroidery, 1860–1880 (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 13The Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, embroidery, 1860–1880 (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/120px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/180px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg/240px-WLA_vanda_The_Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4110" data-file-height="2846" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 13</span></span>The <a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a>, embroidery, 1860–1880 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 14Avicenna (from Medieval philosophy)"><img alt="Image 14Avicenna (from Medieval philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/90px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/135px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg/180px-Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_%28Avicenna%29_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_%287423560860%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="3648" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 14</span></span><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 15Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum (from Ancient Greek philosophy)"><img alt="Image 15Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum (from Ancient Greek philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/120px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/180px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg/240px-British_Museum_-_Four_Greek_philosophers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="1584" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 15</span></span>Four Greek philosophers: Socrates, Antisthenes, Chrysippos, Epicurus; British Museum (from <b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 16Xiong Shili circa 1960 (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 16Xiong Shili circa 1960 (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/93px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/140px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg/186px-%E7%86%8A%E5%8D%81%E5%8A%9B_1960s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1422" data-file-height="1832" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 16</span></span><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a> circa 1960 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nalanda_university.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 17The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 17The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/120px-Nalanda_university.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/180px-Nalanda_university.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Nalanda_university.jpg/240px-Nalanda_university.jpg 2x" data-file-width="560" data-file-height="420" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 17</span></span>The Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> university and monastery was a major center of learning in India from the 5th century CE to c. 1200. (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosopher,_marble_head,_Roman_copy,_AM_Corfu,_Krfm22.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 18Pyrrho of Elis, marble head, Roman copy, Archaeological Museum of Corfu (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 18Pyrrho of Elis, marble head, Roman copy, Archaeological Museum of Corfu (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/92px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/139px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg/185px-Philosopher%2C_marble_head%2C_Roman_copy%2C_AM_Corfu%2C_Krfm22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 18</span></span><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho_of_Elis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyrrho of Elis">Pyrrho of Elis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> head, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> copy, <a href="/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Corfu" title="Archaeological Museum of Corfu">Archaeological Museum of Corfu</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 19Søren Kierkegaard, sketch by Niels Christian Kierkegaard, c. 1840 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 19Søren Kierkegaard, sketch by Niels Christian Kierkegaard, c. 1840 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/81px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/121px-Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/162px-Kierkegaard.jpg 2x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 19</span></span><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Søren Kierkegaard</a>, sketch by <a href="/wiki/Niels_Christian_Kierkegaard" title="Niels Christian Kierkegaard">Niels Christian Kierkegaard</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1840</span> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 20Bertrand Russell (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 20Bertrand Russell (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/95px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/143px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg/190px-Bertrand_Russell_1954.jpg 2x" data-file-width="709" data-file-height="893" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 20</span></span><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 21Ferdinand de Saussure (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 21Ferdinand de Saussure (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/99px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/149px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/198px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 21</span></span><a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 22Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 22Ionia, source of early Greek philosophy, in western Asia Minor (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/120px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/180px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG/240px-Turkey_ancient_region_map_ionia.JPG 2x" data-file-width="483" data-file-height="444" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 22</span></span><a href="/wiki/Ionia" title="Ionia">Ionia</a>, source of early Greek philosophy, in western <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 23Edmund Husserl, in the 1910s (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 23Edmund Husserl, in the 1910s (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/84px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/125px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg/167px-Edmund_Husserl_1910s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="2421" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 23</span></span><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a>, in the 1910s (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 24The philosopher Pyrrho of Elis, in an anecdote taken from Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism (upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus (middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food) (lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind trepidation and misery (from Ancient Greek philosophy)"><img alt="Image 24The philosopher Pyrrho of Elis, in an anecdote taken from Sextus Empiricus' Outlines of Pyrrhonism (upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS • PLISTARCHI • FILIVS translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus (middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM HANC ILLIVS IMITARI SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food) (lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind trepidation and misery (from Ancient Greek philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/120px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/180px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg/240px-Petrarca-Meister_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="1480" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 24</span></span>The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Elis" title="Ancient Elis">Elis</a>, in an anecdote taken from <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a>' <i>Outlines of Pyrrhonism</i><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(upper)PIRRHO • HELIENSIS •<br />PLISTARCHI • FILIVS<br />translation (from Latin): Pyrrho • Greek • Son of Plistarchus</div><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(middle)OPORTERE • SAPIENTEM<br />HANC ILLIVS IMITARI<br />SECVRITATEMtranslation (from Latin): It is right wisdom then that all imitate this security (Pyrrho pointing at a peaceful pig munching his food)</div><br /><div style="background-color:#EEE9BF;text-align: center;">(lower)Whoever wants to apply the real wisdom, shall not mind <a href="/wiki/Trepidation" title="Trepidation">trepidation</a> and misery</div> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_(ca._1695).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 25Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1695 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 25Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, 1695 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/97px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/146px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg/194px-Christoph_Bernhard_Francke_-_Bildnis_des_Philosophen_Leibniz_%28ca._1695%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4486" data-file-height="5538" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 25</span></span><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a>, 1695 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 26Valluvar, the Tamil philosopher of the post-Sangam era (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 26Valluvar, the Tamil philosopher of the post-Sangam era (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/106px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg" decoding="async" width="106" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/159px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg/213px-%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1054" data-file-height="1190" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 26</span></span><a href="/wiki/Valluvar" class="mw-redirect" title="Valluvar">Valluvar</a>, the Tamil philosopher of the post-<a href="/wiki/Sangam_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Sangam era">Sangam era</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 27Erasmus is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 27Erasmus is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/85px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/127px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Holbein-erasmus.jpg/169px-Holbein-erasmus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1618" data-file-height="2290" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 27</span></span><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a> is Credited as the Prince of the Humanists (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 28Abbo of Fleury (from Medieval philosophy)"><img alt="Image 28Abbo of Fleury (from Medieval philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/105px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/157px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg/210px-Tract_by_Abbo_of_Fleury.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="515" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 28</span></span><a href="/wiki/Abbo_of_Fleury" title="Abbo of Fleury">Abbo of Fleury</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume,_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 29Portrait of David Hume, by Allan Ramsay, 1754 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 29Portrait of David Hume, by Allan Ramsay, 1754 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/98px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/147px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg/196px-Allan_Ramsay_-_David_Hume%2C_1711_-_1776._Historian_and_philosopher_-_PG_3521_-_National_Galleries_of_Scotland.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5776" data-file-height="7080" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 29</span></span>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, by <a href="/wiki/Allan_Ramsay_(artist)" title="Allan Ramsay (artist)">Allan Ramsay</a>, 1754 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 30Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 30Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/90px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/134px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg/179px-Socrates_Pio-Clementino_Inv314.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1300" data-file-height="1740" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 30</span></span>Bust of Socrates, Roman copy after a Greek original from the 4th century BCE (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Anselm_of_Canterbury,_seal.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 31St. Anselm of Canterbury is credited as the founder of scholasticism. (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 31St. Anselm of Canterbury is credited as the founder of scholasticism. (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/101px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/151px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg/201px-Anselm_of_Canterbury%2C_seal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="755" data-file-height="900" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 31</span></span>St. <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> is credited as the founder of <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholasticism</a>. (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 32Adi Shankara (8th century CE) the main exponent of Advaita Vedānta (from Eastern philosophy)"><img alt="Image 32Adi Shankara (8th century CE) the main exponent of Advaita Vedānta (from Eastern philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/85px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/127px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg/170px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5146" data-file-height="7262" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 32</span></span><a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (8th century CE) the main exponent of <a href="/wiki/Advaita" class="mw-redirect" title="Advaita">Advaita</a> Vedānta (from <b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sigmund_Freud,_by_Max_Halberstadt_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 33Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, c. 1921 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 33Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, c. 1921 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/88px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/132px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg/176px-Sigmund_Freud%2C_by_Max_Halberstadt_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1647" data-file-height="2240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 33</span></span>Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1921 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottlob_Frege_(Emil_Tesch).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 34Gottlob Frege, c. 1905 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 34Gottlob Frege, c. 1905 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/120px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/180px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png/240px-Gottlob_Frege_%28Emil_Tesch%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 34</span></span><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1905</span> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 35Portrait of René Descartes, after Frans Hals, second half of 17th century (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 35Portrait of René Descartes, after Frans Hals, second half of 17th century (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/98px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/147px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/196px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 35</span></span>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, after <a href="/wiki/Frans_Hals" title="Frans Hals">Frans Hals</a>, second half of 17th century (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aristotle-Raphael.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 36Aristotle in The School of Athens, by Raphael (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 36Aristotle in The School of Athens, by Raphael (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/84px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/127px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Aristotle-Raphael.JPG/169px-Aristotle-Raphael.JPG 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="583" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 36</span></span><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> in <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:JohnLocke.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 37Portrait of John Locke, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1697 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 37Portrait of John Locke, by Sir Godfrey Kneller, 1697 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/104px-JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="104" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/156px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/207px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 37</span></span>Portrait of <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a>, by Sir <a href="/wiki/Godfrey_Kneller" title="Godfrey Kneller">Godfrey Kneller</a>, 1697 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nietzsche187a.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 38Friedrich Nietzsche, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, c. 1875 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 38Friedrich Nietzsche, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, c. 1875 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/88px-Nietzsche187a.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/133px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nietzsche187a.jpg/177px-Nietzsche187a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1464" data-file-height="1986" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 38</span></span><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, photograph by Friedrich Hartmann, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1875</span> (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wm_james.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 39William James in 1906 (from Western philosophy)"><img alt="Image 39William James in 1906 (from Western philosophy)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/88px-Wm_james.jpg" decoding="async" width="88" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/133px-Wm_james.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/177px-Wm_james.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="744" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 39</span></span><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a> in 1906 (from <b><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></b>)</div> </li> </ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Selected_pictures" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Selected pictures</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1021884966"><div class="randomSlideshow-container" style="max-width:100%; margin:-4em auto;"><div class="nomobile"></div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-slideshow switcher-container"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Schiller_edit1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 1Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian and playwright."><img alt="Image 1Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805) was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian and playwright." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schiller_edit1.jpg/84px-Schiller_edit1.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schiller_edit1.jpg/126px-Schiller_edit1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Schiller_edit1.jpg/168px-Schiller_edit1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3311" data-file-height="4717" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 1</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Schiller" title="Friedrich Schiller">Friedrich Schiller</a></b> (1759–1805) was a German poet, philosopher, physician, historian and playwright.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco,_portret.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 2Umberto Eco OMRI (1932–2016) was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is widely known for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa (The Name of the Rose), a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies, and literary theory."><img alt="Image 2Umberto Eco OMRI (1932–2016) was an Italian novelist, literary critic, philosopher, semiotician, and university professor. He is widely known for his 1980 novel Il nome della rosa (The Name of the Rose), a historical mystery combining semiotics in fiction with biblical analysis, medieval studies, and literary theory." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg/80px-Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg/120px-Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg/160px-Italiaanse_schrijver_Umberto_Eco%2C_portret.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2440" data-file-height="3667" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 2</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a></b> <span class="nobold noexcerpt nowraplinks" style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Merit_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="Order of Merit of the Italian Republic">OMRI</a></span> (1932–2016) was an Italian novelist, <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary critic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotician</a>, and university professor. He is widely known for his 1980 novel <i>Il nome della rosa</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Name_of_the_Rose" title="The Name of the Rose">The Name of the Rose</a></i>), a <a href="/wiki/Historical_mystery" title="Historical mystery">historical mystery</a> combining <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a> in <a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> with <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">biblical</a> analysis, medieval studies, and <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 3Jane Addams (1860–1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate for world peace."><img alt="Image 3Jane Addams (1860–1935) was an American settlement activist, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and women's suffrage in the United States and an advocate for world peace." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg/82px-Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg/122px-Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg/163px-Jane_Addams_-_Bain_News_Service.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2961" data-file-height="4347" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 3</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a></b> (1860–1935) was an American <a href="/wiki/Settlement_movement" title="Settlement movement">settlement</a> activist, reformer, <a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">social worker</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologist">sociologist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_administrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Public administrator">public administrator</a> and author. She was a notable figure in the history of social work and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">women's suffrage in the United States</a> and an advocate for <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">world peace</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 4Philosophy, an 1896 mural by Robert Lewis Reid in the North Corridor on the Second Floor of the Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.. The caption underneath reads: "HOW CHARMING IS DIVINE PHILOSOPHY.""><img alt="Image 4Philosophy, an 1896 mural by Robert Lewis Reid in the North Corridor on the Second Floor of the Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.. The caption underneath reads: "HOW CHARMING IS DIVINE PHILOSOPHY."" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg/118px-Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg/177px-Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg/236px-Philosophy-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1192" data-file-height="1214" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 4</span></span><i>Philosophy</i>, an 1896 <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">mural</a> by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Reid_(painter)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Reid (painter)">Robert Lewis Reid</a> in the North Corridor on the Second Floor of the <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_Building" title="Thomas Jefferson Building">Thomas Jefferson Building</a>, <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>. The caption underneath reads: "HOW CHARMING IS DIVINE PHILOSOPHY."</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Wilde_time_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 5Oscar Wilde reclining with Poems, by Napoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer."><img alt="Image 5Oscar Wilde reclining with Poems, by Napoleon Sarony, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/A_Wilde_time_3.jpg/120px-A_Wilde_time_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="82" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/A_Wilde_time_3.jpg/180px-A_Wilde_time_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/A_Wilde_time_3.jpg/240px-A_Wilde_time_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3615" data-file-height="2471" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 5</span></span><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Wilde" title="Oscar Wilde">Oscar Wilde</a> reclining with <i>Poems</i>, by <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_Sarony" title="Napoleon Sarony">Napoleon Sarony</a>, in New York in 1882. Wilde often liked to appear idle, though in fact he worked hard; by the late 1880s he was a father, an editor, and a writer.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 6The House Builders (Portraits of Sir W.E. & The Hon. Lady Welby-Gregory), an 1880 painting by Frank Dicksee"><img alt="Image 6The House Builders (Portraits of Sir W.E. & The Hon. Lady Welby-Gregory), an 1880 painting by Frank Dicksee" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg/120px-Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg/180px-Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg/240px-Frank_Dicksee_-_The_House_Builders.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 6</span></span><i>The House Builders (Portraits of <a href="/wiki/William_Welby-Gregory" title="William Welby-Gregory">Sir W.E.</a> & <b><a href="/wiki/Victoria,_Lady_Welby" title="Victoria, Lady Welby">The Hon. Lady Welby-Gregory</a>)</b></i>, an 1880 painting by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Dicksee" title="Frank Dicksee">Frank Dicksee</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 7A statue of peripatetic philosopher and botanist Theophrastus at the Palermo Botanical Gardens."><img alt="Image 7A statue of peripatetic philosopher and botanist Theophrastus at the Palermo Botanical Gardens." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg/80px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg/120px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg/159px-Teofrasto_Orto_botanico_PA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="3008" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 7</span></span>A statue of <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">peripatetic</a> philosopher and <a href="/wiki/Botany" title="Botany">botanist</a> <a href="/wiki/Theophrastus" title="Theophrastus">Theophrastus</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Orto_botanico_di_Palermo" title="Orto botanico di Palermo">Palermo Botanical Gardens</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 8Painting of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz by Christoph Bernhard Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, 1700."><img alt="Image 8Painting of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz by Christoph Bernhard Francke, Braunschweig, Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum, 1700." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg/95px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg/142px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg/189px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_von_Leibniz.jpg 2x" data-file-width="316" data-file-height="400" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 8</span></span>Painting of <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> by <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Bernhard_Francke" title="Christoph Bernhard Francke">Christoph Bernhard Francke</a>, Braunschweig, <a href="/wiki/Herzog_Anton_Ulrich_Museum" title="Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum">Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum</a>, 1700.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9,_1707-1778,_botanist,_professor_(Alexander_Roslin)_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 9Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775 (oil on canvas, Gripsholm Castle). Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy"."><img alt="Image 9Carl von Linné, Alexander Roslin, 1775 (oil on canvas, Gripsholm Castle). Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif/lossy-page1-99px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif/lossy-page1-149px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif/lossy-page1-199px-Carl_von_Linn%C3%A9%2C_1707-1778%2C_botanist%2C_professor_%28Alexander_Roslin%29_-_Nationalmuseum_-_15723.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="3655" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 9</span></span><i><a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl von Linné</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Roslin" title="Alexander Roslin">Alexander Roslin</a>, 1775 (oil on canvas, <a href="/wiki/Gripsholm_Castle" title="Gripsholm Castle">Gripsholm Castle</a>). Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician who formalised <a href="/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature" title="Binomial nomenclature">binomial nomenclature</a>, the modern system of naming organisms. He is known as the "father of modern taxonomy".</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leo_Tolstoy_1897,_black_and_white,_37767u.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 10Leo Tolstoy in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time."><img alt="Image 10Leo Tolstoy in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg/99px-Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg/148px-Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg/198px-Leo_Tolstoy_1897%2C_black_and_white%2C_37767u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2156" data-file-height="2614" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 10</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Leo_Tolstoy" title="Leo Tolstoy">Leo Tolstoy</a></b> in 1897. Count Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy was a Russian writer who is regarded as one of the greatest authors of all time.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lady_Dorothy_Browne_(n%C3%A9e_Mileham);_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 11Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne is an oil on panel painting attributed to the English artist Joan Carlile, and probably completed between 1641 and 1650. The painting depicts English physician Thomas Browne and his wife Dorothy."><img alt="Image 11Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne is an oil on panel painting attributed to the English artist Joan Carlile, and probably completed between 1641 and 1650. The painting depicts English physician Thomas Browne and his wife Dorothy." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg/120px-Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg/180px-Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg/240px-Lady_Dorothy_Browne_%28n%C3%A9e_Mileham%29%3B_Sir_Thomas_Browne_by_Joan_Carlile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1903" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 11</span></span><i><b><a href="/wiki/Lady_Dorothy_Browne_and_Sir_Thomas_Browne" title="Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne">Lady Dorothy Browne and Sir Thomas Browne</a></b></i> is an oil on panel painting attributed to the English artist <a href="/wiki/Joan_Carlile" title="Joan Carlile">Joan Carlile</a>, and probably completed between 1641 and 1650. The painting depicts English physician <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a> and his wife Dorothy.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tiffany_Education_(center).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 12The center third of Education (1890), a stained glass window by Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University. It depicts Science (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and Religion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life"."><img alt="Image 12The center third of Education (1890), a stained glass window by Louis Comfort Tiffany and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at Yale University. It depicts Science (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and Religion (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/120px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/180px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG/240px-Tiffany_Education_%28center%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="1372" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 12</span></span>The center third of <i><a href="/wiki/Education_(Chittenden_Memorial_Window)" title="Education (Chittenden Memorial Window)">Education</a></i> (1890), a stained glass window by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Comfort_Tiffany" title="Louis Comfort Tiffany">Louis Comfort Tiffany</a> and Tiffany Studios, located in Linsly-Chittenden Hall at <a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a>. It depicts <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">Science</a> (personified by Devotion, Labor, Truth, Research and Intuition) and <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a> (personified by Purity, Faith, Hope, Reverence and Inspiration) in harmony, presided over by the central personification of "Light·Love·Life".</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 13Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics."><img alt="Image 13Adam Smith (baptised 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of political economics. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/92px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/138px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png/184px-Kirkcaldy_High_Street_Adam_Smith_Plaque.png 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="880" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 13</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a></b> (<a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptised</a> 16 June 1723 – died 17 July 1790 <span style="font-size:85%;">[<a href="/wiki/Old_Style" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Style">OS</a>: 5 June 1723 – 17 July 1790]</span>) was a <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scottish</a> <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">moral philosopher</a> and a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economics</a>. One of the key figures of the <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Enlightenment" title="Scottish Enlightenment">Scottish Enlightenment</a>, Smith is the author of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Theory_of_Moral_Sentiments" title="The Theory of Moral Sentiments">The Theory of Moral Sentiments</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Wealth_of_Nations" title="The Wealth of Nations">An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations</a></i>. The latter, usually abbreviated as <i>The Wealth of Nations</i>, is considered his <i><a href="/wiki/Magnum_opus" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnum opus">magnum opus</a></i> and the first modern work of <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 14The statue of Immanuel Kant in front of the Immanuel Kant State University of Russia in Kaliningrad. The statue was made by notable sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of Marion Dönhoff."><img alt="Image 14The statue of Immanuel Kant in front of the Immanuel Kant State University of Russia in Kaliningrad. The statue was made by notable sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of Marion Dönhoff." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/79px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/119px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg/159px-Kant_Kaliningrad.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 14</span></span>The statue of <b><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></b> in front of the <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant_State_University_of_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanuel Kant State University of Russia">Immanuel Kant State University of Russia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a>. The statue was made by notable sculptor <a href="/wiki/Christian_Daniel_Rauch" title="Christian Daniel Rauch">Christian Daniel Rauch</a> and unveiled in 1864. The statue was destroyed in 1945, but was remoulded in 1992 on the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Marion_D%C3%B6nhoff" title="Marion Dönhoff">Marion Dönhoff</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 15Niels Bohr (1885–1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research."><img alt="Image 15Niels Bohr (1885–1962) was a Danish physicist who made foundational contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory, for which he received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. Bohr was also a philosopher and a promoter of scientific research." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg/87px-Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg/130px-Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg/173px-Niels_Bohr_-_LOC_-_ggbain_-_35303.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3415" data-file-height="4723" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 15</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a></b> (1885–1962) was a Danish <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> who made foundational contributions to understanding <a href="/wiki/Atomic_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic structure">atomic structure</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_quantum_theory" title="Old quantum theory">quantum theory</a>, for which he received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a> in 1922. Bohr was also a <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> and a promoter of scientific research.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Voltairine_de_Cleyre_(Age_35).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 16Voltairine de Cleyre (1866–1912) was an American anarchist known for being a prolific writer and speaker who opposed state power, the capitalism she saw as interconnected with it, and marriage, and the domination of religion over sexuality and women's lives. She is often characterized as a major early feminist because of her views."><img alt="Image 16Voltairine de Cleyre (1866–1912) was an American anarchist known for being a prolific writer and speaker who opposed state power, the capitalism she saw as interconnected with it, and marriage, and the domination of religion over sexuality and women's lives. She is often characterized as a major early feminist because of her views." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg/80px-Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg/120px-Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg/160px-Voltairine_de_Cleyre_%28Age_35%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1802" data-file-height="2695" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 16</span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Voltairine_de_Cleyre" title="Voltairine de Cleyre">Voltairine de Cleyre</a></b> (1866–1912) was an American <a href="/wiki/Anarchist" class="mw-redirect" title="Anarchist">anarchist</a> known for being a prolific writer and speaker who opposed <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">state</a> power, the <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> she saw as interconnected with it, and <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriage</a>, and the domination of <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> over <a href="/wiki/Sexuality" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexuality">sexuality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">women's lives</a>. She is often characterized as a major early <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminist</a> because of her views.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Image 17Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms."><img alt="Image 17Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of The School of Athens, a fresco by Raphael. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his Nicomachean Ethics in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in The Forms." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/92px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/137px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/183px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><span class="switcher-label" style="display:none"><span class="randomSlideshow-sr-only">Image 17</span></span><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (left) and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (right), a detail of <i><a href="/wiki/The_School_of_Athens" title="The School of Athens">The School of Athens</a></i>, a fresco by <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through <a href="/wiki/Empirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Empirical">empirical</a> <a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">observation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>, while holding a copy of his <i><a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a></i> in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Forms" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of Forms">The Forms</a>.</div> </li> </ul></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div></div></div> <div style="clear:both; width:100%"> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_academic_disciplines#Philosophy" title="Outline of academic disciplines">Branches</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Traditional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Film</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of life">Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_happiness" title="Philosophy of happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_humor" title="Theories of humor">Humor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of action">Action</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_computer_science" title="Philosophy of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Information</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Technology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_medicine" title="Philosophy of medicine">Medicine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychiatry" title="Philosophy of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sport" title="Philosophy of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Schools_of_thought" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools of thought</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy#Historical_overview" title="Philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Roman</a> </span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ephesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Ephesian school">Ephesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milesian_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Milesian school">Milesian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada#Syādvāda" title="Anekantavada">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak#Mazdakism" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><span style="visibility:hidden;color:transparent;">0</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptical movement">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Twentieth-century_developments" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Historicism" class="mw-redirect" title="New Historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positions</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_art#Institutional" title="Theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontological_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Deontological ethics">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_regionRelated_listsMiscellaneous" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li><li>Related lists</li><li>Miscellaneous</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish philosophy">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_philosophy" title="List of years in philosophy">Years</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of unsolved problems in philosophy">Problems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_philosophers" title="Lists of philosophers">Philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical movement">Movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_important_publications_in_philosophy" title="List of important publications in philosophy">Publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sage_(philosophy)" title="Sage (philosophy)">Sage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_philosophy" title="Women in philosophy">Women in philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div> <table id="mp-strapline" style="width:100%; background:none; margin:-.8em 0 -.7em 0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size:95%; padding:10px 0; margin:0; text-align:center; white-space:nowrap; color:#000;"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_philosophy" title="Glossary of philosophy">Glossary</a> <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy" title="Outline of philosophy">Outline</a>  <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">A–Z index</a>  <b>·</b> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Showcase" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Showcase">Featured content</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Academic_Branches_of_Philosophy" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Academic Branches of Philosophy</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <p><b>Philosophy</b> ponders the most fundamental questions humankind has been able to ask. These are increasingly numerous and over time they have been arranged into the overlapping <i><b>branches</b></i> of the philosophy tree: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></b>: What is art? What is beauty? Is there a standard of taste? Is art meaningful? If so, what does it mean? What is good art? Is art for the purpose of an end, or is "art for art's sake?" What connects us to art? How does art affect us? Is some art unethical? Can art corrupt or elevate societies?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></b>: What are the nature and limits of knowledge? What is more fundamental to human existence, knowing (epistemology) or being (ontology)? How do we come to know what we know? What are the limits and scope of knowledge? How can we know that there are other minds (if we can)? How can we know that there is an external world (if we can)? How can we prove our answers? What is a true statement?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></b>: Is there a difference between ethically right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Do divine commands make right acts right, or is their rightness based on something else? Are there standards of rightness that are absolute, or are all such standards relative to particular cultures? How should I live? What is happiness?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></b>: What makes a good argument? How can I think critically about complicated arguments? What makes for good thinking? When can I say that something just does not make sense? Where is the origin of logic?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></b>: What sorts of things exist? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the relationship of the mind to the body? What is it to be a person? What is it to be conscious? Do gods exist?</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></b>: Are political institutions and their exercise of power justified? What is justice? Is there a 'proper' role and scope of government? Is democracy the best form of governance? Is governance ethically justifiable? Should a state be allowed? Should a state be able to promote the norms and values of a certain moral or religious doctrine? Are states allowed to go to war? Do states have duties against inhabitants of other states?</li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Related_Academic_Fields" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Related Academic Fields</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_philosophy" title="Agricultural philosophy">Agricultural philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosophy" title="Ecosophy">Ecosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_philosophy" title="Environmental philosophy">Environmental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">History of philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">Jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metalogic" title="Metalogic">Metalogic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_anthropology" title="Philosophical anthropology">Philosophical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_literature" title="Philosophy and literature">Philosophy and literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_business" title="Philosophy of business">Philosophy of business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Philosophy of chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_copyright" title="Philosophy of copyright">Philosophy of copyright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_design" title="Philosophy of design">Philosophy of design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Philosophy of economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_engineering" title="Philosophy of engineering">Philosophy of engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_film" title="Philosophy of film">Philosophy of film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy of geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_healthcare" title="Philosophy of healthcare">Philosophy of healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of life">Philosophy of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_logic" title="Philosophy of logic">Philosophy of logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_love" title="Philosophy of love">Philosophy of love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics_education" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of mathematics education">Philosophy of mathematics education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_music" title="Philosophy of music">Philosophy of music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Philosophy of physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_probability" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of probability">Philosophy of probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Philosophy of psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sex" title="Philosophy of sex">Philosophy of sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_statistics" title="Philosophy of statistics">Philosophy of statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_thermal_and_statistical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics">Philosophy of thermal and statistical physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_war" title="Philosophy of war">Philosophy of war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxeology" title="Praxeology">Praxeology</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="List_articles" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">List articles</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon-notepad.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Icon-notepad.svg/43px-Icon-notepad.svg.png" decoding="async" width="43" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Icon-notepad.svg/65px-Icon-notepad.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Icon-notepad.svg/86px-Icon-notepad.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy" title="Index of philosophy">Index of philosophy</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of philosophers">List of philosophers</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophical_concepts" title="List of philosophical concepts">List of philosophical concepts</a></b></li> 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theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Hinduism/Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Hinduism/Philosophy">Hindu Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_History_of_Science" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject History of Science">History of Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_History" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Islam" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Judaism" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Linguistics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Literature" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Mathematics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Middle_Ages" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Middle Ages">Middle ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Mythology" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Physics" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Physics">Physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Rational_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Rational Skepticism">Rational skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Religion" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Science" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Spirituality" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Associated_Wikimedia" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Associated Wikimedia</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239335380">.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list{display:flex;flex-wrap:wrap}.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li{display:inline-block}.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li span{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li>div{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;padding:6px 4px}.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li>div:first-child{text-align:center}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .sister-projects-wikt-icon-dark,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-projects-wikt-icon-light{display:none}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sister-projects-wikt-icon-dark{display:inline}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-projects-wikt-icon-dark{display:inline}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sister-projects-wikt-icon-light{display:none}}@media(min-width:360px){.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li{width:33%;min-width:20em;white-space:nowrap;flex:1 0 25%}.mw-parser-output #sister-projects-list li>div:first-child{min-width:50px}}</style> <p>The following <a href="/wiki/Wikimedia_Foundation" title="Wikimedia Foundation">Wikimedia Foundation</a> sister projects provide more on this subject: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul id="sister-projects-list"> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Category:Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/31px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/47px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/62px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Category:Philosophy" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Category:Philosophy">Commons</a></span><br />Free media repository</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/35px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/53px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/70px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikibooks</a></span><br />Free textbooks and manuals</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/47px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="47" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/71px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/94px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> <div><span><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikidata</a></span><br />Free knowledge base</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/51px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="51" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/77px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/102px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikinews:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikinews</a></span><br />Free-content news</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/53px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/70px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikiquote</a></span><br />Collection of quotations</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/35px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="37" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/53px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/70px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikisource</a></span><br />Free-content library</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/35px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/53px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikispecies-logo.svg/70px-Wikispecies-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="941" data-file-height="1103" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikispecies</a></span><br />Directory of species</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="41" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/62px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/82px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikiversity</a></span><br />Free learning tools</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/35px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/53px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/70px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="193" data-file-height="193" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wikivoyage:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wikivoyage</a></span><br />Free travel guide</div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/35px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/53px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/70px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </div> <div><span><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Philosophy" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/Philosophy">Wiktionary</a></span><br />Dictionary and thesaurus</div> </li> </ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Web_resources" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Web resources</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philpapers.org">PhilPapers: Online Research in Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.galilean-library.org/philosophy.php">Introducing Philosophy Series</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophypages.com/dy/index.htm">Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/">The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.AtmaDharma.com">The reference library for Jain Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cosmosandhistory.org/">Cosmos and History: The Journal of Natural and Social Philosophy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/index.html">Early Modern Texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophynow.org/">Philosophy Now</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.philosophersnet.com/">The Philosophers' Magazine Online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project Taxonomy search tool</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://noesis.evansville.edu/index.htm">Noesis - Philosophical research online</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews.cfm">Notre Dame Philosophical Reviews</a><br /></li></ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="Sources" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">Sources</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="box-header-title-container flex-columns-noflex" style="clear:both;color:black;margin-bottom:0px;border:solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center;font-size:100%;background:#73acdd;font-family:sans-serif;padding:.1em;border-width:1px 1px 0;padding-top:.1em;padding-left:.1em;padding-right:.1em;padding-bottom:.1em;moz-border-radius:0;webkit-border-radius:0;border-radius:0"><div class="plainlinks noprint" style="float:right;margin-bottom:.1em;color:black;font-size:80%"></div><h2 id="More_portals" style="font-weight:bold;padding:0;margin:0;color:black;font-family:sans-serif;border:none;font-size:100%;padding-bottom:.1em">More portals</h2></div><div style="color:black;opacity:1;border:1px solid #aaaaaa;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:left;padding:1em;background:#f9f9ff;margin:0 0 10px;vertical-align:top;border-top-width:1px;padding-top:.3em;border-radius:0"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239335380"> <div class="smallcaps" style="font-variant:small-caps;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Discover Wikipedia using <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Portal" title="Wikipedia:Portal">portals</a></b></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul id="sister-projects-list"> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg/35px-Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg/53px-Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg/70px-Lorentzian_Wormhole.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">List of all portals</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png/35px-Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png/53px-Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png/70px-Nuvola_apps_package_graphics.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:The_arts" title="Portal:The arts">The arts portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/35px-P_vip.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/53px-P_vip.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/69/P_vip.svg/70px-P_vip.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1911" data-file-height="1944" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Biography" title="Portal:Biography">Biography portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/35px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/53px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg/70px-Ambox_current_red_Americas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="290" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Portal:Current events">Current events portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="globe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/35px-Terra.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/53px-Terra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Terra.png/70px-Terra.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Geography portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/35px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="32" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/53px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/70px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="square root of x" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/35px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/53px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg/70px-Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/35px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/53px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg/70px-Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/35px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/53px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/70px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Noun-technology.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/35px-Noun-technology.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/53px-Noun-technology.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Noun-technology.svg/70px-Noun-technology.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="90" data-file-height="88" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Random_font_awesome.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Random_font_awesome.svg/35px-Random_font_awesome.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Random_font_awesome.svg/53px-Random_font_awesome.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Random_font_awesome.svg/70px-Random_font_awesome.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Special:RandomInCategory/All_portals" title="Special:RandomInCategory/All portals">Random portal</a></span></div> </li> <li> <div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portal.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Portal.svg/35px-Portal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="35" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Portal.svg/53px-Portal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Portal.svg/70px-Portal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="36" data-file-height="32" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div><span><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Portals" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Portals">WikiProject Portals</a></span></div> </li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"> </li> </ul> </div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div></div> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><i class="noprint"><a href="/wiki/Special:Purge/Portal:Philosophy" title="Special:Purge/Portal:Philosophy"><small>Purge server cache</small></a></i></div> </div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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