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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impacts_on_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Impacts on health</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impacts_on_health-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impacts on health subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impacts_on_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_racism_limits_improvement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_racism_limits_improvement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Environmental racism limits improvement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_racism_limits_improvement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reducing_environmental_racism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_environmental_racism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Reducing environmental racism</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reducing_environmental_racism-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reducing environmental racism subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reducing_environmental_racism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Procedural_justice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Procedural_justice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Procedural justice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Procedural_justice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Activism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indigenous_women's_movements_in_Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indigenous_women's_movements_in_Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Indigenous women's movements in Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indigenous_women's_movements_in_Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_reparations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_reparations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Environmental reparations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Environmental_reparations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Policies_and_international_agreements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Policies_and_international_agreements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Policies and international agreements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Policies_and_international_agreements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States_legislation_and_policies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States_legislation_and_policies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>United States legislation and policies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States_legislation_and_policies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_initiatives_in_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_initiatives_in_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Current initiatives in the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_initiatives_in_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_solutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_solutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.8</span> <span>Potential solutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_solutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_by_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_by_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Examples by region</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_by_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Examples by region subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_by_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nigeria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nigeria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Nigeria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nigeria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.2</span> <span>South Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Asia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.1</span> <span>China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.2</span> <span>India</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2.3</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Eastern_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.1</span> <span>Eastern Europe</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.2</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_Kingdom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_Kingdom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3.3</span> <span>United Kingdom</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_Kingdom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-North_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#North_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>North America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-North_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.1</span> <span>Canada</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.2</span> <span>Mexico</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3</span> <span>United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Native_American_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4.3.1</span> <span>Native American peoples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Oceania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Oceania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Oceania</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Oceania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Australia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Australia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.1</span> <span>Australia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Australia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micronesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micronesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.2</span> <span>Micronesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micronesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papua_New_Guinea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papua_New_Guinea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.3</span> <span>Papua New Guinea</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papua_New_Guinea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polynesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polynesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5.4</span> <span>Polynesia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polynesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-South_America" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#South_America"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>South America</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-South_America-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Andes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Andes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.1</span> <span>The Andes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Andes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chile" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chile"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.2</span> <span>Chile</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chile-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecuador" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecuador"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.3</span> <span>Ecuador</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecuador-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Haiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Haiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6.4</span> <span>Haiti</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Haiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental racism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 34 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-34" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">34 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%B5%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="العنصرية البيئية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="العنصرية البيئية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoloji_irq%C3%A7ilik" title="Ekoloji irqçilik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ekoloji irqçilik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="পরিবেশগত বর্ণবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরিবেশগত বর্ণবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasismong_pankapalibutan" title="Rasismong pankapalibutan – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Rasismong pankapalibutan" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racisme_ambiental" title="Racisme ambiental – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Racisme ambiental" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_rasismus" title="Environmentální rasismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Environmentální rasismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiliaeth_amgylcheddol" title="Hiliaeth amgylcheddol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Hiliaeth amgylcheddol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Environmental racism" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umweltrassismus" title="Umweltrassismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Umweltrassismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Περιβαλλοντικός ρατσισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Περιβαλλοντικός ρατσισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racismo_ambiental" title="Racismo ambiental – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Racismo ambiental" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingurumen_arrazismo" title="Ingurumen arrazismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ingurumen arrazismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DA%98%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="نژادپرستی زیست‌محیطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نژادپرستی زیست‌محیطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racisme_environnemental" title="Racisme environnemental – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Racisme environnemental" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racismo_ambiental" title="Racismo ambiental – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Racismo ambiental" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%98%EA%B2%BD_%EC%9D%B8%EC%A2%85%EC%B0%A8%EB%B3%84" title="환경 인종차별 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="환경 인종차별" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wariyar_muhalli" title="Wariyar muhalli – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Wariyar muhalli" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Akpa_%C3%B3k%C3%A8_agb%E1%BB%A5r%E1%BB%A5_gburugburu_ebe_obibi" title="Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ gburugburu ebe obibi – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ịkpa ókè agbụrụ gburugburu ebe obibi" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasisme_lingkungan" title="Rasisme lingkungan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Rasisme lingkungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B6%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%A4" title="പരിസ്ഥിതി വംശീയത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരിസ്ഥിതി വംശീയത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%8D%EA%AF%A7%EA%AF%81%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%92%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%91%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%A2%EA%AF%95%EA%AF%92_%EA%AF%83%EA%AF%94%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A9%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A8%EA%AF%9E%EA%AF%80%EA%AF%A4_%EA%AF%88%EA%AF%A6%EA%AF%9F%EA%AF%85%EA%AF%95_%EA%AF%8A%EA%AF%9D%EA%AF%95" title="ꯃꯍꯧꯁꯥꯒꯤ ꯑꯀꯣꯢꯕꯒ ꯃꯔꯤ ꯂꯩꯅꯕ ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯨꯞꯀꯤ ꯈꯦꯟꯅꯕ ꯊꯝꯕ – Manipuri" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯃꯍꯧꯁꯥꯒꯤ ꯑꯀꯣꯢꯕꯒ ꯃꯔꯤ ꯂꯩꯅꯕ ꯀꯥꯡꯂꯨꯞꯀꯤ ꯈꯦꯟꯅꯕ ꯊꯝꯕ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="Manipuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milieuracisme" title="Milieuracisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Milieuracisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%9A%84%E3%83%AC%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B7%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="環境的レイシズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="環境的レイシズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ماحولیاتی نسل پرستی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ماحولیاتی نسل پرستی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racismo_ambiental" title="Racismo ambiental – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Racismo ambiental" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasism_ecologic" title="Rasism ecologic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rasism ecologic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Экологический расизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Экологический расизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Environmental racism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Еколошки расизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Еколошки расизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87evresel_%C4%B1rk%C3%A7%C4%B1l%C4%B1k" title="Çevresel ırkçılık – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Çevresel ırkçılık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nne%C9%9Bma_a_atwa_y%C9%9Bn_ho_ahyia_mu_mmusua_mu_nyiyim_(Environmental_racism)" title="Nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia mu mmusua mu nyiyim (Environmental racism) – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Nneɛma a atwa yɛn ho ahyia mu mmusua mu nyiyim (Environmental racism)" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Екологічний расизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Екологічний расизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%84_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ماحولیاتی نسل پرستی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ماحولیاتی نسل پرستی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83%E7%A8%AE%E6%97%8F%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="環境種族主義 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" 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<div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Environmental injustice that occurs within a racialized context</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_justice" title="Category:Environmental justice">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em 0 0.4em;background:transparent;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:EJ_icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="EJ icon"><img alt="EJ icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/EJ_icon.jpg/90px-EJ_icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/EJ_icon.jpg/135px-EJ_icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/EJ_icon.jpg/180px-EJ_icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2279" data-file-height="3420" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">litigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_reparations" title="Climate reparations">reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_accountability" title="Corporate accountability">Corporate accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">inequality in the UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_injustice_in_Europe" title="Environmental injustice in Europe">injustice in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">justice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">racism in the USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">racism in Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Rights_Amendments" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Rights Amendments">Rights Amendments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_conflicts" title="List of environmental conflicts">List of environmental conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Academia</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">Decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Justice_Atlas" title="Environmental Justice Atlas">Environmental Justice Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><b>Scholars</b>: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bullard" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bullard">Robert Bullard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dina_Gilio-Whitaker" title="Dina Gilio-Whitaker">Dina Gilio-Whitaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Martinez_Alier" title="Joan Martinez Alier">Joan Martinez Alier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Powys_Whyte" title="Kyle Powys Whyte">Kyle Powys Whyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorceta_Taylor" title="Dorceta Taylor">Dorceta Taylor</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Africa" title="Environmental issues in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_along_the_Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues along the Mexico–United States border">US-Mexico border</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockadia" title="Blockadia">Blockadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_accountability_for_human_rights_violations" title="Corporate accountability for human rights violations">Corporate accountability for human rights violations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_protector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water protector">Water protector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_defender" title="Land defender">Land defender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_of_the_poor" title="Environmentalism of the poor">Environmentalism of the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractivism" title="Extractivism">Extractivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_waste_trade" title="Global waste trade">Global waste trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_killings" title="List of environmental killings">List of environmental killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locally_unwanted_land_use" title="Locally unwanted land use">Locally unwanted land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_nature" title="Rights of nature">Rights of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_zone" title="Sacrifice zone">Sacrifice zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumak_Kawsay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumak Kawsay">Sumak Kawsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Water conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neozapatismo" title="Neozapatismo">Zapatismo</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_justice" title="Category:Environmental justice">Category</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment in India">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movemenet in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">LGBTQ</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg/220px-Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg/330px-Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg/440px-Flint_Water_Crisis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="580" /></a><figcaption>People protesting the <a href="/wiki/Flint_water_crisis" title="Flint water crisis">water crisis in Flint, Michigan</a>, which disproportionately affected people of color and low-income communities</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Environmental racism</b>, <b>ecological racism</b>, or <b>ecological apartheid</b> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">racism</a> leading to negative environmental outcomes such as landfills, <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incinerators</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a> disposal disproportionately impacting <a href="/wiki/Community_of_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Community of color">communities of color</a>, violating <a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">substantive equality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internationally, it is also associated with <a href="/wiki/Extractivism" title="Extractivism">extractivism</a>, which places the environmental burdens of mining, oil extraction, and industrial agriculture upon indigenous peoples and poorer nations largely inhabited by people of color.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental racism is the disproportionate impact of environmental hazards, pollution, and ecological degradation experienced by marginalized communities, as well as those of people of color, which makes poor people go through more pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Race, socio-economic status, and environmental injustice directly impact these communities in terms of their health outcomes as well as their quality of health. Communities are not all created equal. In the United States, some communities are continuously polluted while the government gives little to no attention. According to Robert D. Bullard, father of environmental justice, environmental regulations are not equally benefiting all of society; people of color (African Americans, Latinos, Asians, Pacific Islanders, and Native Americans) are disproportionately harmed by industrial toxins in their jobs and their neighborhoods.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within this context, understanding the intersectionality of race, socio-economic status, and environmental injustice through its history and the disproportionate impact is a starting point for leaning towards equitable solutions for environmental justice for all segments of society. Exploring the historical roots, impacts of environmental racism, governmental actions, grassroots efforts, and possible remedies can serve as a foundation for addressing this issue effectively. </p><p>Response to environmental racism has contributed to the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> movement, which developed in the United States and abroad throughout the 1970s and 1980s. Environmental racism may disadvantage <a href="/wiki/Minority_group" title="Minority group">minority groups</a> or numerical majorities, as in South Africa where <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> had debilitating environmental impacts on Black people. Internationally, <a href="/wiki/Global_waste_trade" title="Global waste trade">trade in global waste</a> disadvantages global majorities in poorer countries largely inhabited by people of color.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also applies to the particular <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability" title="Vulnerability">vulnerability</a> of indigenous groups to environmental <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ecoapart_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ecoapart-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental racism is a form of institutional racism, which has led to the <a href="/wiki/Disproportionation" title="Disproportionation">disproportionate</a> disposal of hazardous waste in communities of color in Russia. Environmental racism is a type of inequality where people in communities of color and other low income communities face a disproportionate risk of exposure to pollution and related health conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis,_Jr._crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg/170px-Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg/255px-Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg/340px-Dr._Benjamin_F._Chavis%2C_Jr._crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="392" /></a><figcaption>Benjamin F. Chavis Jr. coined the phrase "environmental racism".</figcaption></figure><p> "Environmental racism" was a term coined in 1982 by <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Chavis" title="Benjamin Chavis">Benjamin Chavis</a>, previous executive director of the <a href="/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ" title="United Church of Christ">United Church of Christ</a> (UCC) Commission for Racial Justice. In a speech opposing the placement of hazardous <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">polychlorinated biphenyl</a> (PCB) waste in the <a href="/wiki/Warren_County_PCB_Landfill" title="Warren County PCB Landfill">Warren County, North Carolina landfill</a>, Chavis defined the term as:</p><blockquote><p>racial discrimination in environmental policy making, the enforcement of regulations and laws, the deliberate targeting of communities of color for toxic waste facilities, the official sanctioning of the life-threatening presence of poisons and pollutants in our communities, and the history of excluding people of color from leadership of the ecology movements.</p></blockquote><p>Recognition of environmental racism catalyzed the <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> movement that began in the 1970s and 1980s with influence from the earlier <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a>. Grassroots organizations and campaigns brought attention to environmental racism in policy making and emphasized the importance of minority input. While environmental racism has been historically tied to the environmental justice movement, throughout the years the term has been increasingly <a href="/wiki/Dissociation_(psychology)" title="Dissociation (psychology)">disassociated</a>. Following the events in Warren County, the UCC and <a href="/wiki/US_General_Accounting_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="US General Accounting Office">US General Accounting Office</a> released reports showing that hazardous waste sites were disproportionately located in poor minority neighborhoods. Chavis and <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Bullard" title="Robert D. Bullard">Dr. Robert D. Bullard</a> pointed out institutionalized racism stemming from government and corporate policies that led to environmental racism. These racist practices included <a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">redlining</a>, zoning, and colorblind adaptation planning. Residents experienced environmental racism due to their low socioeconomic status, and lack of political representation and mobility. Expanding the definition in "The Legacy of American Apartheid and Environmental Racism", Dr. Bullard said that environmental racism:</p><blockquote><p>refers to any policy, practice, or directive that differentially affects or disadvantages (whether intended or unintended) individuals, groups, or communities based on race or color.</p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional racism</a> operates on a large scale within societal norms, policies, and procedures extending to environmental planning and decision-making, reinforcing environmental racism through government, legal, economic, and political institutions. Racism significantly increases exposure to environmental and health risks as well as access to health care. </p><p>Government agencies, including the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), have often failed to protect people of color from pollution and industrial infiltrations. This failure is evident in the disproportionate pollution burden borne by communities of color, with African American and Latino neighborhoods experiencing higher levels of pollution compared to predominantly white areas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>For instance, in Los Angeles, over 71% of African Americans and 50% of Latinos live in areas with the most polluted air, while only 34% of the white population does. Nationally, a significant portion of whites, African Americans, and Hispanics reside in counties with substandard air quality, with people of color disproportionately affected by pollution-related health issues.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the term was coined in the US, environmental racism also occurs on the international level. Studies have shown that since <a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">environmental laws</a> have become prominent in developed countries, companies have moved their waste towards the <a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global South</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Less developed countries frequently have fewer environmental regulations and become <a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">pollution havens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are four factors which lead to environmental racism: lack of affordable land, lack of political power, lack of mobility, and <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. Cheap land is sought by corporations and governmental bodies. As a result, communities which cannot effectively resist these corporations governmental bodies and cannot access political power or negotiate just costs.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Communities with minimized socio-economic mobility cannot relocate. Lack of financial contributions also reduces the communities' ability to act both physically and politically. Chavis defined environmental racism in five categories: racial discrimination in defining environmental policies, discriminatory enforcement of regulations and laws, deliberate targeting of minority communities as hazardous waste dumping sites, official sanctioning of dangerous pollutants in minority communities, and the exclusion of people of color from environmental leadership positions. Poor areas has hazardous waste sites is being harmful and these poor people also live near the pollution these people still face many challenges and the situation have not solved yet which might lead for more effective on these poor communities and areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its was hard for black people and hispanic to take loans to live in safer places to live with peace and not being harmed with pollution and could not move to safer place or better neighborhoods. <sup id="cite_ref-:12_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many people get rejected because of their color or hear some hurtful words from other also don't have a lot of opportunities which all because of their color which is not fair and don't make sense to be rejected because of the skin color or the race, this could led so many people who go through this to have stress which will effect their health which make these people feel like they are not part of this environment.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Minority communities often do not have the financial means, resources, and political representation to oppose hazardous waste sites.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Known as locally unwanted land uses (LULUs), these facilities that benefit the whole community often reduce the quality of life of minority communities.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These neighborhoods also may depend on the economic opportunities the site brings and are reluctant to oppose its location at the risk of their health. Additionally, controversial projects are less likely to be sited in non-minority areas that are expected to pursue <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a> and succeed in opposing the siting of the projects in their area. We need to understand everyone because we all were born in different race and culture and we should learn more about each other instead of being races, for example tourists go over all the world to learn and explore different cultures and people which if we also learn about other this will help to stop racism.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racism will effect many people's health later on in their life and it hurtful when someone is being judged by their color or race and this will risk their life, racism could effect their mantel health especially when they go though it in a young age it will effect them a lot.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In cities in the Global North, <a href="/wiki/Suburbanization" title="Suburbanization">suburbanization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gentrification" title="Gentrification">gentrification</a> lead to patterns of environmental racism. For example, <a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">white flight</a> from industrial zones for safer, cleaner, suburban locales leaves minority communities in the inner cities and in close proximity to polluted industrial zones.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these areas, unemployment is high and businesses are less likely to invest in area improvement, creating poor economic conditions for residents and reinforcing a social formation that reproduces racial inequality. Furthermore, the poverty of property owners and residents in a municipality may be taken into consideration by hazardous waste facility developers, since areas with depressed real estate values will save developers' money. Poor communities and areas go though pollution more which also incomes effect a lot on these poor communities, by having fair orders will help these poor communities from being in risk of pollution and could help to stop the pollution that hurting human health which also will protect people’s right to be equally treated for everyone.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They making it hard for black, Hispanic and people of color to have more difficult to get loans or to move to a better neighborhood, which if this keep going it will effect so many people's health and will risk their lives because of pollution in the area they are living in. <sup id="cite_ref-:12_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Till today after the civil war the idea of African American living by pollution and polluted areas is still growing and these areas still have waste sites and toxic while white people areas are much cleaner which is seems unfair and its more challenging and hard for African Americans. <sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When it comes to the companies for example oils companies and they do a mess in the area and don't clean after they’re finished with their work they leave this mess to be spread in the areas which will cause more pollution in the neighborhood so people go though challenge with these companies and there's should be protection for these communities and areas because its not fair to let all this pollution to be spread in the area just because the companies didn’t clean the mess they created it.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Socioeconomic_aspects">Socioeconomic aspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Socioeconomic aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cost%E2%80%93benefit_analysis" title="Cost–benefit analysis">Cost–benefit analysis</a> (CBA) is a process that places a monetary value on costs and benefits to evaluate issues.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Environmental CBA aims to provide policy solutions for intangible products such as clean air and water by measuring a consumer's willingness to pay for these goods. CBA contributes to environmental racism<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (September 2022)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Environmental_racism#Dubious" title="Talk:Environmental racism">discuss</a></i>]</sup> through the valuing of environmental resources based on their utility to society. When someone is willing and able to pay more for clean water or air, their payment financially benefits society more than when people cannot pay for these goods. This creates a burden on poor communities. Relocating toxic wastes is justified since poor communities are not able to pay as much as a wealthier area for a clean environment. The placement of toxic waste near poor people lowers the property value of already cheap land. Since the decrease in property value is less than that of a cleaner and wealthier area, the monetary benefits to society are greater by dumping the toxic waste in a "low-value" area.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fossil_fuel_racism">Fossil fuel racism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Fossil fuel racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fossil fuels are interconnected with crises like climate change, racial injustice, and public health. Various stages of fossil fuels include extraction, processing, transport, and combustion, all contributing to harmful pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The impacts of fossil fuel processing are not distributed equally with Black, Brown, Indigenous, and poor as opposed to white, or wealthy communities. These communities experience health hazards from air and water pollution as well as the risks from climate change. Sacrifice zones are the concept associated with these communities where systemic racism intersects with a fossil fuel-based economy. From a perspective by Energy Research & Social Science, the "fossil fuel racism" phenomenon is framed through the argument that systemic racism effectively subsidizes the fossil fuel industry by allowing it to externalize the costs of pollution onto communities of color.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fossil fuel racism allows for a shift in the focus to the systems and structures that perpetuate these injustices. Implications with this effort follow as climate policy approaches often fail to address racial disparities and focus on broader impacts on public health. There is an urgent need for political and policy solutions revolving around the fossil fuel industry to address systemic injustices perpetuated by fossil fuel production and consumption.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impacts_on_health">Impacts on health</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Impacts on health"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental racism impacts the health of the communities affected by poor environments. Various factors that can cause health problems include exposure to hazardous chemical toxins in landfills and rivers. Exposure to these toxins can also weaken or slow <a href="/wiki/Brain_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Brain development">brain development</a>. These hazards also affect the health of individuals living in these communities, showing how maintaining quality <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a> is important to ensuring that vulnerable populations are able to live healthy alongside parts of the environment they depend upon. Areas with more people of color face more toxic waste facilities which means it effect these poor people health more, study showed that these people which are hispanic and African American face more bad impact on their health so the place of these toxic waste sites are not fair to just be located in these poor communities and areas.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they tried to clean these factories they could not offered because of financial and this couldn't help the communities which means pollution will keep spreading and will impact people's health in a bad way.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agriculture negatively affects the health of nearby communities. They believe that associated manure lagoons produce <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_sulfide" title="Hydrogen sulfide">hydrogen sulfide</a> and contaminate local water supplies, leading to higher levels of miscarriages, birth defects, and disease outbreaks. These farms are disproportionately placed in low-income areas and communities of color. Other risks include exposure to pesticides, chemical run-off and particulate matter in the air. Poor cleanliness in facilities and chemical exposure may also affect agricultural workers, who are frequently people of color. Water can be polluted because of these old factories and rivers can be polluted such as Flint river, unhealthy water effecting people of the community, which could lead to cancer and rate of cancer will increase because of the unhealthy water in flint which can also lead to loosing hair and many other sickness because of polluted water and when it comes to solve the problem and protected these people and children from this pollution they couldn't help because of finical and budget.<sup id="cite_ref-je_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-je-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When it come to human health risks is that the old factories around the poor areas will effect people health in a bad and harmful way. <sup id="cite_ref-:03_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> many people believe that fossil fuel is harmful for our health which can lead to many bad effecting on our health for example having illness that could effect people's health in a bad way, people don't want more harm on their communities so that why they reject the idea of fossil fuel. <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> environmental racism could be that black peoples neighborhood or black people communities face more pollution and this effect these people health in a bad way which might lead to many diseases because of unhealthy air and dirty airs that could be caused by the factories and many factories are in these poor areas more than other communities and areas.<sup id="cite_ref-je_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-je-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg/183px-Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg" decoding="async" width="183" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg/275px-Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg/367px-Air_pollution_near_homes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3872" /></a><figcaption>A large quantity of gases released from a factory near apartments</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/220px--Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="10" data-mwtitle="Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/99/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm/Borewll_drilling_dust_pollution.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Dust pollution from drilling contributes to high amounts of toxic air inhaled.</figcaption></figure> <p>The southeastern part of the United States has experienced a large amount of pollution and minority populations have been hit with the brunt of those impacts. There are many cases of people who have died or are chronically ill from coal plants in places such as <a href="/wiki/Detroit" title="Detroit">Detroit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee" title="Memphis, Tennessee">Memphis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_metropolitan_area" title="Kansas City metropolitan area">Kansas City</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia" title="West Virginia">West Virginia</a> residents are frequently subject to breathing toxic ash due to <a href="/wiki/Rock_blasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock blasting">blasting</a> in the mountains for mining. Drought, flooding, the constant depletion of land and air quality determine the health and safety of the residents surrounding these areas. Communities of color and low-income status most often feel the brunt of these issues firsthand. There are many communities around the world that face the same problems. For example, the work of <a href="/wiki/Desmond_D%27Sa" title="Desmond D'Sa">Desmond D'Sa</a> focused on communities in South <a href="/wiki/Durban" title="Durban">Durban</a> where high pollution industries impact people forcibly relocated during <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_racism_limits_improvement">Environmental racism limits improvement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Environmental racism limits improvement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental racism intensifies existing health disparities among marginalized communities, with BIPOC individuals disproportionately bearing the burden of environmental exposures and their health consequences. Black children, for example, are still more exposed to lead than children of other racial groups contributing to higher body burdens of toxins such as lead, polychlorinated biphenyls, and phthalates.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Institutionalized racism in epidemiology and environmental health perpetuates the neglect of BIPOC experiences and contributes to the contribution of structural barriers in research funding and publication. For instance, studies on sperm health predominantly focus on White men, neglecting the reproductive health experiences of men of color despite their higher exposure to environmental toxins. This lack of inclusion in research both perpetuates health disparities and a lack of trust among BIPOC communities due to historical exploration in medical research.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structural racism within research contributes to the marginalization of BIPOC communities and limits the development of effective interventions that can address environmental health disparities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reducing_environmental_racism">Reducing environmental racism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Reducing environmental racism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Activists have called for "more participatory and citizen-centered conceptions of justice."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-withered_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-withered-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">environmental justice</a> (EJ) movement and <a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">climate justice</a> (CJ) movement address environmental racism in bringing attention and enacting change so that marginalized populations are not disproportionately <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerable to climate change</a> and pollution.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hardy_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hardy-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> Conference on Environment and Development, one possible solution is the <a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">precautionary principle</a>, which states that "where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under this principle, the initiator of the potentially hazardous activity is charged with demonstrating the activity's safety. Environmental justice activists also emphasize the need for waste reduction in general, which would act to reduce the overall burden, as well as reduce methane emissions which in turn reduce <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-withered_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-withered-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Studies">Studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In wartimes, environmental racism occurs in ways that the public later learn about through reports. For example, Friends of the Earth International's Environmental Nakba report brings attention to environmental racism that has occurred in the Gaza Strip during the <a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli-Palestinian Conflict</a>. Some Israeli practices include cutting off three days of water supply to refugee Palestinians and destroying farms.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Besides studies that point out cases of environmental racism, studies have also provided information on how to go about changing regulations and preventing environmental racism from happening. In a study by Daum, Stoler and Grant on e-waste management in Accra, Ghana, the importance of engaging with different fields and organizations such as recycling firms, communities, and scrap metal traders are emphasized over adaptation strategies such as bans on burning and buy-back schemes that have not caused much effect on changing practices.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental justice scholars such as Laura Pulido, Department Head of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_studies" title="Ethnic studies">Ethnic Studies</a> and Professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oregon" title="University of Oregon">University of Oregon</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/David_Pellow" title="David Pellow">David Pellow</a>, Dehlsen and Department Chair of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental Studies</a> and Director of the Global Environmental Justice Project at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_California,_Santa_Barbara" title="University of California, Santa Barbara">University of California, Santa Barbara</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that recognizing environmental racism as an element stemming from the entrenched legacies of <a href="/wiki/Racial_capitalism" title="Racial capitalism">racial capitalism</a> is crucial to the movement, with <a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">white supremacy</a> continuing to shape human relationships with nature and labor.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Procedural_justice">Procedural justice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Procedural justice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Current political ideologies surrounding how to make right issues of environmental racism and environmental justice are shifting towards the idea of employing <a href="/wiki/Procedural_justice" title="Procedural justice">procedural justice</a>. Procedural justice is a concept that dictates the use of fairness in the process of making decisions, especially when said decisions are being made in diplomatic situations such as the allocation of resources or the settling of disagreements. Procedural justice calls for a fair, transparent, impartial decision-making process with equal opportunity for all parties to voice their positions, opinions, and concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than just focusing on the outcomes of agreements and the effects those outcomes have on affected populations and interest groups, procedural justice looks to involve all stakeholders throughout the process from planning through implementation. In terms of combating environmental racism, procedural justice helps to reduce the opportunities for powerful actors such as often-corrupt states or private entities to dictate the entire decision-making process and puts some power back into the hands of those who will be directly affected by the decisions being made.<sup id="cite_ref-Schroeder_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schroeder-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Activism">Activism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Activism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Activism takes many forms. One form is collective demonstrations or protests, which can take place on a number of different levels from local to international. Additionally, in places where activists feel as though governmental solutions will work, organizations and individuals alike can pursue direct political action. In many cases, activists and organizations will form partnerships both regionally and internationally to gain more clout in pursuit of their goals.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indigenous_women's_movements_in_Canada"><span id="Indigenous_women.27s_movements_in_Canada"></span>Indigenous women's movements in Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Indigenous women's movements in Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There have been many resistance movements in Canada initiated by Indigenous women against environmental racism. One that was prominent and had a great impact on the movement was, The <a href="/wiki/Native_Women%27s_Association_of_Canada" title="Native Women's Association of Canada">Native Women's Association of Canada</a>'s (NWAC) <a href="/wiki/Sisters_in_Spirit" title="Sisters in Spirit">Sisters in Spirit</a> Initiative. This initiative aims to create reports on the deaths and disappearances of Indigenous women in order to raise awareness and get government and civil society groups to take action.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the Canadian federal government decided to defund the Sisters in Spirit Initiative in 2010, the NWAC continues to support women, Two-Spirit and LGBTQ+ Indigenous peoples in their fight to be heard.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other Indigenous resistance movements there is an emphasis on healing from trauma by focusing on spirituality and traditional practices in order to fight against the forces of patriarchy and racism that have caused environmental racism.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Activists and Indigenous communities have also gone through state official legal routes to voice their concerns such as discussing treaties, anti-human trafficking laws, anti-violence against women laws and <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">UNDRIP</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>  These have been deemed insufficient solutions by Indigenous groups and communities because there are some voices that are not heard and because the state does not respect or recognize the sovereignty of Indigenous nations.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environmental_reparations">Environmental reparations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Environmental reparations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><p> Some scientists and economists have looked into the prospect of Environmental Reparations, or forms of payment made to individuals who are affected by industry presence in some way. Potential groups to be impacted include individuals living in close proximity to industry, victims of natural disasters, and climate refugees who flee hazardous living conditions in their own country. Reparations can take many forms, from direct payouts to individuals, to money set aside for waste-site cleanups, to purchasing air monitors for low income residential neighborhoods, to investing in public transportation, which reduces green house gas emissions. As Robert Bullard writes,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>"Environmental Reparations represent a bridge to sustainability and equity... Reparations are both spiritual and environmental medicine for healing and reconciliation."</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Policies_and_international_agreements">Policies and international agreements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Policies and international agreements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Global_waste_trade" title="Global waste trade">export of hazardous waste</a> to third world countries is another growing concern. Between 1989 and 1994, an estimated 2,611 metric tons of hazardous waste was exported from <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)</a> countries to non-OECD countries. Two international agreements were passed in response to the growing exportation of hazardous waste into their borders. The <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_African_Unity" title="Organisation of African Unity">Organization of African Unity</a> (OAU) was concerned that the Basel Convention adopted in March 1989 did not include a total ban on the trans-boundary movement on hazardous waste. In response to their concerns, on 30 January 1991, the Pan-African Conference on Environmental and Sustainable Development adopted the Bamako Convention banning the import of all hazardous waste into Africa and limiting their movement within the continent. In September 1995, the <a href="/wiki/Group_of_77" title="Group of 77">G-77</a> nations helped amend the Basel Convention to ban the export of all hazardous waste from industrial countries (mainly OECD countries and <a href="/wiki/Lichtenstein,_Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Lichtenstein, Baden-Württemberg">Lichtenstein</a>) to other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A resolution was signed in 1988 by the OAU which declared toxic waste dumping to be a "crime against Africa and the African people".<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Soon after, the <a href="/wiki/Economic_Community_of_West_African_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic Community of West African States">Economic Community of West African States</a> (ECOWAS) passed a resolution that allowed for penalties, such as life imprisonment, to those who were caught dumping toxic wastes.<sup id="cite_ref-Routledge_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Routledge-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a> and the increase in transnational agreements introduce possibilities for cases of environmental racism. For example, the 1994 <a href="/wiki/North_American_Free_Trade_Agreement" title="North American Free Trade Agreement">North American Free Trade Agreement</a> (NAFTA) attracted US-owned factories to Mexico, where toxic waste was abandoned in the <a href="/wiki/Chilpancingo" title="Chilpancingo">Colonia Chilpancingo</a> community and was not cleaned up until activists called for the Mexican government to clean up the waste.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmental justice movements have grown to become an important part of world summits. This issue is gathering attention and features a wide array of people, workers, and levels of society that are working together. Concerns about globalization can bring together a wide range of stakeholders including workers, academics, and community leaders for whom increased industrial development is a common denominator".<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many policies can be expounded based on the state of human welfare. This occurs because environmental justice is aimed at creating safe, fair, and equal opportunity for communities and to ensure things like redlining do not occur.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With all of these unique elements in mind, there are serious ramifications for policy makers to consider when they make decisions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States_legislation_and_policies">United States legislation and policies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: United States legislation and policies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relevant laws and regulations aimed to address environmental racism encompass a combination of tort law, civil rights law, and environmental law. Here's a quick breakdown of these laws: <sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Tort law:</b> </p><p>This law allows individuals or communities to seek compensation for damages caused by the negligence or wrongful actions of others. In the context of environmental racism, plaintiffs can use tort law to claim compensation for health issues, property damage, or loss of quality of life due to pollution or other environmental harms. </p><p><b>Civil rights law:</b> </p><p>Litigation under civil rights statutes focuses on challenging the discriminatory impact of environmental decisions and policies. Lawsuits may argue that certain actions or policies have a disparate impact on communities of color, violating their civil rights. </p><p><b>Environmental law:</b> </p><p>Federal environmental statutes, such as the Clean Air Act, Clean Water Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) provide mechanisms for challenging the adequacy of environmental reviews or compliance with regulatory standards. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_initiatives_in_the_United_States">Current initiatives in the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Current initiatives in the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Most initiatives currently focusing on environmental racism are more focused on the larger topic of environmental justice. They are at both the state and federal levels. </p><p>On the state level, local politicians focus on their communities to introduce policies that will affect them, including land use policies, improving the environmental health impacts, and involving their community in the planning processes for these policies. <sup id="cite_ref-:6_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fourteen states have created offices that are specifically focused on environmental justice and advise policymakers on how their policies may impact minority populations. Maryland established their Commission on Environmental Justice and Sustainable Communities in 2001. The most recently formed councils were formed in 2022 by Vermont and Oregon. <sup id="cite_ref-:6_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Federally, the EPA is responsible for environmental justice initiatives including the Environmental Justice Government-to-Government Program (EJG2G). The EJG2G provides a clearer line of communication and funding between all types of governments such as state, local, and tribal to make a strong effort to steer towards a more environmentally equitable society. <sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In April 2023, President Biden affirmed his commitment to environmental justice by introducing the Justice40 Initiative. The Justice40 initiative is a goal to make 40 percent of federal environmental programs go into marginalized communities that have not typically been the target for such programs. This initiative includes things like the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://screeningtool.geoplatform.gov/en/#3/33.47/-97.5">Climate and Economic Justice Screening Tool</a> and the training for federal agencies on how to use it to identify communities who may benefit from these programs. This initiative includes several federal agencies including the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the U.S. Department of Commerce, the U.S. Department of Energy, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. It's dedicated to community outreach by involving local governments and encouraging the community to have a say in the programs that may be implemented in their communities. <sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_solutions">Potential solutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Potential solutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Environmental racism is a crucial aspect that needs to be a part of the climate crisis conversation. Learning more about environmental racism, supporting a green economy that uplifts BIPOC communities, and making environmentalism a communal practice are approaches that can address these injustices. <sup id="cite_ref-:7_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Environmentalism as a communal practice emphasizes the importance of viewing environmentalism as a communal effort rather than a competition between individuals by advocating for the well-being of these marginalized communities as well as supporting efforts that address overarching themes of environmental justice. Following this, understanding environmental racism highlights the concept of environmental racism where BIPOC communities disproportionately bear the burden of pollution and environmental hazards due to discrimination in public policies and industry practice. It is also important to understand the impact of environmental racism and to push for discussions that point out disparities imposed on communities of color. Supporting a green economy is also crucial, it's important to advocate for a transition to clean energy as well as uplifting BIPOC communities economically and socially. In addition, being involved within the clean energy sector for marginalized communities is another step to empowering BIPOC communities and leading in environmental protection efforts. <sup id="cite_ref-:7_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_by_region">Examples by region</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Examples by region"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_conflicts" title="List of environmental conflicts">List of environmental conflicts</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Africa" title="Environmental issues in Africa">Environmental issues in Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nigeria">Nigeria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nigeria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oil-spill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Oil-spill.jpg/220px-Oil-spill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2e/Oil-spill.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Oil spill</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Environmental issues in the Niger Delta">Environmental issues in the Niger Delta</a></div> <p>From 1956 to 2006, up to 1.5 million tons of oil were spilled in the <a href="/wiki/Niger_Delta" title="Niger Delta">Niger Delta</a>, (50 times the volume spilled in the <a href="/wiki/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill" title="Exxon Valdez oil spill">Exxon Valdez disaster</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indigenous people in the region have suffered the loss of their livelihoods as a result of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Environmental issues in the Niger Delta">these environmental issues</a>, and they have received no benefits in return for enormous oil revenues extracted from their lands. Environmental conflicts have exacerbated ongoing <a href="/wiki/Conflict_in_the_Niger_Delta" title="Conflict in the Niger Delta">conflict in the Niger Delta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-HRW_Nigeria95_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HRW_Nigeria95-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Osaghae_1995_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osaghae_1995-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:110_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:110-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Burning of <a href="/wiki/Toxic_waste" title="Toxic waste">toxic waste</a> and urban <a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">air pollution</a> are problems in more developed areas.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ogoni_people" title="Ogoni people">Ogoni people</a>, who are indigenous to Nigeria's oil-rich Delta region have protested the disastrous environmental and economic effects of <a href="/wiki/Shell_Nigeria" title="Shell Nigeria">Shell Oil's</a> drilling and denounced <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Human rights abuse">human rights abuses</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Federal government of Nigeria">Nigerian government</a> and by Shell. Their international appeal intensified dramatically after the execution in 1995 of <a href="/wiki/Ogoni_Nine" title="Ogoni Nine">nine Ogoni activists</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Ken_Saro-Wiwa" title="Ken Saro-Wiwa">Ken Saro-Wiwa</a>, who was a founder of the nonviolent <a href="/wiki/Movement_for_the_Survival_of_the_Ogoni_People" title="Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People">Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People</a> (MOSOP).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: South Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The linkages between the mining industry and the negative impacts it has on community and individual health has been studied and well-documented by a number of organizations worldwide. Health implications of living in proximity to mining operations include effects such as pregnancy complications, mental health issues, various forms of cancer, and many more.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a> period in South Africa, the mining industry grew quite rapidly as a result of the lack of environmental regulation. Communities in which mining corporations operate are usually those with high rates of poverty and unemployment. Further, within these communities, there is typically a divide among the citizens on the issue of whether the pros of mining in terms of economic opportunity outweigh the cons in terms of the health of the people in the community. Mining companies often try to use these disagreements to their advantage by magnifying this conflict. Additionally, mining companies in South Africa have close ties with the national government, skewing the balance of power in their favor while simultaneously excluding local people from many decision-making processes.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This legacy of exclusion has had lasting effects in the form of impoverished South Africans bearing the brunt of ecological impacts resulting from the actions of, for example, mining companies. Some argue that to effectively fight environmental racism and achieve some semblance of justice, there must also be a reckoning with the factors that form situations of environmental racism such as rooted and institutionalized mechanisms of power, social relations, and cultural elements.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term "<a href="/wiki/Energy_poverty" title="Energy poverty">energy poverty</a>" is used to refer to "a lack of access to adequate, reliable, affordable and clean energy carriers and technologies for meeting energy service needs for cooking and those activities enabled by electricity to support economic and human development". Numerous communities in South Africa face some sort of energy poverty.<sup id="cite_ref-Fakier_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakier-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South African women are typically in charge of taking care of both the home and the community as a whole. Those in economically impoverished areas not only have to take on this responsibility, but there are numerous other challenges they face. Discrimination on the basis of gender, race, and class are all still present in South African culture. Because of this, women, who are the primary users of public resources in their work at home and for the community, are often excluded from any decision-making about control and access to public resources. The resulting energy poverty forces women to use sources of energy that are expensive and may be harmful both to their own health and that of the environment. Consequently, several renewable energy initiatives have emerged in South Africa specifically targeting these communities and women to correct this situation.<sup id="cite_ref-Fakier_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fakier-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asia">Asia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Asia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the mid-1990s until about 2001, it is estimated that some 50 to 80 percent of the electronics collected for recycling in the western half of the United States was being exported for dismantling overseas, predominantly to China and Southeast Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This scrap processing is quite profitable and preferred due to an abundant workforce, cheap labour, and lax environmental laws.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2006_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2006-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Guiyu_Town" class="mw-redirect" title="Guiyu Town">Guiyu</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, is one of the largest recycling sites for <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">e-waste</a>, where heaps of discarded computer parts rise near the riverbanks and compounds, such as <a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">cadmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>, lead, <a href="/wiki/PBDEs" class="mw-redirect" title="PBDEs">PBDEs</a>, contaminate the local water supply.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water samples taken by the <a href="/wiki/Basel_Action_Network" title="Basel Action Network">Basel Action Network</a> in 2001 from the <a href="/wiki/Lian_River_(South_China_Sea)" title="Lian River (South China Sea)">Lianjiang River</a> contained lead levels 190 times higher than WHO safety standards.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2006_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2006-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite contaminated drinking water, residents continue to use contaminated water over expensive trucked-in supplies of drinking water.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2006_72-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2006-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nearly 80 percent of children in the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste_in_Guiyu" title="Electronic waste in Guiyu">e-waste hub of Guiyu, China</a>, suffer from lead poisoning, according to recent reports.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before being used as the destination of electronic waste, most of Guiyu was composed of small farmers who made their living in the agriculture business.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, farming has been abandoned for more lucrative work in scrap electronics.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated3_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "According to the Western press and both Chinese university and NGO researchers, conditions in these workers' rural villages are so poor that even the primitive electronic scrap industry in Guiyu offers an improvement in income".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers have found that as rates of hazardous air pollution increase in China, the public has mobilized to implement measures to curb detrimental impacts. Areas with ethnic minorities and western regions of the country tend to carry disproportionate environmental burdens.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: India"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bhopal_disaster" title="Bhopal disaster">Bhopal disaster</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bhopal_in_India_(1951).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg/220px-Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg/330px-Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg/440px-Bhopal_in_India_%281951%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bhopal,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhopal, India">Bhopal</a>, India </figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Union_Carbide_Corporation" class="mw-redirect" title="Union Carbide Corporation">Union Carbide Corporation</a> is the parent company of Union Carbide India Limited which outsources its production to an outside country. Located in <a href="/wiki/Bhopal,_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhopal, India">Bhopal, India</a>, Union Carbide India Limited primarily produced the chemical <a href="/wiki/Methyl_isocyanate" title="Methyl isocyanate">methyl isocyanate</a> used for pesticide manufacture.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 3 December 1984, a cloud of methyl isocyanate leaked as a result of the toxic chemical mixing with water in the plant in Bhopal.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Approximately 520,000 people were exposed to the toxic chemical immediately after the leak.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within the first 3 days after the leak an estimated 8,000 people living within the vicinity of the plant died from exposure to the methyl isocyanate.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some people survived the initial leak from the factory, but due to improper care and improper diagnoses many have died.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence of improper diagnoses, treatment may have been ineffective and this was precipitated by Union Carbide refusing to release all the details regarding the leaked gases and lying about certain important information.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The delay in supplying medical aid to the victims of the chemical leak made the situation for the survivors even worse.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many today are still experiencing the negative health impacts of the methyl isocyanate leak, such as lung fibrosis, impaired vision, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neurological_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurological disorders">neurological disorders</a>, and severe body pains.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The operations and maintenance of the factory in Bhopal contributed to the hazardous chemical leak. The storage of huge volumes of methyl isocyanate in a densely inhabited area, was in contravention with company policies strictly practiced in other plants.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The company ignored protests that they were holding too much of the dangerous chemical for one plant and built large tanks to hold it in a crowded community.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methyl isocyanate must be stored at extremely low temperatures, but the company cut expenses to the air conditioning system leading to less than optimal conditions for the chemical.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, Union Carbide India Limited never created disaster management plans for the surrounding community around the factory in the event of a leak or spill.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State authorities were in the pocket of the company and therefore did not pay attention to company practices or implementation of the law.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The company also cut down on preventive maintenance staff to save money.<sup id="cite_ref-responsibility2_79-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-responsibility2-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Russia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">Environmental racism in Russia</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism_in_Russia&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <p><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">Environmental racism</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">institutional racism</a>, which has led to the disproportionate disposal of hazardous waste in communities of colour in Russia.<sup id="cite_ref-Environmental_racism_in_Russia_:2_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Environmental_racism_in_Russia_:2-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Environmental_racism_in_Russia_:0_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Environmental_racism_in_Russia_:0-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also results in indigenous people disproportionately bearing the environmental burdens of mining, and oil or gas extraction. In Russia, there are 47 officially recognized indigenous groups, who have had some rights to consultation and participation under Russian law since 1999. However, these guarantees have steadily eroded with the re-centralization of state control, and several indigenous autonomous territories have been abolished since the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Russia, an <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labor Organization</a> member, has not ratified ILO 69, an agreement that explicitly asserts the right to <a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">self-determination</a> for all indigenous peoples. This allows the Russian Federation to continue to deny Indigenous peoples' control over their land and resources. Russia is also a member of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>, which recognizes indigenous peoples of classically colonized lands, but is somewhat vague about indigenous minorities who are not separated from their colonizers by an ocean. This is one of the arguments Russia uses to justify not complying with UN treaties in the case of the indigenous peoples of Siberia. </p> Environmental racism in Russia also affects Romani people and migrant workers.</div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental racism in Europe">Environmental racism in Europe</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">Environmental racism in Western Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Central and Eastern Europe">Environmental racism in Central and Eastern Europe</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Eastern_Europe">Eastern Europe</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Eastern Europe"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Predominantly living in Central and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, with pockets of communities in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, the ethnic <a href="/wiki/Romani_people" title="Romani people">Romani people</a> have been subjected to environmental exclusion. Often referred to as gypsies or the gypsy threat, the Romani people of Eastern Europe mostly live under the poverty line in <a href="/wiki/Shanty_town" title="Shanty town">shanty towns</a> or <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Facing issues such as long term exposure to harmful toxins given their locations to waste dumps and industrial plants, along with being refused environmental assistance like clean water and sanitation, the Romani people have been facing racism via environmental means. Many countries such has <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a> have tried to implement environmental protection initiatives across their respected countries; however, most have failed due to "addressing the conditions of Roma communities have been framed through an ethnic lens as "Roma issues".<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only recently has some form of environmental justice for the Romani people come to light. Seeking environmental justice in Europe, the Environmental Justice Program is now working with human rights organizations to help fight environmental racism. </p><p>It is important to note that in the "Discrimination in the EU in 2009" report, conducted by the European Commission, "64% of citizens with Roma friends believe discrimination is widespread, compared to 61% of citizens without Roma friends."<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="France">France</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: France"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Exporting toxic wastes to countries in the Global South is one form of environmental racism that occurs on an international basis. In one alleged instance, in 2006, the French aircraft carrier <a href="/wiki/Clemenceau_(R_98)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clemenceau (R 98)">Clemenceau</a> was prohibited from entering <a href="/wiki/Alang" title="Alang">Alang</a>, an <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">Indian</a> ship-breaking yard, due to a lack of clear documentation about its toxic contents. French President <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Jacques Chirac</a> ultimately ordered the carrier, which contained tons of hazardous materials including <a href="/wiki/Asbestos" title="Asbestos">asbestos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl" title="Polychlorinated biphenyl">PCBs</a>, to return to <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: United Kingdom"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For information on environmental inequality in the United Kingdom, see <a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom</a>.</div> <p>In the UK environmental racism (or also climate racism) has been called out by multiple action groups such as the Wretched of the Earth call out letter<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 2015 and Black Lives Matter in 2016.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_America">North America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: North America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>See more: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Nova_Scotia" title="Environmental racism in Nova Scotia">Environmental racism in Nova Scotia</a></i> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africville_Church.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Africville_Church.jpg/220px-Africville_Church.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Africville_Church.jpg/330px-Africville_Church.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Africville_Church.jpg/440px-Africville_Church.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption>The reconstructed Africville Church in Nova Scotia</figcaption></figure> <p>In Canada, progress is being made to address environmental racism (especially in Nova Scotia's <a href="/wiki/Africville" title="Africville">Africville</a> community) with the passing of Bill 111, An Act to Address Environmental Racism in the Nova Scotia Legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, indigenous communities such as the Aamjiwnaang First Nation continue to be harmed by pollution from the Canadian chemical industry centered in Southeast Ontario.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forty percent of Canada's petrochemical industry is packed into a 15-square mile radius of <a href="/wiki/Sarnia,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarnia, Ontario">Sarnia, Ontario</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Immediately south of the petrochemical plants is the Aamjiwnaang reservation with a population of 850 <a href="/wiki/Aamjiwnaang_First_Nation" title="Aamjiwnaang First Nation">Aamjiwnaang First Nation</a> members. Since 2002, coalitions of indigenous individuals have fought the disproportionate concentration of pollution in their neighborhood. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg/220px-Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg/330px-Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg/440px-Ingrid_Waldron_at_Dalhousie_University.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1405" data-file-height="1274" /></a><figcaption>Canadian sociologist <a href="/wiki/Ingrid_Waldron" title="Ingrid Waldron">Ingrid Waldron</a> lectures on Environmental Racism at <a href="/wiki/Dalhousie_University" title="Dalhousie University">Dalhousie University</a> in 2018.</figcaption></figure> <p>Environmental racism affects particularly women and especially Indigenous women and women of color. Many of these communities reside in rural areas rich in natural resources that are very attractive to extractive industries. These effects not only pollute the environment but also have detrimental effects on both physical and mental health. Many of these extractive industries such as oil and gas and mining have caused pollution to water sources, food sources as well as effects in air quality. This has started to affect people's bodies, especially those of women. This is because the toxins and poisons from extractive industries affect women's reproductive organs, can cause cancer as well as the health of their children.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The harms of this activity last through generations in these communities; for example in the Indigenous community of <a href="/wiki/Asubpeeschoseewagong_First_Nation" title="Asubpeeschoseewagong First Nation">Grassy Narrows</a> in <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ontario" title="Northern Ontario">Northern Ontario</a>, they are still dealing with health effects from high mercury levels that have affected drinking water and fish in the region that occurred from a spill in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mexico">Mexico</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Mexico"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cucap%C3%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="Cucapá">Cucapá</a> are a group of indigenous people that live near the U.S.-Mexico border, mainly in <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a> but some in <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a> as well. For many generations, fishing on the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado River</a> was the Cucapá's main means of subsistence.<sup id="cite_ref-Muehlmann_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muehlmann-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1944, the United States and Mexico signed a treaty that effectively awarded the United States rights to about 90% of the water in the Colorado River, leaving Mexico with the remaining 10%.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the last few decades,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2021)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the Colorado River has mostly dried up south of the border, presenting many challenges for people such as the Cucapá. Shaylih Meuhlmann, author of the ethnography <i>Where the River Ends: Contested Indigeneity in the Mexican Colorado Delta,</i> gives a first-hand account of the situation from Meuhlmann's point of view as well as many accounts from the Cucapá themselves. In addition to the Mexican portion of the Colorado River being left with a small fraction of the overall available water, the Cucapá are stripped of the right to fish on the river, the act being made illegal by the Mexican government in the interest of preserving the river's ecological health.<sup id="cite_ref-Muehlmann_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Muehlmann-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Cucapá are, thus, living without access to sufficient natural sources of freshwater as well as without their usual means of subsistence. The conclusion drawn in many such cases is that the negotiated water rights under the US-Mexican treaty that lead to the massive disparity in water allotments between the two countries boils down to environmental racism. </p><p>1,900 maquiladoras are found near the US-Mexico border. Maquiladoras are companies that are usually owned by foreign entities and import raw materials, pay workers in Mexico to assemble them, and ship the finish products overseas to be sold.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Maquiladoras provide jobs, they often pay very little. These plants also bring pollution to rural Mexican towns, creating health impacts for the poor families that live nearby. </p><p>In Mexico, industrial extraction of oil, mining, and gas, as well as the mass removal of slowly renewable resources such as aquatic life, forests, and crops.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Legally, the state owns natural resources but is able to grant concessions to industry through the form of taxes paid. In recent decades, a shift towards refocusing these tax dollars accumulated on the communities most impacted by the health, social, and economic impacts of <a href="/wiki/Extractivism" title="Extractivism">extractivism</a> has taken place. However, many indigenous and rural community leaders argue that they ought to consent to companies extracting and polluting their resources, rather than be paid reparations after the fact.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">Environmental racism in the United States</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/220px--Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="220" data-durationhint="78" data-mwtitle="Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="480" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="720" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="144" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="240" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/04/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv/Kamala_Harris_speaks_about_environmental_justice_-_June_2020.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="360" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>Kamala Harris speaks about environmental justice in June 2020.</figcaption></figure> <p>A US <a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a> study, completed in response to the <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_PCB_Protest,_1982" title="North Carolina PCB Protest, 1982">1982 protests of the PCB landfill in Warren County</a>, was among the first studies that drew correlations between the racial and economic background of communities and the location of hazardous waste facilities. Nevertheless, the study was limited in scope by focusing only on off-site hazardous waste landfills in the <a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In response to this limitation, in 1987, the <a href="/wiki/United_Church_of_Christ" title="United Church of Christ">United Church of Christ</a> Commission for Racial Justice (CRJ) directed a comprehensive national study on demographic patterns associated with the location of hazardous waste sites.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CRJ national study conducted two examinations of areas surrounding commercial hazardous waste facilities and the location of uncontrolled toxic waste sites.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_96-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first study examined the association between race and socio-economic status and the location of commercial hazardous waste treatment, storage, and disposal facilities.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated4_96-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After statistical analysis, the first study concluded that "the percentage of community residents that belonged to a racial or ethnic group was a stronger predictor of the level of commercial hazardous waste activity than was household income, the value of the homes, the number of uncontrolled waste sites, or the estimated amount of hazardous wastes generated by industry".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second study examined the presence of uncontrolled toxic waste sites in ethnic and racial minority communities and found that three of every five African and Hispanic Americans lived in communities with uncontrolled waste sites.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A separate 1991 study found race to be the most influential variable in predicting where waste facilities were located.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1994, President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a>'s issued <a href="/wiki/Pollution_in_the_United_States#Executive_Order_12898" title="Pollution in the United States">Executive Order 12898</a> which directed agencies to develop a strategy to manage environmental justice.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2002, Faber and Krieg found a correlation between higher air pollution exposure and low performance in schools and found that 92% of children at five <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles#Demographics" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> public schools with the poorest air quality were of a minority background<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> disproportionate to Los Angeles' then 70% minority population. </p><p>As a result of the placement of hazardous waste facilities, minority populations experience greater exposure to harmful chemicals and suffer from health outcomes that affect their ability at work and in schools. A comprehensive study of particulate emissions across the United States, published in 2018, found that Black people were exposed to 54% more particulate matter emissions (soot) than the average American.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a study that analyzed exposure to air pollution from vehicles in the American Mid-Atlantic and American North-East, it was found that African Americans were exposed to 61% more particulate matter than whites, with Latinos exposed to 75% more and Asians exposed to 73% more. Overall, minorities experienced 66% more pollution exposure from particulate matter than the white population.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climate_March_1085_(34368550705).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg/170px-Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg/255px-Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg/340px-Climate_March_1085_%2834368550705%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="618" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>2017 Climate March protester holds up sign on the Flint water crisis.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Katrina-14512.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Katrina-14512.jpg/220px-Katrina-14512.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Katrina-14512.jpg/330px-Katrina-14512.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Katrina-14512.jpg/440px-Katrina-14512.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="1960" /></a><figcaption>People on the roofs of their houses avoiding the flood after <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">Hurricane Katrina</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Carl Zimring states that environmental racism is often engrained in day-to-day work and living conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples cited of environmental racism in the US include the <a href="/wiki/Dakota_Access_Pipeline" title="Dakota Access Pipeline">Dakota Access Pipeline</a> (where a portion of the proposed 1,172 mile pipeline would pass near to the <a href="/wiki/Standing_Rock_Indian_Reservation" title="Standing Rock Indian Reservation">Standing Rock Indian Reservation</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Flint_water_crisis" title="Flint water crisis">Flint water crisis</a> (which affected a town that was 55% African American), <a href="/wiki/Cancer_Alley" title="Cancer Alley">cancer alley</a> (Louisiana),<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as the government response to <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina" title="Hurricane Katrina">hurricane Katrina</a> (where a mandatory evacuation was not ordered in the majority-Black city of New Orleans until 20 hours before Hurricane Katrina made landfall).<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Overall, the US has worked to reduce environmental racism with municipality changes.<sup id="cite_ref-nrdc_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrdc-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These policies help develop further change. Some cities and counties have taken advantage of environmental justice policies and applied it to the public health sector.<sup id="cite_ref-nrdc_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nrdc-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Native_American_peoples">Native American peoples</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Native American peoples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Uranium_mining_and_the_Navajo_people" title="Uranium mining and the Navajo people">Uranium mining and the Navajo people</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg/220px-Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg/330px-Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg/440px-Bison_skull_pile_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5689" data-file-height="4448" /></a><figcaption>Photograph from 1892 of a pile of <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">American bison</a> skulls in Detroit, Michigan, waiting to be ground for fertilizer or charcoal. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> encouraged <a href="/wiki/Bison_hunting#19th_century_bison_hunts_and_near_extinction" title="Bison hunting">massive hunts</a> of <a href="/wiki/American_bison" title="American bison">American bison</a> to force Native Americans off their traditional lands and into reservations farther west. That is considered an early example of environmental racism.</figcaption></figure> <p>Native scholars have discussed whether the concept of Environmental Justice make sense in the context of Native Americans and settler colonialism. This is because Native Americans' legal status differs from other marginalized peoples in the United States. As such, <a href="/wiki/Colville_people" title="Colville people">Colville</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Dina_Gilio-Whitaker" title="Dina Gilio-Whitaker">Dina Gilio-Whitaker</a> explains that "because Indigenous peoples' relationships to the state (i.e. the United States) are different than those of ethnic minorities, environmental justice must exceed equality and be able to live up to the concepts of tribal sovereignty, treaty rights, and government-to-government relationships."<sup id="cite_ref-DGW2017_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DGW2017-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Gilio-Whitaker further argues that the <a href="/wiki/Distributive_justice" title="Distributive justice">distributive justice</a> model on which environmental racism is based is not helpful to Native communities: "Frameworks for EJ in non-Native communities that rely on distributive justice are built on capitalistic American values of land as commodity — i.e. private property — on lands that were expropriated from Native peoples." In contrast, Native peoples have very different relationships to land beyond the modes of land as commodity.<sup id="cite_ref-DGW2017_113-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DGW2017-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Indigenous studies scholars have argued that environmental racism, however, began in the United States with the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Settler_colonialism" title="Settler colonialism">settler colonialism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi" title="Potawatomi">Potawatomi</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Kyle_Powys_Whyte" title="Kyle Powys Whyte">Kyle Powys Whyte</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lower_Brule_Sioux_Tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower Brule Sioux Tribe">Lower Brule Sioux</a> historian Nick Estes explain that Native peoples have already lived through one environmental apocalypse, the coming of colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Estes_2019_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Estes_2019-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">Métis</a> geographer <a href="/wiki/Zoe_Todd" title="Zoe Todd">Zoe Todd</a> and academic Heather Davis have also argued that settler colonialism is "responsible for contemporary environmental crisis."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In that way, it has been shown that climate change has been weaponized against Indigenous American peoples, as Founding Fathers such as Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin deforested the Americas and welcomed warmer weather, which they thought would displace Native peoples and enrich the United States. Thus, "the United States, from its birth, played a key role in causing catastrophic environmental change."<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whyte explains further that "Anthropogenic (human-caused) climate change is an intensification of environmental change imposed on Indigenous peoples by colonialism."<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Leanne_Betasamosake_Simpson" title="Leanne Betasamosake Simpson">Leanne Betasamosake Simpson</a> has also argued, "We should be thinking of climate change as part of a much longer series of ecological catastrophes caused by colonialism and accumulation-based society."<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act_of_1830" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Removal Act of 1830">Indian Removal Act of 1830</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a> may also be considered early examples of environmental racism in the United States. As a result of the former, by 1850, all tribes east of the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi" title="Mississippi">Mississippi</a> had been removed to western lands and essentially confined them to "lands that were too dry, remote, or barren to attract the attention of settlers and corporations."<sup id="cite_ref-ibid_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibid-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, military facilities were often located conterminous to <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian reservations">Indian reservations</a>, which led to a situation in which "a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near Native American lands."<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study analyzing the approximately 3,100 counties in the Continental United States found that Native American lands are positively associated with the count of sites with unexploded ordnance deemed extremely dangerous. The study also found that the risk assessment code (RAC), which is used to measure dangerousness of sites with unexploded ordnance, can sometimes conceal how much of a threat these sites are to Native Americans. The hazard probability, or probability that a hazard will harm people or ecosystems, is sensitive to the proximity of public buildings such as schools and hospitals. Those parameters neglect elements of tribal life such as subsistence consumption, ceremonial use of plants and animals, and low population densities. Because those tribal-unique factors are not considered, Native American lands can often receive low-risk scores, despite threats to their way of life. The hazard probability does not take Native Americans into account when considering the people or ecosystems that could be harmed. Locating military facilities coterminous to reservations lead to a situation in which "a disproportionate number of the most dangerous military facilities are located near Native American lands."<sup id="cite_ref-ibid_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ibid-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, Native American lands have been used for waste disposal and illegal dumping by the US and multinational corporations.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The International Tribunal of Indigenous People and Oppressed Nations, convened in 1992 to examine the history of criminal activity against indigenous groups in the United States,<sup id="cite_ref-hartford-hwp1_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartford-hwp1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and published a Significant Bill of Particulars outlining grievances indigenous peoples had with the US. This included allegations that the US "deliberately and systematically permitted, aided, and abetted, solicited and conspired to commit the dumping, transportation, and location of nuclear, toxic, medical, and otherwise hazardous waste materials on Native American territories in North America and has thus created a clear and present danger to the health, safety, and physical and mental well-being of Native American People."<sup id="cite_ref-hartford-hwp1_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hartford-hwp1-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Oceania">Oceania</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Oceania"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Australia">Australia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Australian Environmental Justice (AEJ) is a multidisciplinary organization which is closely partnered with Friends of the Earth Australia (FoEA). The AEJ focuses on recording and remedying the effects of environmental injustice throughout <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a>. The AEJ has addressed issues which include "production and spread of toxic wastes, pollution of water, soil and air, erosion and ecological damage of landscapes, water systems, plants and animals".<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project looks for environmental injustices that disproportionately affect a group of people or impact them in a way they did not agree to. </p><p>The Western Oil Refinery started operating in <a href="/wiki/Bellevue,_Western_Australia" title="Bellevue, Western Australia">Bellevue, Western Australia</a>, in 1954. It was permitted rights to operate in Bellevue by the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Australia">Australian government</a> in order to refine cheap and localized oil. In the decades following, many residents of Bellevue claimed they felt respiratory burning due to the inhalation of toxic chemicals and nauseating fumes. Lee Bell from Curtin University and Mariann Lloyd-Smith from the National Toxic Network in Australia stated in their article, "Toxic Disputes and the Rise of Environmental Justice in Australia" that "residents living close to the site discovered chemical contamination in the ground- water surfacing in their back yards".<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under immense civilian pressure, the Western Oil Refinery (now named Omex) stopped refining oil in 1979. Years later, citizens of Bellevue formed the Bellevue Action Group (BAG) and called for the government to give aid towards the remediation of the site. The government agreed and $6.9 million was allocated to clean up the site. Remediation of site began in April 2000. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micronesia">Micronesia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Micronesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing_at_Bikini_Atoll" title="Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll">Nuclear testing at Bikini Atoll</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Papua_New_Guinea">Papua New Guinea</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Papua New Guinea"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg/220px-Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg/330px-Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg/440px-Bougainville_Panguna_mine_shovel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3525" data-file-height="2430" /></a><figcaption>Panguna copper mine under construction, 1971</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting production in 1972, the <a href="/wiki/Panguna_mine" title="Panguna mine">Panguna mine</a> in <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> has been a source of environmental racism. Although closed since 1989 due to conflict on the island, the indigenous peoples (<a href="/wiki/Bougainville_Island" title="Bougainville Island">Bougainvillean</a>) have suffered both economically and environmentally from the creation of the mine. Terrance Wesley-Smith and Eugene Ogan, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a> and <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota" title="University of Minnesota">University of Minnesota</a> respectively, stated that the Bougainvillean's "were grossly disadvantaged from the beginning and no subsequent renegotiation has been able to remedy the situation".<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These indigenous people faced issues such as losing land which could have been used for agricultural practices for the Dapera and Moroni villages, undervalued payment for the land, poor relocation housing for displaced villagers and significant <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradation</a> in the surrounding areas.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Polynesia">Polynesia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Polynesia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_nuclear_testing_in_the_South_Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="French nuclear testing in the South Pacific">French nuclear testing in the South Pacific</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="South_America">South America</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: South America"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Andes">The Andes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: The Andes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Extracitivism, or the process of humans removing natural, raw resources from land to be used in product manufacturing, can have detrimental environmental and social repercussions. Research analyzing environmental conflicts in four Andean countries (Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia) found that conflicts tend to disproportionately affect indigenous populations and those with Afro-descent, and peasant communities.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These conflicts can arise as a result of shifting economic patterns, land use policies, and social practices due to extractivist industries. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chile">Chile</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Chile"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beginning in the late 15th century when European explorers began sailing to the New World, the violence towards and oppression of indigenous populations have had lasting effects to this day. The Mapuche-Chilean land conflict has roots dating back several centuries. When the Spanish went to conquer parts of South America, the Mapuche were one of the only indigenous groups to successfully resist Spanish domination and maintain their sovereignty. Moving forward, relations between the Mapuche and the Chilean state declined into a condition of malice and resentment. Chile won its independence from Spain in 1818 and, wanting the Mapuche to assimilate into the Chilean state, began crafting harmful legislation that targeted the Mapuche. The Mapuche have based their economy, both historically and presently, on agriculture. By the mid-19th century, the state resorted to outright seizure of Mapuche lands, forcefully appropriating all but 5% of Mapuche lineal lands. An agrarian economy without land essentially meant that the Mapuche no longer had their means of production and subsistence. While some land has since been ceded back to the Mapuche, it is still a fraction of what the Mapuche once owned. Further, as the Chilean state has attempted to rebuild its relationship with the Mapuche community, the connection between the two is still strained by the legacy of the aforementioned history. </p><p>Today, the Mapuche people are the largest population of indigenous people in Chile, with 1.5 million people accounting for over 90% of the country's indigenous population. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ecuador">Ecuador</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Ecuador"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg/220px-Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg/330px-Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg/440px-Texaco_in_Ecuador.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Aftermath of Lago Agrio oil field</figcaption></figure> <p>Due to their lack of environmental laws, emerging countries like <a href="/wiki/Ecuador" title="Ecuador">Ecuador</a> have been subjected to environmental pollution, sometimes causing health problems, loss of agriculture, and poverty. In 1993, 30,000 Ecuadorians, which included <a href="/wiki/Cof%C3%A1n_people" title="Cofán people">Cofan</a>, Siona, <a href="/wiki/Huaorani" class="mw-redirect" title="Huaorani">Huaorani</a>, and Quichua indigenous people, filed a lawsuit against <a href="/wiki/Texaco" title="Texaco">Texaco oil company</a> for the environmental damages caused by oil extraction activities in the <a href="/wiki/Lago_Agrio_oil_field" title="Lago Agrio oil field">Lago Agrio oil field</a>. After handing control of the oil fields to an Ecuadorian oil company, Texaco did not properly dispose of its hazardous waste, causing great damages to the ecosystem and crippling communities.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, UN experts have said that Afro-Ecuadorians and other people of African descent in Ecuador have faced greater challenges than other groups in accessing clean water, with minimal response from the State.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Haiti">Haiti</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Haiti"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Legacies of racism exist in Haiti, and affect the way that food grown by peasants domestically is viewed compared to foreign food.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racially coded hierarchies are associated with food that differs in origin – survey respondents reported that food such as millet and root crops are associated with negative connotations, while foreign-made food such as corn flakes and spaghetti are associated with positive connotations. This reliance on imports over domestic products reveals how racism ties to commercial tendencies – a reliance on imports can increase costs, fossil fuel emissions, and further social inequality as local farmers loose business. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_inequity" title="Biological inequity">Biological inequity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">Climate change and poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_in_the_United_States#Environmental_Discrimination" title="Pollution in the United States">Environmental discrimination in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_dumping" title="Environmental dumping">Environmental dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiziganism#Environmental_struggles" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiziganism">Environmental struggles of the Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenceline_community" title="Fenceline community">Fenceline community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Imperialism">Green Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_inequality_and_environmental_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Health inequality and environmental influence">Health inequality and environmental influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergenerational_equity" title="Intergenerational equity">Intergenerational equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Netherlands_fallacy" title="Netherlands fallacy">Netherlands fallacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIMBY" title="NIMBY">NIMBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution_haven_hypothesis" title="Pollution haven hypothesis">Pollution haven hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_capitalism" title="Racial capitalism">Racial capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_zone" title="Sacrifice zone">Sacrifice zone</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Max_Liboiron#Pollution_is_Colonialism" title="Max Liboiron">Pollution is Colonialism</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_divide" title="Transport divide">Transport divide</a> – Unequal access to transport</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBULLARD2003" class="citation journal cs1">BULLARD, ROBERT D. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Agriculture+and+Human+Values&rft.atitle=Eating+up+the+social+ladder%3A+the+problem+of+dietary+aspirations+for+food+sovereignty&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=549-562&rft.date=2016-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A141759179%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0889-048X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10460-015-9622-y&rft.aulast=Steckley&rft.aufirst=Marylynn&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2Fs10460-015-9622-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+racism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_racism&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.epa.gov/environmentaljustice">United States Environmental Protection Agency - Environmental Justice</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ejnet.org/ej/">Environmental Justice and Environmental Racism</a></li> <li>Marathon for Justice, 2016 - Film on Environmental Racism <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.empathyworksfilms.net/future-projects">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180226032310/https://www.empathyworksfilms.net/future-projects">Archived</a> 2018-02-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zinnedproject.org/materials/water-and-environmental-racism/">Water and Environmental Racism.</a> Lesson by Matt Reed and Ursula Wolfe-Rocca</li></ul> 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class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_social_science" title="Template talk:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_social_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental social science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_social_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_economics" title="Environmental economics">Environmental economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_communication" title="Environmental communication">Environmental communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_history" title="Environmental history">Environmental history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_politics" title="Environmental politics">Environmental politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_psychology" title="Environmental psychology">Environmental psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sustainable_development.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/150px-Sustainable_development.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/225px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Sustainable_development.svg/300px-Sustainable_development.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="326" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li>Design <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_design" title="Ecological design">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_design" title="Environmental design">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_humanities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li>Economics <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_economics" title="Energy economics">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermoeconomics" title="Thermoeconomics">thermo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_education" title="Environmental education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_ethics" title="Environmental ethics">ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">justice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobiology" title="Ethnobiology">Ethnobiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnobotany" title="Ethnobotany">botany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoecology" title="Ethnoecology">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnozoology" title="Ethnozoology">zoology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry" title="Forestry">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permaculture" title="Permaculture">Permaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">science studies</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sustainability <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_science" title="Sustainability science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability_studies" title="Sustainability studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li>Urban <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_studies" title="Urban studies">studies</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applied</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Architecture <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_architecture" title="Sustainable architecture">sustainable</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopsychology" title="Ecopsychology">Ecopsychology</a></li> <li>Engineering <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">environmental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_criminology" title="Green criminology">Green criminology</a></li> <li>Health <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">public</a></li></ul></li> <li>Management <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_resources_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental resources management">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_forest_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable forest management">forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">natural resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_planning" title="Environmental planning">environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_planning" title="Spatial planning">spatial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li>Policy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy" title="Energy policy">energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_policy" title="Environmental policy">environmental</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Environment" title="Portal:Environment">Environment portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science" title="Category:Environmental social science">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_science_concepts" title="Category:Environmental social science concepts">Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_degrees" title="List of environmental degrees">Degrees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_social_science_journals" title="List of environmental social science journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environment_research_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of environment research institutes">Research institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_social_scientists" title="Category:Environmental social scientists">Scholars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Racism" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Racism_topics" title="Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Racism_topics" title="Template talk:Racism topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Racism_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Racism topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Racism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Racism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aversive_racism" title="Aversive racism">Aversive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Colorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covert_racism" title="Covert racism">Covert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_on_the_Internet" title="Racism on the Internet">Cyber</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendered_racism" title="Gendered racism">Gendered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_racism" title="Institutional racism">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_racism" title="Internalized racism">Internalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_racism" title="Patent racism">Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laissez-faire_racism" title="Laissez-faire racism">Laissez-faire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_racism" title="Linguistic racism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neocolonial_racism" title="Neocolonial racism">Neocolonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romantic_racism" title="Romantic racism">Romantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_racism" title="Societal racism">Societal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_racism" title="Symbolic racism">Symbolic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manifestations<br />of racism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-miscegenation_laws" title="Anti-miscegenation laws">Anti-miscegenation laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">Apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Discrimination based on nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic jokes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_slurs" title="List of ethnic slurs">Ethnic slurs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">Ethnic stereotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_hierarchy" title="Racial hierarchy">Racial hierarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_profiling" title="Racial profiling">Racial profiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_apartheid" title="Global apartheid">Global apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Africa" title="Racism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Africa" title="Racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Zimbabwe" title="Racism in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Asia" title="Racism in Asia">Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_China" title="Racism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Japan" title="Racism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_Korea" title="Racism in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_Korea" title="Racism in South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Thailand" title="Racism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Vietnam" title="Racism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Racism in the Arab world">Arab world</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Libya" title="Racism in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Sudan" title="Racism in Sudan">Sudan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Australia" title="Racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Europe" title="Racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Denmark" title="Racism in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_France" title="Racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Germany" title="Racism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Poland" title="Racism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Portugal" title="Racism in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Russia" title="Racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Racism in the Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Spain" title="Racism in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Ukraine" title="Racism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Racism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Iran" title="Racism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Israel" title="Racism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_State_of_Palestine" title="Racism in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_discrimination_in_Turkey" title="Xenophobia and discrimination in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Mexico" title="Racism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_South_America" title="Racism in South America">South America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Argentina" title="Racism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Brazil" title="Racism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Chile" title="Racism in Chile">Chile</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Racism by target</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Chinese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Japanese Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_Korea" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea">Japanese Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment_in_Japan" title="Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan">Zainichi Koreans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Black sentiment">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogynoir" title="Misogynoir">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispanophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hispanophobia">Hispanic & Latino</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">Jewish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Jewish_communities" title="Racism in Jewish communities">In Jewish communities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_LGBT_community" title="Racism in the LGBT community">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Muslim_communities" title="Racism in Muslim communities">Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_wine_industry" title="Racism in the wine industry">Wine industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Racial supremacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White supremacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Ableism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alt-right" title="Alt-right">Alt-right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Casteism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_plastic_surgery" title="Ethnic plastic surgery">Ethnic plastic surgery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Go_back_to_where_you_came_from" title="Go back to where you came from">Go back to where you came from</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herrenvolk_democracy" title="Herrenvolk democracy">Herrenvolk democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interminority_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Interminority racism in the United States">Interminority racism in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Hispanic_and_Latino_American_communities" title="Racism in Hispanic and Latino American communities">Hispanics/Latinos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passing_(racial_identity)" title="Passing (racial identity)">Passing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychometrics_of_racism" title="Psychometrics of racism">Psychometrics of racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_sexuality" title="Race and sexuality">Race and sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_card" title="Race card">Race card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Racial figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport" title="Racism in sport">Racism in sport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_sport_in_Australia" title="Racism in sport in Australia">in Australia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Sociology of race and ethnic relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Racism" title="Category:Racism">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Racism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Racism">Commons</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_racism-related_articles" title="Index of racism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Environmental_justice" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Environmental_justice" title="Template:Environmental justice"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Environmental_justice" title="Template talk:Environmental justice"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental_justice" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Environmental justice"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:#ADD8E6">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Environmental_justice" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice"><span class="tmpl-colored-link" style="color: #ADD8E6; text-decoration: inherit;">Environmental justice</span></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Key topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_poverty" title="Climate change and poverty">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_litigation" title="Climate change litigation">litigation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_crisis" title="Climate crisis">crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_debt" title="Climate debt">debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_justice" title="Climate justice">justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_reparations" title="Climate reparations">reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_resilience" title="Climate resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_accountability" title="Corporate accountability">Corporate accountability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_crime" title="Corporate crime">Corporate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility" title="Corporate environmental responsibility">Corporate environmental responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_democracy" title="Energy democracy">Energy democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">inequality in the UK</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_injustice_in_Europe" title="Environmental injustice in Europe">injustice in Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">justice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">racism in the USA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">racism in Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Rights_Amendments" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Rights Amendments">Rights Amendments</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_conflicts" title="List of environmental conflicts">List of environmental conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_forest_inequity" title="Urban forest inequity">Urban forest inequity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization_of_knowledge" title="Decolonization of knowledge">Decolonization of knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Justice_Atlas" title="Environmental Justice Atlas">Environmental Justice Atlas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (Bookchin)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><b>Scholars</b>: <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bullard" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Bullard">Robert Bullard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dina_Gilio-Whitaker" title="Dina Gilio-Whitaker">Dina Gilio-Whitaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Martinez_Alier" title="Joan Martinez Alier">Joan Martinez Alier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyle_Powys_Whyte" title="Kyle Powys Whyte">Kyle Powys Whyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorceta_Taylor" title="Dorceta Taylor">Dorceta Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Africa" title="Environmental issues in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Europe" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental racism in Europe">Europe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Western Europe">Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Central_and_Eastern_Europe" title="Environmental racism in Central and Eastern Europe">Central and Eastern Europe</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia" title="Environmental racism in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Environmental inequality in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental racism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_along_the_Mexico%E2%80%93United_States_border" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues along the Mexico–United States border">US-Mexico border</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;;width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blockadia" title="Blockadia">Blockadia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_finance" title="Climate finance">Climate finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_accountability_for_human_rights_violations" title="Corporate accountability for human rights violations">Corporate accountability for human rights violations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility" title="Corporate social responsibility">Corporate social responsibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">Decolonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_waste" title="Electronic waste">Electronic waste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_defender" title="Environmental defender">Environmental defender</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_protector" class="mw-redirect" title="Water protector">Water protector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_defender" title="Land defender">Land defender</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism_of_the_poor" title="Environmentalism of the poor">Environmentalism of the poor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_law" title="Environmental law">Environmental law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extractivism" title="Extractivism">Extractivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_waste_trade" title="Global waste trade">Global waste trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_and_climate_change" title="Human rights and climate change">Human rights and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_investing" title="Impact investing">Impact investing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_killings" title="List of environmental killings">List of environmental killings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locally_unwanted_land_use" title="Locally unwanted land use">Locally unwanted land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights_of_nature" title="Rights of nature">Rights of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice_zone" title="Sacrifice zone">Sacrifice zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumak_Kawsay" class="mw-redirect" title="Sumak Kawsay">Sumak Kawsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_colonialism" title="Toxic colonialism">Toxic colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Water conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neozapatismo" title="Neozapatismo">Zapatismo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#006400;color:#ADD8E6;"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_justice" 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