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class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Male and female brain anatomy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Male_and_female_brain_anatomy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Male and female brain anatomy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Male_and_female_brain_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Volume" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Volume"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Volume</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Volume-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lateralization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lateralization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Lateralization</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="toc-Transgender_studies_on_brain_anatomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transgender_studies_on_brain_anatomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Transgender studies on brain anatomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transgender_studies_on_brain_anatomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brain_networks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brain_networks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Brain networks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brain_networks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neurochemical_differences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neurochemical_differences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Neurochemical differences</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Neurochemical_differences-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Neurochemical differences subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Neurochemical_differences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hormones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Hormones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Estrogen_and_the_female_brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Estrogen_and_the_female_brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Estrogen and the female brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Estrogen_and_the_female_brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Progesterone_and_the_male_and_female_brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Progesterone_and_the_male_and_female_brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.2</span> <span>Progesterone and the male and female brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Progesterone_and_the_male_and_female_brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Testosterone_and_the_male_brain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Testosterone_and_the_male_brain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.3</span> <span>Testosterone and the male brain</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Testosterone_and_the_male_brain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Neuroscience of sex differences</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="علم أعصاب الاختلافات الجنسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="علم أعصاب الاختلافات الجنسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%87_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="লিঙ্গভেদে স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞানের পার্থক্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গভেদে স্নায়ুবিজ্ঞানের পার্থক্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diferencias_neurobiol%C3%B3gicas_entre_hombres_y_mujeres" title="Diferencias neurobiológicas entre hombres y mujeres – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Diferencias neurobiológicas entre hombres y mujeres" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="تفاوت‌های جنسیتی انسان در علوم اعصاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تفاوت‌های جنسیتی انسان در علوم اعصاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexualisation_du_cerveau" title="Sexualisation du cerveau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sexualisation du cerveau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1_%EC%B0%A8%EC%9D%B4%EC%9D%98_%EC%8B%A0%EA%B2%BD%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99" title="성 차이의 신경과학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성 차이의 신경과학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%91%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F_%D7%91%D7%9E%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%97" title="הבדלי מין במבנה המוח – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הבדלי מין במבנה המוח" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%95_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A1%E1%83%AE%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%AA%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="სქესობრივ განსხვავებათა ნეირომეცნიერება – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სქესობრივ განსხვავებათა ნეირომეცნიერება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%B7%AE%E3%81%AE%E7%A5%9E%E7%B5%8C%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6" title="性差の神経科学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="性差の神経科学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%85_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Нейробиология половых различий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нейробиология половых различий" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Полни диморфизам мозга – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Полни диморфизам мозга" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Нейробіологія статевих відмінностей – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Нейробіологія статевих відмінностей" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q16676568#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_humans" title="Sex differences in humans">Sex differences in humans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Human.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/120px-Human.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="125" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Human.svg/250px-Human.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1060" data-file-height="1320" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Biology</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">disorders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">In research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_human_physiology" title="Sex differences in human physiology">Physiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism#Humans" title="Sexual dimorphism">Dimorphism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_measures" title="Sexual dimorphism measures">Scientific measures</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_medicine" title="Sex differences in medicine">Medicine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gender_disparities_in_health" title="Gender disparities in health">health</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_autoimmunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_life_expectancy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental disorders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_depression" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in depression">depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_substance_abuse" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in substance abuse">substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">suicide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_stroke_care" title="Sex differences in stroke care">Stroke care</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroscience</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">psychology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_coping" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in coping">Coping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_emotional_expression" title="Gender and emotional expression">Emotional expression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_aggression" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in aggression">Aggression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_empathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in empathy">Empathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_empathy_gap" title="Gender empathy gap">Gender empathy gap</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurosexism" title="Neurosexism">Neurosexism</a></li> <li>Sexuality <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">age disparity in relationships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual attraction">attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_sexual_desire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in sexual desire">desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_sexual_fantasy" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in sexual fantasy">fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">jealousy</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-bottom: 1px #fafafa solid;"> Sociology and society</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education" title="Sex differences in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_education_in_the_United_States" title="Sex differences in education in the United States">in the U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_inequality" title="Gender inequality">Gender inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_expendability" title="Male expendability">Greater male expendability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Greater male variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex differences in leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_and_religion" title="Gender and religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_social_capital" title="Sex differences in social capital">Social capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_social_support" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender differences in social support">Social support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_paradox" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender paradox">Sociolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-equality_paradox" title="Gender-equality paradox">Gender-equality paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_survival_paradox" title="Health survival paradox">Health survival paradox</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF0000; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamus" title="Hypothalamus">Hypothalamus</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#00FF00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">Amygdala</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#0080FF; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fornix_(neuroanatomy)" title="Fornix (neuroanatomy)">fornix</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FFFF00; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Pons" title="Pons">Pons</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959" /><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#FF00FF; color:black;-webkit-print-color-adjust: exact; print-color-adjust: exact;"> </span> <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary gland</a></div> </figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>neuroscience of sex differences</b> is the study of characteristics that separate brains of different sexes. Psychological sex differences are thought by some to reflect the interaction of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Hormones">hormones</a>, and social learning on brain development throughout the lifespan. A 2021 <a href="/wiki/Research_synthesis" title="Research synthesis">meta-synthesis</a> led by Lise Eliot found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding large group-level differences only in total brain volume.<sup id="cite_ref-Neuroscience_2021_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuroscience_2021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A subsequent 2021 led by Camille Michèle Williams contradicted Eliot's conclusions, finding that sex differences in total brain volume are not accounted for merely by sex differences in height and weight, and that once global brain size is taken into account, there remain numerous regional sex differences in both directions.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2022 follow-up meta-analysis led by Alex DeCasien analyzed the studies from both Eliot and Williams, concluding that "The human brain shows highly reproducible sex differences in regional brain anatomy above and beyond sex differences in overall brain size" and that these differences are of a "small-moderate effect size."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A review from 2006 and a meta-analysis from 2014 found that some evidence from brain morphology and function studies indicates that male and female brains cannot always be assumed to be identical from either a structural or functional perspective, and some brain structures are <a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually dimorphic">sexually dimorphic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahill_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ideas of differences between the male and female brains have circulated since the time of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek</a> philosophers around 850 BC. In 1854, German anatomist <a href="/wiki/Emil_Huschke" title="Emil Huschke">Emil Huschke</a> discovered a size difference in the <a href="/wiki/Frontal_lobe" title="Frontal lobe">frontal lobe</a>, where male frontal lobes are 1% larger than those of females.<sup id="cite_ref-Swaab_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swaab-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the 19th century progressed, scientists began researching sexual dimorphisms in the brain significantly more.<sup id="cite_ref-Swaab2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Swaab2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Until recent decades, scientists knew of several structural sexual dimorphisms of the brain, but they did not think that sex had any impact on how the human brain performs daily tasks. Through molecular, animal, and neuroimaging studies, a great deal of information regarding the differences between male and female brains and how much they differ in regards to both structure and function has been uncovered.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid26833829_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid26833829-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_explanations">Evolutionary explanations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolutionary explanations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_selection">Sexual selection</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sexual selection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection in humans</a></div> <p>Females show enhanced information recall compared to males. This may be due to the fact that females have a more intricate evaluation of risk–scenario contemplation, based on a <a href="/wiki/Prefrontal_cortical" class="mw-redirect" title="Prefrontal cortical">prefrontal cortical</a> control of the <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a>. For example, the ability to recall information better than males most likely originated from <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selective" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual selective">sexual selective</a> pressures on females during competition with other females in mate selection. Recognition of social cues was an advantageous characteristic, because it ultimately maximized offspring and was therefore selected for during evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahill_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Oxytocin" title="Oxytocin">Oxytocin</a> is a hormone that induces <a href="/wiki/Uterine_contraction" title="Uterine contraction">contraction</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">uterus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lactation" title="Lactation">lactation</a> in mammals and is also a characteristic hormone of nursing mothers. Studies have found that oxytocin improves <a href="/wiki/Spatial_memory" title="Spatial memory">spatial memory</a>. Through activation of the <a href="/wiki/MAP_kinase" class="mw-redirect" title="MAP kinase">MAP kinase</a> pathway, oxytocin plays a role in the enhancement of long-term <a href="/wiki/Synaptic_plasticity" title="Synaptic plasticity">synaptic plasticity</a>, which is a change in strength between two <a href="/wiki/Neurons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neurons">neurons</a> over a <a href="/wiki/Synapse" title="Synapse">synapse</a> that lasts for minutes or longer, and <a href="/wiki/Long-term_memory" title="Long-term memory">long-term memory</a>. This hormone may have helped mothers remember the location of distant food sources so they could better nurture their offspring.<sup id="cite_ref-Cahill_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cahill-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to certain studies, men on average have one standard deviation higher spatial intelligence quotient than women.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This domain is one of the few where clear <a href="/wiki/Sex_and_intelligence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex and intelligence">sex differences in cognition</a> appear. Researchers at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto" title="University of Toronto">University of Toronto</a> say that differences between men and women on some tasks that require spatial skills are largely eliminated after both groups play a video game for only a few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although <a href="/wiki/Herman_Witkin" title="Herman Witkin">Herman Witkin</a> had claimed women are more "visually dependent" than men,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this has recently been disputed.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The gender difference in spatial ability was found to be attributed to morphological differences between male and female brains. The parietal lobe is a part of the brain that is recognized to be involved in spatial ability, especially in 2d- and 3d mental rotation. Researchers at the University of Iowa found that the thicker grey matter in the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> of females led to a disadvantage in mental rotations, and that the larger surface areas of the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a> of males led to an advantage in mental rotations. The results found by the researches support the notion that gender differences in spatial abilities arose during human evolution such that both sexes cognitively and neurologically developed to behave adaptively. However, the effect of socialization and environment on the difference in spatial ability is still open for debate.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Male_and_female_brain_anatomy">Male and female brain anatomy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Male and female brain anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2021 <a href="/wiki/Research_synthesis" title="Research synthesis">meta-synthesis</a> of existing literature found that sex accounted for 1% of the brain's structure or laterality, finding large group-level differences only in total brain volume.<sup id="cite_ref-Neuroscience_2021_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neuroscience_2021-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2022 follow-up meta-analysis refuted these finding based on methodological flaws, and concluded that "The human brain shows highly reproducible sex differences in regional brain anatomy above and beyond sex differences in overall brain size" and that these differences were of a "small-to-moderate effect size."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In another study, men were found to have a total <a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">myelinated fiber</a> length of 176 000 km at the age of 20, whereas in women the total length was 149 000 km (approx. 15% less).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid12794739_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid12794739-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many similarities and differences in structure, neurotransmitters, and function have been identified,<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cosgrave2007_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosgrave2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but some academics, such as <a href="/wiki/Cordelia_Fine" title="Cordelia Fine">Cordelia Fine</a><sup id="cite_ref-Fine_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Anelis_Kaiser" title="Anelis Kaiser">Anelis Kaiser</a>, Sven Haller, <a href="/wiki/Sigrid_Schmitz" title="Sigrid Schmitz">Sigrid Schmitz</a>, and Cordula Nitsch<sup id="cite_ref-Kaiser_2009_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaiser_2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dispute the existence of significant sex differences in the brain, arguing that innate differences in the neurobiology of women and men have not been conclusively identified due to factors such as alleged <a href="/wiki/Neurosexism" title="Neurosexism">neurosexism</a>, methodological flaws and <a href="/wiki/Publication_bias" title="Publication bias">publication bias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fine_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fine-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kaiser_2009_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaiser_2009-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clinical psychologist <a href="/wiki/Simon_Baron-Cohen" title="Simon Baron-Cohen">Simon Baron-Cohen</a> has defended the neuroscience of sex differences against charges of neurosexism, arguing that "Fine's neurosexism allegation is the mistaken blurring of science with politics," adding that "you can be a scientist interested in the nature of sex differences while being a clear supporter of equal opportunities and a firm opponent of all forms of discrimination in society."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Males and females differ in some aspects of their brains, notably the overall difference in size, with men having larger brains on average (between 8% and 13% larger),<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a relationship between brain volume or density and brain function is not established.<sup id="cite_ref-Nisbett2012_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nisbett2012-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, there are differences in activation patterns that suggest anatomical or developmental differences. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Volume">Volume</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Volume"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structurally, adult male brains are on average 11–12% heavier and 10% bigger than female brains.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though statistically there are sex differences in <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gray_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray matter">gray matter</a> percentage, this ratio is directly related to brain size, and some<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue these sex differences in gray and white matter percentage are caused by the average size difference between men and women. Others argue that these differences partly remain after controlling for brain volume.<sup id="cite_ref-Cosgrave2007_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosgrave2007-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Savic_2010_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savic_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers also found greater <a href="/wiki/Cortical_thickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical thickness">cortical thickness</a> and cortical complexity in females before, and after adjusting for overall brain volume. In contrast, surface area, brain volume and fractional anisotropy was found to be greater in males before, and after adjusting for overall brain volume. Despite attributes remaining greater for both male and female, the overall difference in these attributes decreased after adjusting for overall brain volume, except the cortical thickness in females, which increased.<sup id="cite_ref-Savic_2010_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savic_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Given that cortical complexity and cortical features have had some evidence of positive correlation with intelligence, researchers postulated that these differences might have evolved for females to compensate for smaller brain size and equalize overall cognitive abilities with males, though the reason for environmental selection of that trait is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-Savic_2010_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savic_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Researchers further analyzed the differences in brain volume, surface area and <a href="/wiki/Cortical_thickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical thickness">cortical thickness</a> by testing the men and women on verbal-numerical reasoning and reaction time in separate groups. It was found that the group of men slightly outperformed the women in both the verbal-numerical reasoning and reaction time tests. Subsequently, the researchers tested to what extent the differences in performance was mediated by the varying attributes of the male and female brain (e.g. surface area) using two mixed sample groups. In verbal-numerical reasoning tests, surface area and brain volume mediated performance by >82% in both groups, and <a href="/wiki/Cortical_thickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical thickness">cortical thickness</a> mediated performance far less, by 7.1% and 5.4% in each group. In reaction time tests, total brain and <a href="/wiki/White_matter" title="White matter">white matter</a> volumes mediated performance by >27%, but the other attributes all mediated performance by smaller percentages (<15.3%), particularly mean <a href="/wiki/Cortical_thickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Cortical thickness">cortical thickness</a> (mediating <3% of performance).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> journal review series <i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Brain_Research" title="Progress in Brain Research">Progress in Brain Research</a></i>, it has been found that males have larger and longer planum temporale and <a href="/wiki/Lateral_sulcus" title="Lateral sulcus">Sylvian fissure</a> while females have significantly larger proportionate volumes to total brain volume in the <a href="/wiki/Superior_temporal_gyrus" title="Superior temporal gyrus">superior temporal cortex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a>, the hippocampus and the <a href="/wiki/Caudate_nucleus" title="Caudate nucleus">caudate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Savic_2010_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savic_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sagittal_plane" title="Sagittal plane">midsagittal</a> and fiber numbers in the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_commissure" title="Anterior commissure">anterior commissure</a> that connect the temporal poles and mass intermedia that connects the thalami is also larger in women.<sup id="cite_ref-Savic_2010_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savic_2010-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lateralization">Lateralization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Lateralization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lateralization_of_brain_function" title="Lateralization of brain function">Lateralization</a> may differ between the sexes, with men often being said to have a more lateralized brainbecause they tend to use one hemisphere for a behavior more consistently than females. One factor supporting this idea is the higher rate of left-handedness among males. Another example is that language is typically more strongly left-lateralized in males than in females. Additionally, males show stronger right-lateralization in emotional-face processing tasks, suggesting sex differences in brain lateralization go beyond just language. These differences may be linked to factors like how the two brain hemispheres interact and differences in the corpus callosum, rather than directly to sex hormones. Other biological factors, such as cortisol levels and dopamine asymmetries, may also play a role in these differences, particularly in decision-making and emotional responses. <sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further evidence comes from studies using turning preferences as a way to measure brain lateralization. While no major sex differences were found in the direction or strength of laterality, males showed more consistent lateralization across different situations. This suggests that males may have stronger and more stable brain lateralization. However, the relationship between brain lateralization and cognitive abilities remains unclear and is likely influenced by many biological factors. <sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2014 meta-analysis of <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> in the brain found sexually dimorphic areas of the brain in both volume and density. When synthesized, these differences show that volume increases for males tend to be on the left side of systems, while females generally see greater volume in the right hemisphere.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, a previous 2008 meta-analysis found that the difference between male and female brain lateralization was not significant.<sup id="cite_ref-Sommer_2008_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sommer_2008-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amygdala">Amygdala</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Amygdala"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amygdala_small.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Amygdala" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Amygdala_small.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a><figcaption> The amygdala (red) in a human brain</figcaption></figure> <p>There are behavioral differences between males and females that may suggest a difference in <a href="/wiki/Amygdala" title="Amygdala">amygdala</a> size or function. A 2017 review of amygdala volume studies found that there was a raw size difference, with males having a 10% larger amygdala, however, because male brains are larger, this finding was found to be misleading. After normalizing for brain size, there was no significant difference in size of the amygdala across sex.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of activation, there is no difference in amygdala activation across sex. Differences in behavioral tests may be due to potential anatomical and physiological differences in the amygdala across sexes rather than activation differences.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Emotional expression, understanding, and behavior appears to vary between males and females. A 2012 review concluded that males and females have differences in the processing of emotions. Males tend to have stronger reactions to threatening stimuli and that males react with more physical violence.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hippocampus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">Hippocampus</a> atrophy is associated with a variety of psychiatric disorders that have higher prevalence in females. Additionally, there are differences in memory skills between males and females which may suggest a difference in the hippocampal volume (HCV). A 2016 meta-analysis of volume differences found a higher HCV in males without correcting for total brain size. However, after adjusting for individual differences and total brain volume, they found no significant sex difference, despite the expectation that women may have larger hippocampus volume.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grey_matter">Grey matter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Grey matter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A 2014 meta-analysis found (where differences were measured) some differences in <a href="/wiki/Grey_matter" title="Grey matter">grey matter</a> levels between the sexes. </p><p>The findings included females having more grey matter volume in the right <a href="/wiki/Frontal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontal pole">frontal pole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inferior_frontal_gyrus" title="Inferior frontal gyrus">inferior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_frontal_gyrus" title="Middle frontal gyrus">middle</a> <a href="/wiki/Frontal_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Frontal gyrus">frontal gyrus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodmann_area_45" title="Brodmann area 45">pars triangularis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planum_temporale" title="Planum temporale">planum temporale</a>/<a href="/wiki/Operculum_(brain)" title="Operculum (brain)">parietal operculum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate gyrus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insular cortex</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Transverse_temporal_gyrus" title="Transverse temporal gyrus">Heschl's gyrus</a>; both <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalami</a> and precuneus; the left parahippocampal gyrus and lateral <a href="/wiki/Occipital_lobe" title="Occipital lobe">occipital cortex</a> (superior division).<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Larger volumes in females were most pronounced in areas in the right hemisphere related to language in addition to several <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic</a> structures such as the right insular cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Males had more grey matter volume in both amygdalae, <a href="/wiki/Hippocampus" title="Hippocampus">hippocampi</a>, anterior <a href="/wiki/Parahippocampal_gyrus" title="Parahippocampal gyrus">parahippocampal gyri</a>, posterior <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_cortex" title="Cingulate cortex">cingulate gyri</a>, <a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">precuneus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Putamen" title="Putamen">putamen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Temporal_pole" class="mw-redirect" title="Temporal pole">temporal poles</a>, areas in the left posterior and <a href="/wiki/Anterior_cingulate_cortex" title="Anterior cingulate cortex">anterior cingulate gyri</a>, and areas in the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a> bilateral VIIb, VIIIa and Crus I lobes, left VI and right Crus II lobes.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In terms of density, there were also differences between the sexes. Males tended to have a denser left amygdala, hippocampus, insula, <a href="/wiki/Globus_pallidus" title="Globus pallidus">pallidum</a>, putamen, <a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">claustrum</a>, and areas of the right VI <a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_the_cerebellum" title="Anatomy of the cerebellum">lobule</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, among other areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Females tended to have denser left frontal pole.<sup id="cite_ref-Ruigrok_2014_5-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruigrok_2014-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The significance of these differences lies both in the lateralization (males having more volume in the left hemisphere and females having more volume in the right hemisphere) and the possible uses of these findings to explore differences in neurological and psychiatric conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transgender_studies_on_brain_anatomy">Transgender studies on brain anatomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Transgender studies on brain anatomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Causes_of_gender_incongruence" title="Causes of gender incongruence">Causes of gender incongruence</a></div> <p>Early postmortem studies of <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> neurological differentiation were focused on the <a href="/wiki/Hypothalamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypothalamic">hypothalamic</a> and amygdala regions of the brain. Using <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">magnetic resonance imaging</a> (MRI), some <a href="/wiki/Trans_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans women">trans women</a> were found to have female-typical <a href="/wiki/Putamina" class="mw-redirect" title="Putamina">putamina</a> that were larger in size than those of <a href="/wiki/Cisgender" title="Cisgender">cisgender</a> males.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some trans women have also shown a female-typical central part of the <a href="/wiki/Bed_nucleus_of_the_stria_terminalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis">bed nucleus of the stria terminalis</a> (BSTc) and <a href="/wiki/INAH_3" title="INAH 3">interstitial nucleus of the anterior hypothalamus number 3</a> (INAH-3), looking at the number of neurons found within each.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Brain_networks">Brain networks</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Brain networks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both males and females have consistent active <a href="/wiki/Working_memory" title="Working memory">working memory</a> networks composed of both middle frontal gyri, the left <a href="/wiki/Cingulate_gyrus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cingulate gyrus">cingulate gyrus</a>, the right <a href="/wiki/Precuneus" title="Precuneus">precuneus</a>, the left <a href="/wiki/Inferior_parietal_lobule" title="Inferior parietal lobule">inferior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">superior parietal lobes</a>, the right <a href="/wiki/Claustrum" title="Claustrum">claustrum</a>, and the left <a href="/wiki/Middle_temporal_gyrus" title="Middle temporal gyrus">middle temporal gyrus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_2014_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_2014-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the same brain networks are used for working memory, specific regions are sex-specific. Sex differences were evident in other networks, as women also tend to have higher activity in the prefrontal and <a href="/wiki/Limbic_system" title="Limbic system">limbic</a> regions, such as the anterior cingulate, bilateral amygdala, and right hippocampus, while men tend to have a distributed network spread out among the <a href="/wiki/Cerebellum" title="Cerebellum">cerebellum</a>, portions of the superior <a href="/wiki/Parietal_lobe" title="Parietal lobe">parietal lobe</a>, the left <a href="/wiki/Insular_cortex" title="Insular cortex">insula</a>, and bilateral <a href="/wiki/Thalamus" title="Thalamus">thalamus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hill_2014_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hill_2014-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A 2017 review from the perspective of <a href="/wiki/Large-scale_brain_networks" class="mw-redirect" title="Large-scale brain networks">large-scale brain networks</a> hypothesized that women's higher susceptibility to stress-prone disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Post-traumatic_stress_disorder" title="Post-traumatic stress disorder">post-traumatic stress disorder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">major depressive disorder</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Salience_network" title="Salience network">salience network</a> is theorized to be overactive and to interfere with the <a href="/wiki/Executive_functions" title="Executive functions">executive control network</a>, may be due in part, along with societal exposure to stressors and the coping strategies that are available to women, to underlying sex-based brain differences.<sup id="cite_ref-Homberg2017_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Homberg2017-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neurochemical_differences">Neurochemical differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Neurochemical differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormones">Hormones</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hormones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Gonadal_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonadal hormones">Gonadal hormones</a>, or sex hormones, include <a href="/wiki/Androgen" title="Androgen">androgens</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogens</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Estradiol" title="Estradiol">estradiol</a>), which are <a href="/wiki/Steroid_hormone" title="Steroid hormone">steroid hormones</a> synthesized primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Testes" class="mw-redirect" title="Testes">testes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ovaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovaries">ovaries</a>, respectively. Sex hormone production is regulated by the <a href="/wiki/Gonadotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gonadotropic">gonadotropic</a> hormones <a href="/wiki/Luteinizing_hormone" title="Luteinizing hormone">luteinizing hormone</a> (LH) and <a href="/wiki/Follicle-stimulating_hormone" title="Follicle-stimulating hormone">follicle-stimulating hormone</a> (FSH), whose release from the <a href="/wiki/Anterior_pituitary" title="Anterior pituitary">anterior pituitary</a> is stimulated by <a href="/wiki/Gonadotropin-releasing_hormone" title="Gonadotropin-releasing hormone">gonadotropin-releasing hormone</a> (GnRH) from the hypothalamus.<sup id="cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molina_2018-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Steroid hormones have several effects on brain development as well as maintenance of <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> throughout adulthood. Estrogen receptors have been found in the hypothalamus, <a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">pituitary gland</a>, hippocampus, and frontal cortex, indicating the estrogen plays a role in brain development. Gonadal hormone receptors have also been found in the basal fore-brain nuclei.<sup id="cite_ref-Genazzani_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genazzani-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Estrogen_and_the_female_brain">Estrogen and the female brain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Estrogen and the female brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Estradiol influences cognitive function, specifically by enhancing learning and memory in a dose-sensitive manner. Too much estrogen can have negative effects by weakening performance of learned tasks as well as hindering performance of memory tasks; this can result in females exhibiting poorer performance of such tasks when compared to males.<sup id="cite_ref-Korol_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Korol-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ovariectomies" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovariectomies">Ovariectomies</a>, surgeries inducing <a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">menopause</a>, or natural menopause cause fluctuating and decreased estrogen levels in women. This in turn can "attenuate the effects" of endogenous <a href="/wiki/Opioid_peptides" class="mw-redirect" title="Opioid peptides">opioid peptides</a>. Opioid peptides are known to play a role in emotion and motivation. The content of <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-endorphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-endorphin">β-endorphin</a> (β-EP), an endogenous opioid peptide, has been found to decrease (in varying amounts/brain region) post ovariectomy in female rats within the hypothalamus, hippocampus, and pituitary gland. Such a change in β-EP levels could be the cause of mood swings, behavioral disturbances, and <a href="/wiki/Hot_flashes" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot flashes">hot flashes</a> in post menopausal women.<sup id="cite_ref-Genazzani_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genazzani-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Progesterone_and_the_male_and_female_brain">Progesterone and the male and female brain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Progesterone and the male and female brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Progesterone" title="Progesterone">Progesterone</a> is a steroid hormone synthesized in both male and female brains. It contains characteristics found in the chemical nucleus of both estrogen and androgen hormones.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a female sex hormone, progesterone is more significant in females than in males. During the <a href="/wiki/Menstrual_cycle" title="Menstrual cycle">menstrual cycle</a>, progesterone increases just after the <a href="/wiki/Ovulatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovulatory">ovulatory</a> phase to inhibit luteinizing hormones, such as oxytocin absorption.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In men, increased progesterone has been linked to adolescents with suicidal ideation.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Testosterone_and_the_male_brain">Testosterone and the male brain</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Testosterone and the male brain"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The gonadal hormone testosterone is an androgenic, or masculinizing, hormone that is synthesized in both the male testes and female ovaries,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> at a rate of about 14,000 μg/day and 600 μg/day, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molina_2018-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Testosterone exerts organizational effects on the developing brain, many of which are mediated through <a href="/wiki/Estrogen_receptor" title="Estrogen receptor">estrogen receptors</a> following its conversion to estrogen by the enzyme <a href="/wiki/Aromatase" title="Aromatase">aromatase</a> within the brain.<sup id="cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Molina_2018-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Biology and sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroplasticity" title="Neuroplasticity">Neuroplasticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_and_sexual_orientation" title="Neuroscience and sexual orientation">Neuroscience and sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puberty#Neurohormonal_process" title="Puberty">Puberty § Neurohormonal process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rett_syndrome" title="Rett syndrome">Rett syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences in psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_dimorphic_nucleus" title="Sexually dimorphic nucleus">Sexually dimorphic nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_NeuroGenderings_Network" title="The NeuroGenderings Network">The NeuroGenderings Network</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Neuroscience_2021-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Neuroscience_2021_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Neuroscience_2021_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 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href="#cite_ref-Homberg2017_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHombergKoziczFernandez2017" class="citation journal cs1">Homberg JR, Kozicz T, Fernandez G (April 2017). "Large-scale network balances in the transition from adaptive to maladaptive stress responses". <i>Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences</i>. <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">27–</span>32. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cobeha.2016.11.003">10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.11.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53161342">53161342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Behavioral+Sciences&rft.atitle=Large-scale+network+balances+in+the+transition+from+adaptive+to+maladaptive+stress+responses&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E27-%3C%2Fspan%3E32&rft.date=2017-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cobeha.2016.11.003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53161342%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Homberg&rft.aufirst=JR&rft.au=Kozicz%2C+T&rft.au=Fernandez%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Molina_2018-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Molina_2018_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMolina2018" class="citation book cs1">Molina PE (2018). <i>Endocrine physiology</i> (5th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-260-01936-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-260-01936-0"><bdi>978-1-260-01936-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1026417940">1026417940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endocrine+physiology&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1026417940&rft.isbn=978-1-260-01936-0&rft.aulast=Molina&rft.aufirst=Patricia+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Genazzani-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Genazzani_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Genazzani_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGenazzaniPluchinoLuisiLuisi2007" class="citation journal cs1">Genazzani AR, Pluchino N, Luisi S, Luisi M (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml042">"Estrogen, cognition and female ageing"</a>. <i>Human Reproduction Update</i>. <b>13</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">175–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml042">10.1093/humupd/dml042</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17135285">17135285</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Human+Reproduction+Update&rft.atitle=Estrogen%2C+cognition+and+female+ageing&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E175-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fhumupd%2Fdml042&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17135285&rft.aulast=Genazzani&rft.aufirst=AR&rft.au=Pluchino%2C+N&rft.au=Luisi%2C+S&rft.au=Luisi%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fhumupd%252Fdml042&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Korol-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Korol_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKorol2004" class="citation journal cs1">Korol DL (November 2004). "Role of estrogen in balancing contributions from multiple memory systems". <i>Neurobiology of Learning and Memory</i>. <b>82</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">309–</span>23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.nlm.2004.07.006">10.1016/j.nlm.2004.07.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15464412">15464412</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19893375">19893375</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurobiology+of+Learning+and+Memory&rft.atitle=Role+of+estrogen+in+balancing+contributions+from+multiple+memory+systems&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E309-%3C%2Fspan%3E23&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19893375%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15464412&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.nlm.2004.07.006&rft.aulast=Korol&rft.aufirst=DL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFunk_and_Wagnalls2018" class="citation book cs1">Funk and Wagnalls (2018). <i>Progesterone</i>. World Almanac Education Group.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Progesterone&rft.pub=World+Almanac+Education+Group&rft.date=2018&rft.au=Funk+and+Wagnalls&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUlshöferKarafyllis2008" class="citation book cs1">Ulshöfer G, Karafyllis N (2008). <i>Sexualized Brains: Scientific Modeling of Emotional Intelligence from a Cultural Perspective</i>. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. p. 213.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sexualized+Brains%3A+Scientific+Modeling+of+Emotional+Intelligence+from+a+Cultural+Perspective&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Massachusetts&rft.pages=213&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Ulsh%C3%B6fer&rft.aufirst=Gotlind&rft.au=Karafyllis%2C+Nicole&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLesterGunnQuinnett2014" class="citation book cs1">Lester D, Gunn JF, Quinnett P, eds. (2014). <i>Suicide in Men: How Men Differ from Women in Expressing their Distress</i>. Springfield, Illinois: Charles C Thomas. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-398-08794-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-398-08794-4"><bdi>978-0-398-08794-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Suicide+in+Men%3A+How+Men+Differ+from+Women+in+Expressing+their+Distress&rft.place=Springfield%2C+Illinois&rft.pages=61&rft.pub=Charles+C+Thomas&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-398-08794-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHadleyLevine2007" class="citation book cs1">Hadley ME, Levine JE (2007). <i>Endocrinology</i>. Levine, Jon E. (6th, New ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-187606-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-187606-4"><bdi>978-0-13-187606-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70929277">70929277</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Endocrinology&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+NJ&rft.edition=6th%2C+New&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F70929277&rft.isbn=978-0-13-187606-4&rft.aulast=Hadley&rft.aufirst=Mac+E.&rft.au=Levine%2C+Jon+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neuroscience_of_sex_differences&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRippon2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gina_Rippon" title="Gina Rippon">Rippon G</a> (28 Feb 2019). <i>The gendered brain: The new neuroscience that shatters the myth of the female brain</i>. Bodley Head. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84792-475-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84792-475-9"><bdi>978-1-84792-475-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+gendered+brain%3A+The+new+neuroscience+that+shatters+the+myth+of+the+female+brain&rft.pub=Bodley+Head&rft.date=2019-02-28&rft.isbn=978-1-84792-475-9&rft.aulast=Rippon&rft.aufirst=Gina&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANeuroscience+of+sex+differences" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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href="/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism_in_humans" title="Reciprocal altruism in humans">Reciprocal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baldwin_effect" title="Baldwin effect">Baldwin effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">By-products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Evolutionarily stable strategy">Evolutionarily stable strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exaptation" title="Exaptation">Exaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">Fitness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inclusive_fitness_in_humans" title="Inclusive fitness in humans">Inclusive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_mismatch" title="Evolutionary mismatch">Mismatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">Parental investment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parent%E2%80%93offspring_conflict" title="Parent–offspring conflict">Parent–offspring conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Costly_signaling_theory_in_evolutionary_psychology" title="Costly signaling theory in evolutionary psychology">Costly signaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_intrasexual_competition" title="Male intrasexual competition">Male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">female intrasexual competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_choice" title="Mate choice">Mate choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_selection" title="Social selection">Social selection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cognition" title="Evolution of cognition">Cognition</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_emotion" title="Evolution of emotion">Emotion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_(psychology)" title="Affect (psychology)">Affect</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affect_display" title="Affect display">Display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Display_rules" title="Display rules">Display rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facial_expression" title="Facial expression">Facial expression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_module" title="Cognitive module">Cognitive module</a>/<a href="/wiki/Modularity_of_mind" title="Modularity of mind">modularity of mind</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_and_controlled_processes" title="Automatic and controlled processes">Automatic and controlled processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_theory_of_mind" title="Computational theory of mind">Computational theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain-general_learning" title="Domain-general learning">Domain generality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domain_specificity" title="Domain specificity">Domain specificity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_process_theory" title="Dual process theory">Dual process theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_tradeoff_hypothesis" title="Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis">Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_brain" title="Evolution of the brain">Evolution of the brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_nervous_systems" title="Evolution of nervous systems">Evolution of nervous systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fight-or-flight_response" title="Fight-or-flight response">Fight-or-flight response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arachnophobia" title="Arachnophobia">Arachnophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_falling" title="Fear of falling">Basophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophidiophobia" title="Ophidiophobia">Ophidiophobia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_biology" title="Folk biology">Folk biology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Folk_taxonomy" title="Folk taxonomy">taxonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_psychology" title="Folk psychology">Folk psychology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flynn_effect" title="Flynn effect">Flynn effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wason_selection_task" title="Wason selection task">Wason selection task</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motor_control" title="Motor control">Motor control</a>/<a href="/wiki/Motor_skill" title="Motor skill">skill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_multitasking" title="Human multitasking">Multitasking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_sleep" title="Neuroscience of sleep">Sleep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Visual perception</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" title="Evolution of the eye">Eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_physics" title="Naïve physics">Naïve physics</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_and_culture" title="Evolutionary psychology and culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_aesthetics" title="Evolutionary aesthetics">Aesthetics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Darwinian_literary_studies" title="Darwinian literary studies">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_musicology" title="Evolutionary musicology">Musicology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosocial_criminology" title="Biosocial criminology">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_linguistics" title="Evolutionary linguistics">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_language" title="Evolutionary psychology of language">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_foundations_theory" title="Moral foundations theory">Moral foundations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Universals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_developmental_psychology" title="Evolutionary developmental psychology">Development</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_theory" title="Attachment theory">Attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_bonding" title="Human bonding">Bonding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affectional_bond" title="Affectional bond">Affectional</a>/<a href="/wiki/Maternal_bond" title="Maternal bond">maternal</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paternal_bond" title="Paternal bond">paternal bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_deprivation" title="Maternal deprivation">Caregiver deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_children" title="Attachment in children">Childhood attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinderella_effect" title="Cinderella effect">Cinderella effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_development" title="Cognitive development">Cognitive development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_educational_psychology" title="Evolutionary educational psychology">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_development" title="Personality development">Personality development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">Socialization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Human factors</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychiatry" title="Evolutionary psychiatry">Mental health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_ergonomics" title="Cognitive ergonomics">Cognitive ergonomics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-mediated_communication" title="Computer-mediated communication">Computer-mediated communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_psychology" title="Engineering psychology">Engineering psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_interaction" title="Human–computer interaction">Human–computer interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_naturalness_theory" title="Media naturalness theory">Media naturalness theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroergonomics" title="Neuroergonomics">Neuroergonomics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_approaches_to_depression" title="Evolutionary approaches to depression">Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Accident-proneness" title="Accident-proneness">Hypophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imprinted_brain_hypothesis" title="Imprinted brain hypothesis">Imprinted brain hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind-blindness" title="Mind-blindness">Mind-blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_effects_of_Internet_use" title="Psychological effects of Internet use">Psychological effects of Internet use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rank_theory_of_depression" title="Rank theory of depression">Rank theory of depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_schizophrenia" title="Evolution of schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_time" title="Screen time">Screen time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smartphones_and_pedestrian_safety" title="Smartphones and pedestrian safety">Smartphones and pedestrian safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_television" title="Social aspects of television">Social aspects of television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Societal_effects_of_cars" title="Societal effects of cars">Societal effects of cars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distracted_driving" title="Distracted driving">Distracted driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93crime_hypothesis" title="Lead–crime hypothesis">Lead–crime hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobile_phones_and_driving_safety" title="Mobile phones and driving safety">Mobile phones and driving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texting_while_driving" title="Texting while driving">Texting while driving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">Sex</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attachment_in_adults" title="Attachment in adults">Adult attachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_arousal" title="Sexual arousal">Arousal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concealed_ovulation" title="Concealed ovulation">Concealed ovulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolidge_effect" title="Coolidge effect">Coolidge effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_desire" title="Sexual desire">Desire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_fantasy" title="Sexual fantasy">Fantasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_hormones_on_sexual_motivation" title="Effects of hormones on sexual motivation">Hormonal motivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_jealousy" title="Sexual jealousy">Jealousy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mate_guarding_in_humans" title="Mate guarding in humans">Mate guarding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_preferences" title="Mating preferences">Mating preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_mating_strategies" title="Human mating strategies">Mating strategies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_sexual_orientation" title="Biology and sexual orientation">Orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovulatory_shift_hypothesis" title="Ovulatory shift hypothesis">Ovulatory shift hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pair_bond" title="Pair bond">Pair bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_attractiveness" title="Physical attractiveness">Physical</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sexual_attraction" title="Sexual attraction">Sexual attraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_male_sexuality" title="Human male sexuality">male</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_female_sexuality" title="Human female sexuality">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexy_son_hypothesis" title="Sexy son hypothesis">Sexy son hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westermarck_effect" title="Westermarck effect">Westermarck effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_psychology" title="Sex differences in psychology">Sex differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">Aggression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_and_gender_differences_in_autism" title="Sex and gender differences in autism">Autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_cognition" title="Sex differences in cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_crime" title="Sex differences in crime">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_division_of_labour" title="Sexual division of labour">Division of labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_emotional_intelligence" title="Sex differences in emotional intelligence">Emotional intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empathising%E2%80%93systemising_theory" title="Empathising–systemising theory">Empathising–systemising theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_intelligence" title="Sex differences in intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_memory" title="Sex differences in memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_disorders_and_gender" title="Mental disorders and gender">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_narcissism" title="Sex differences in narcissism">Narcissism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_differences_in_schizophrenia" title="Sex differences in schizophrenia">Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">Substance abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variability_hypothesis" title="Variability hypothesis">Variability hypothesis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academic disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_economics" title="Behavioral economics">Behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_economics" title="Evolutionary economics">evolutionary economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_epigenetics" title="Behavioral epigenetics">Behavioral epigenetics</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioural_genetics" title="Behavioural genetics">genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affective_neuroscience" title="Affective neuroscience">Affective</a>/<a href="/wiki/Behavioral_neuroscience" title="Behavioral neuroscience">behavioral</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cognitive_neuroscience" title="Cognitive neuroscience">cognitive</a>/<a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_neuroscience" title="Evolutionary neuroscience">evolutionary neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biolinguistics" title="Biolinguistics">Biolinguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_psychiatry" title="Biological psychiatry">Biological psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">Cognitive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethology" title="Ethology">Ethology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biology" title="Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">Functional psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuropsychology" title="Neuropsychology">Neuropsychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociobiology" title="Sociobiology">Sociobiology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">Cultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human%E2%80%93animal_communication" title="Human–animal communication">Human–animal communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_heritability_problem" title="Missing heritability problem">Missing heritability problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unit_of_selection" title="Unit of selection">Unit of selection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coevolution" title="Coevolution">Coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_group_selection" title="Cultural group selection">Cultural group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual_inheritance_theory" title="Dual inheritance theory">Dual inheritance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_selection" title="Group selection">Group selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hologenome_theory_of_evolution" title="Hologenome theory of evolution">Hologenome theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Acquired_characteristic" title="Acquired characteristic">acquired characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">Population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_complex" title="Species complex">Species complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance" title="Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance">Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trivers%E2%80%93Willard_hypothesis" title="Trivers–Willard hypothesis">Trivers–Willard hypothesis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical positions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_selection_theory" title="Cultural selection theory">Cultural selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Indeterminism" title="Indeterminism">indeterminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_determinism" title="Biological determinism">Biological determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connectionism" title="Connectionism">Connectionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_versus_nurture" title="Nature versus nurture">Nature versus nurture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinism" title="Social determinism">Social determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_social_science_model" title="Standard social science model">Standard social science model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memetics" title="Memetics">Memetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilineal_evolution" title="Multilineal evolution">Multilineal evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">Neo-Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoevolutionism" title="Neoevolutionism">Neoevolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">Sociocultural evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unilineal_evolution" title="Unilineal evolution">Unilineal evolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_evolutionary_psychologists" title="List of evolutionary psychologists">Evolutionary psychologists</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evolutionary_psychology" title="Category:Evolutionary psychology">Evolutionary psychology</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" 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