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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body_modification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Body modification</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body_modification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Voluntary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Voluntary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Voluntary</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Voluntary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gender-affirming_surgery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gender-affirming_surgery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.1</span> <span>Gender-affirming surgery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gender-affirming_surgery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nontherapeutic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nontherapeutic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2</span> <span>Nontherapeutic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nontherapeutic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Opposition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Opposition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2.1</span> <span>Opposition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Opposition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intersex" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intersex"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1.2.2</span> <span>Intersex</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intersex-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_sexual_violence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_sexual_violence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>As sexual violence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_sexual_violence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>As treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Self-inflicted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Self-inflicted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Self-inflicted</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Self-inflicted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Female</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Female-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Female subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Female-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Female_genital_mutilation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_genital_mutilation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Female genital mutilation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Female_genital_mutilation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hymenorrhaphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hymenorrhaphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hymenorrhaphy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hymenorrhaphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labia_stretching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labia_stretching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Labia stretching</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labia_stretching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vulvoplasty_and_vaginoplasty" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vulvoplasty_and_vaginoplasty"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Vulvoplasty and vaginoplasty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vulvoplasty_and_vaginoplasty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clitoral_enlargement_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clitoral_enlargement_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Clitoral enlargement methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clitoral_enlargement_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clitoral_hood_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clitoral_hood_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Clitoral hood reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clitoral_hood_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Male" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Male"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Male</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Male-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Male subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Male-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Castration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Castration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Castration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Castration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Circumcision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Circumcision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Circumcision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Circumcision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreskin_restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreskin_restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Foreskin restoration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreskin_restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infibulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infibulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Infibulation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infibulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emasculation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emasculation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Emasculation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emasculation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pearling" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pearling"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Pearling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pearling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penectomy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penectomy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Penectomy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penectomy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penis_enlargement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penis_enlargement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Penis enlargement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penis_enlargement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penis_reduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penis_reduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.9</span> <span>Penis reduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penis_reduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penile_subincision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penile_subincision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.10</span> <span>Penile subincision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penile_subincision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penile_superincision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penile_superincision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.11</span> <span>Penile superincision</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penile_superincision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Genital modification and mutilation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%87%D8%A7" title="تعديل الأعضاء التناسلية وتشويهها – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تعديل الأعضاء التناسلية وتشويهها" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%86ndringer_og_leml%C3%A6stelser_af_k%C3%B8nsorganer" title="Ændringer og lemlæstelser af kønsorganer – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ændringer og lemlæstelser af kønsorganer" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilaci%C3%B3n_sexual" title="Mutilación sexual – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Mutilación sexual" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B5%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D9%88_%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%82%D8%B5_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اصلاح و ناقص کردن دستگاه تناسلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اصلاح و ناقص کردن دستگاه تناسلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilation_g%C3%A9nitale" title="Mutilation génitale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Mutilation génitale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilaci%C3%B3n_xenital" title="Mutilación xenital – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Mutilación xenital" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B9%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87%D9%87%D8%A7" title="تعديل الاعضاء التناسليه وتشويهها – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="تعديل الاعضاء التناسليه وتشويهها" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutila%C3%A7%C3%A3o_sexual" title="Mutilação sexual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Mutilação sexual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutilare_genital%C4%83" title="Mutilare genitală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Mutilare genitală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modifikimi_dhe_gjymtimi_i_organeve_gjenitale" title="Modifikimi dhe gjymtimi i organeve gjenitale – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Modifikimi dhe gjymtimi i organeve gjenitale" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naisten_sukupuolielinten_silpominen" title="Naisten sukupuolielinten silpominen – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Naisten sukupuolielinten silpominen" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nsstympning" title="Könsstympning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Könsstympning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3309852#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nullo_(body_modification)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Nullo (body modification)">Nullo (body modification)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Permanent or temporary changes to human sex organs</div> <p><b>Genital modifications</b> are forms of <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">body modifications</a> applied to the <a href="/wiki/Human_sex_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Human sex organs">human sexual organs</a>. When there's cutting involved, <b>genital cutting</b> or <b><a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a></b> can be used. The term <b>genital enhancement</b> seem to be generally used for genital modifications that modify the external aspect, the way the patient wants it.<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <b>genital mutilation</b> is used for genital modifications that drastically diminish the recipient's <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> and result in <a href="/wiki/Adverse_health_outcome" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse health outcome">adverse health outcomes</a>, whether <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">physical or mental</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reasons">Reasons</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Reasons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body_modification">Body modification</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Body modification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">Body modification</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Voluntary">Voluntary</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Voluntary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many types of genital modification are performed at the behest of the individual, for personal, sexual, aesthetic or cultural reasons. </p><p>Social acceptance for male intimate cosmetic surgery seem to have happened around the 2010s, decades after other types of cosmetic surgeries.<sup id="cite_ref-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Penile_subincision" title="Penile subincision">Penile subincision</a>, or splitting of the underside of the penis, is widespread in the traditional cultures of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australian" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Australian">Indigenous Australians</a>. This procedure has taken root in Western <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">body modification</a> culture, the <a href="/wiki/Modern_primitive" title="Modern primitive">modern primitives</a>. <a href="/wiki/Meatotomy" title="Meatotomy">Meatotomy</a> is a form that involves splitting of the <a href="/wiki/Glans_penis" title="Glans penis">glans penis</a> alone, while bisection is a more extreme form that splits the penis entirely in half. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg/220px-Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg/330px-Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg/440px-Clit_piercing_and_mons_pubis_tattoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Woman with <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_piercing" title="Clitoral hood piercing">clitoral hood piercing</a>  – Taiwan, 2009</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Genital_piercing" title="Genital piercing">Genital piercings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genital_tattooing" title="Genital tattooing">genital tattooing</a> may be performed for aesthetic reasons, but piercings can have the benefit of increasing <a href="/wiki/Sexual_pleasure" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual pleasure">sexual pleasure</a> for the pierced individual or their <a href="/wiki/Sex_partner" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex partner">sex partners</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-expressmilwaukee_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-expressmilwaukee-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Pearling_(body_modification)" title="Pearling (body modification)">pearling</a> involves surgical insertion of small, inert spheres under the skin along the shaft of the penis for the purpose of providing sexual stimulation to the walls of the vagina. Similar to tattooing, <a href="/wiki/Scarification" title="Scarification">genital scarification</a> is primarily done for aesthetic reasons by adding decorative scars to the skin. The genital decoration by scars is an ancient tradition in many cultures, both for men and women.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Clitoris_enlargement" class="mw-redirect" title="Clitoris enlargement">Clitoris enlargement</a> may be achieved temporarily through the use of a <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_pump" title="Clitoral pump">clitoral pump</a>, or it may be achieved permanently through the <a href="/wiki/Testosterone_(medication)" title="Testosterone (medication)">application or injection of testosterone</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penis_enlargement" title="Penis enlargement">Penis enlargement</a> is a term for various techniques used to attempt to increase the size of the penis, though the safety and efficacy of these techniques are debated. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Gender-affirming_surgery">Gender-affirming surgery</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Gender-affirming surgery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">Gender-affirming surgery</a></div> <p>People who are <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> may undergo <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">gender-affirming surgery</a> to alter their genitals to match their <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>. Not all transgender people elect to have these surgeries. </p><p>Some of the surgical procedures are <a href="/wiki/Vaginoplasty" title="Vaginoplasty">vaginoplasty</a> (creation of a vagina) and <a href="/wiki/Vulvoplasty" title="Vulvoplasty">vulvoplasty</a> (creation of a vulva) for <a href="/wiki/Trans_women" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans women">trans women</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metoidioplasty" title="Metoidioplasty">metoidioplasty</a> (elongation of the clitoris), <a href="/wiki/Phalloplasty" title="Phalloplasty">phalloplasty</a> (creation of a penis), and <a href="/wiki/Scrotoplasty" title="Scrotoplasty">scrotoplasty</a> (creation of a scrotum) for <a href="/wiki/Trans_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans men">trans men</a>. Trans women may also benefit from <a href="/wiki/Hair_removal" title="Hair removal">hair removal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Facial_feminization_surgery" title="Facial feminization surgery">facial feminization surgery</a>, while some trans men may have <a href="/wiki/Liposuction" title="Liposuction">liposuction</a> to remove fat deposits around their hips and thighs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> <a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">Hijra</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Third_gender" title="Third gender">third gender</a> found in the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a>, may opt to undergo <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, a child's gender may be reassigned due to <a href="/wiki/Genital_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Genital injury">genital injury</a>, including <a href="/wiki/David_Reimer" title="David Reimer">David Reimer</a>, who was the subject of <a href="/wiki/John_Money" title="John Money">John Money</a>'s John/Joan case.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Nontherapeutic">Nontherapeutic</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Nontherapeutic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following types of unvoluntary genital cutting or surgery can be done on children, for nontherapeutic (medically unncessary) reasons:<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> clitoral reduction surgeries on children with CAH,<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> hypospadias surgeries,<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> removal of internal gonads<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> and penile circumcision.<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup> In some societies, other types of <a href="/wiki/Endosex" title="Endosex">endosex</a> girl genital cutting happen.<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 22">: 22 </span></sup> They can be done for <a href="/wiki/Psychosocial" title="Psychosocial">psychosocial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural">cultural</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">subjective-aesthetic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic_surgery" title="Prophylactic surgery">prophylactic</a> perceived benefits, as judged by doctors or parents.<sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1">: 1 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 17">: 17 </span></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 22">: 22 </span></sup> </p> <blockquote><p>Consequently, the hard-won protections that have been put in place for girls with anatomically normative genitalia, and now increasingly for children with certain intersex traits, will not be secure against objections and countervailing pressures as long as nonvoluntary clitoral reduction surgeries on children with CAH, “cosmetic” hypospadias surgeries, medically unnecessary removal of internal gonads, and nontherapeutic, nonreligious penile circumcision of newborns continue in healthcare settings unrestricted.<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 24">: 24 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Opposition">Opposition</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Opposition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_rights" title="Children's rights">Children's rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Bodily integrity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversies" title="Circumcision controversies">Circumcision controversies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethics_of_circumcision" title="Ethics of circumcision">Ethics of circumcision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_and_law" title="Circumcision and law">Circumcision and law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></div> <p>The Brussels collaboration on <a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Bodily integrity</a> is made up of "physicians, ethicists, nurse-midwives, public health professionals, legal scholars, human rights advocates, political scientists, anthropologists, psychologists, sexologists, sociologists, philosophers, and feminists from Africa, Asia, Australasia, Europe, the Middle East, and the Americas with interdisciplinary or experiential expertise in child genital cutting practices across a wide range of cultural contexts".<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 42">: 42 </span></sup> </p><p> In its second statement, it says: </p><blockquote><p>therefore, that as a matter of justice, inclusivity, and gender equality in medical-ethical policy (we do not take a position as to criminal law), clinicians should not be permitted to perform any nonvoluntary genital cutting or surgery in prepubescent minors, irrespective of the latter’s sex traits or gender assignment, unless urgently necessary to protect their physical health.<sup id="cite_ref-BCBI2024_7-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BCBI2024-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 1">: 1 </span></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Intersex">Intersex</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Intersex"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Sex_assignment" title="Sex assignment">Sex assignment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intersex_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Intersex surgery">Intersex surgery</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_intersex_surgery" title="History of intersex surgery">History of intersex surgery</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a> children and children with ambiguous genitalia may be subjected to surgeries to "normalize" the appearance of their genitalia. </p><p>These surgeries are usually performed for cosmetic benefit rather than for therapeutic reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most surgeries involving children with ambiguous genitalia are sexually damaging and may render them <a href="/wiki/Infertile" class="mw-redirect" title="Infertile">infertile</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in cases involving male children with <a href="/wiki/Micropenis" title="Micropenis">micropenis</a>, doctors may recommend the child be reassigned as female.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Intersex_Society_of_North_America" title="Intersex Society of North America">Intersex Society of North America</a> objects to <a href="/wiki/Elective_surgery" title="Elective surgery">elective surgeries</a> performed on people without their <a href="/wiki/Informed_consent" title="Informed consent">informed consent</a> on grounds that such surgeries subject patients to unnecessary harm and risk.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_sexual_violence">As sexual violence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: As sexual violence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Genital mutilation is common in some situations of war or armed conflict, with perpetrators using violence against the genitals of men, women, and non-binary people.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These different forms of <a href="/wiki/Sexual_violence" title="Sexual violence">sexual violence</a> can terrorize targeted individuals and communities, prevent individuals from reproducing, and cause tremendous pain and psychological anguish for victims. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_treatment">As treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: As treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If the genitals become diseased, as in the case of cancer, sometimes the diseased areas are surgically removed. Females may undergo <a href="/wiki/Vaginectomy" title="Vaginectomy">vaginectomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vulvectomy" title="Vulvectomy">vulvectomy</a> (to the vagina and vulva, respectively), while males may undergo <a href="/wiki/Penectomy" title="Penectomy">penectomy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Orchiectomy" title="Orchiectomy">orchiectomy</a> (removal of the penis and testicles, respectively). <a href="/wiki/Reconstructive_surgery" title="Reconstructive surgery">Reconstructive surgery</a> may be performed to restore what was lost, often with techniques similar to those used in <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">gender-affirming surgery</a>. </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">episiotomy</a> (cutting part of the tissue between the vagina and the anus) is sometimes performed to increase the amount of space through which the baby may emerge. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hymenotomy" title="Hymenotomy">Hymenotomy</a> is the surgical perforation of an <a href="/wiki/Imperforate_hymen" title="Imperforate hymen">imperforate hymen</a>. It may be performed to allow <a href="/wiki/Menstruation" title="Menstruation">menstruation</a> to occur. An adult individual may opt for increasing the size of her hymenal opening, or removal of the hymen altogether, to facilitate <a href="/wiki/Sexual_penetration" title="Sexual penetration">sexual penetration</a> of her vagina.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Self-inflicted">Self-inflicted</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Self-inflicted"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Self-mutilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-mutilation">Self-mutilation</a></div> <p>A person may engage in self-inflicted genital injury or mutilation such as <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penectomy" title="Penectomy">penectomy</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Clitoridectomy" title="Clitoridectomy">clitoridectomy</a>. The motivation behind such actions vary widely; it may be done due personal crisis related to <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Self-mutilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-mutilation">self-mutilation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Body_dysmorphia" class="mw-redirect" title="Body dysmorphia">body dysmorphia</a>, or social reasons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">Social determinants of health in poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">Social determinants of mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Discrimination against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusory_superiority" title="Illusory superiority">Illusory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigraynization" title="Tigraynization">Tigraynization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Ethnic/<a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">national</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Negrophobia">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020s_anti-LGBTQ_movement_in_the_United_States" title="2020s anti-LGBTQ movement in the United States">Anti-LGBTQ movement in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/21st-century_anti-trans_movement_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="21st-century anti-trans movement in the United Kingdom">Anti-trans movement in the UK</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a></li> <li>Genital modification and mutilation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_killed_for_being_transgender" title="List of people killed for being transgender">List of people killed for being transgender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Transphobia in the US House of Representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Category:Female_genital_modification" title="Category:Female genital modification">Category:Female genital modification</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Female_genital_mutilation">Female genital mutilation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Female genital mutilation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg/260px-FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg/390px-FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg/520px-FGM_prevalence_UNICEF_2016.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="1248" /></a><figcaption>FGM in Africa, Iraqi Kurdistan and Yemen, as of 2015 (<a href="/wiki/Special:FilePath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg" title="Special:FilePath/AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg">map of Africa</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-UNICEF2016_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNICEF2016-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a> (FGM), also known as female genital cutting (FGC), female circumcision, or female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C), refers to "all procedures involving partial or total removal of the <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">external female genitalia</a> or other surgery of the female <a href="/wiki/Sex_organ" title="Sex organ">genital organs</a> whether for cultural, religious or other non-therapeutic reasons."<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is not the same as the procedures used in <a href="/wiki/Gender-affirming_surgery" title="Gender-affirming surgery">gender-affirming surgery</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Genital_modification" class="mw-redirect" title="Genital modification">genital modification</a> of <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a> persons. </p><p>It is practised in several parts of the world, but the practice is concentrated more heavily in Africa, parts of the Middle East, and some other parts of Asia. Over 125 million women and girls have experienced FGM in the 29 countries in which it is concentrated.<sup id="cite_ref-125million_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125million-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over eight million have been <a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">infibulated</a>, a practice found largely in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia and Sudan.<sup id="cite_ref-Yoder2008p13_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yoder2008p13-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Infibulation, the most extreme form of FGM (known as Type III), consists of the removal of the inner and outer labia and closure of the vulva, while a small hole is left for the passage of urine and menstrual blood; afterwards the vagina will be opened after the wedding for sexual intercourse and childbirth (see <a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">episiotomy</a>). In the past several decades, efforts have been made by global health organizations, such as the WHO, to end the practice. FGM is condemned by international human rights organizations. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_preventing_and_combating_violence_against_women_and_domestic_violence" class="mw-redirect" title="Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence">Istanbul Convention</a> prohibits FGM (Article 38).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>FGM is considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">violence against women</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Elimination_of_Violence_Against_Women" title="Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women">Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women</a>, which was adopted by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in 1993; it states: "Article Two: Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following: (a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including ... female genital mutilation ...".<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, because of its importance in traditional life, it continues to be practised in many societies.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hymenorrhaphy">Hymenorrhaphy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hymenorrhaphy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hymenorrhaphy" title="Hymenorrhaphy">Hymenorrhaphy</a></div> <p>Hymenorrhaphy refers to the practice of thickening the hymen, or, in some cases, implanting a capsule of red liquid within the newly created vaginal tissue. This new hymen is created to cause physical resistance, blood, or the appearance of blood, at the time that the individual's new husband inserts his penis into her vagina. This is done in cultures where a high value is placed on female <a href="/wiki/Virginity" title="Virginity">virginity</a> at the time of marriage. In these cultures, a woman may be punished, perhaps violently, if the community leaders deem that she was not a virgin when her marriage was <a href="/wiki/Consummate" class="mw-redirect" title="Consummate">consummated</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Individuals who are victims of <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, who were virginal at the time of their rape, may elect for hymenorrhaphy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labia_stretching">Labia stretching</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Labia stretching"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Labia_stretching" title="Labia stretching">Labia stretching</a></div> <p>Labia stretching is the act of elongating the <i><a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">labia minora</a></i> through manual manipulation (pulling) or physical equipment (such as weights).<sup id="cite_ref-Rwanda_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rwanda-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enlargement_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enlargement-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a familial <a href="/wiki/Cultural_practice" title="Cultural practice">cultural practice</a> in Rwanda,<sup id="cite_ref-Rwanda_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rwanda-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> common in <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-who_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-who-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">body modification</a> practice elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-enlargement_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enlargement-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is performed for sexual enhancement of both partners, aesthetics, symmetry and gratification.<sup id="cite_ref-Rwanda_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rwanda-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-enlargement_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-enlargement-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vulvoplasty_and_vaginoplasty">Vulvoplasty and vaginoplasty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Vulvoplasty and vaginoplasty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Vulvoplasty" title="Vulvoplasty">vulvoplasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vaginoplasty" title="Vaginoplasty">vaginoplasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg/220px-Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg/330px-Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg/440px-Nach_der_Entfernung_der_inneren_Schamlippen_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1183" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Vulva with <i>labia minora</i> surgically removed</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cosmetic_surgery" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmetic surgery">Cosmetic surgery</a> of female genitalia, known as <i>elective genitoplasty</i>, has become pejoratively known as <i>"designer vagina"</i>. In May 2007, an article published in the <i><a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a></i> strongly criticised this craze, citing its popularity being rooted in commercial and media influences.<sup id="cite_ref-bb_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bb-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bmj_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bmj-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar concerns have been expressed in Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-bb_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bb-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some women undergo vaginoplasty or vulvoplasty procedures to alter the shape of their <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulvas</a> to meet personal or societal <a href="/wiki/Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic">aesthetic</a> standards.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Perfect_Vagina_Documentary_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Perfect_Vagina_Documentary-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The surgery itself is controversial, and critics refer to the procedures as "designer vagina".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the article Designer Vaginas by Simone Weil Davis, she talks about the modification of woman's vagina and the outside influences women are pressured with, which can cause them to feel shame towards their <a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">labia minora</a>. She states that the media, such as pornography, creates an unhealthy view of what a "good looking vagina" is and how women feel that their privates are inferior and are therefore pressured to act upon that mindset. These insecurities are forced upon women by their partners and other women as well.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also leading to a surge of these types of procedures is increased interest in non-surgical genital alterations, such as Brazilian waxing, that make the vulva more visible to judgment. The incentive to participate in vulvo- and vaginoplasty may also come about in an effort to manage women's physical attributes and their sexual behavior, treating their vagina as something needing to be managed or controlled and ultimately deemed "acceptable".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clitoral_enlargement_methods">Clitoral enlargement methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Clitoral enlargement methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_enlargement_methods" title="Clitoral enlargement methods">Clitoral enlargement methods</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clitoral_hood_reduction">Clitoral hood reduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Clitoral hood reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_reduction" title="Clitoral hood reduction">Clitoral hood reduction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg/260px-Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg/390px-Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg/520px-Clitoral_hood_reduction_in_adult_caucasian_female.jpg 2x" data-file-width="675" data-file-height="505" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_reduction" title="Clitoral hood reduction">Clitoral hood reduction</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Clitoral hood reduction is a form of hoodplasty. When performed with the consent of the adult individual, it can be considered an <a href="/wiki/Elective_surgery" title="Elective surgery">elective</a> <a href="/wiki/Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">plastic surgery</a> procedure for reducing the size and the area of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood" title="Clitoral hood">clitoral hood</a> (prepuce) in order to further expose the <a href="/wiki/Clitoris#Glans" title="Clitoris">glans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Clitoris" title="Clitoris">clitoris</a>; the therapeutic goal is thought to improve the sexual functioning of the woman, and the aesthetic appeal of her <a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">vulva</a>. The reduction of the clitoral prepuce tissues usually is a sub-ordinate surgery within a <a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty" title="Labiaplasty">labiaplasty</a> procedure for reducing the <a href="/wiki/Labia_minora" title="Labia minora">labia minora</a>; and occasionally within a <a href="/wiki/Vaginoplasty" title="Vaginoplasty">vaginoplasty</a> procedure. When these procedures are performed on individuals without their consent, they are considered a form of <a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">female genital mutilation</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Male">Male</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Male"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable selfref">See also: <a href="/wiki/Category:Male_genital_modification" title="Category:Male genital modification">Category:Male genital modification</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Castration">Castration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Castration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">Castration</a></div> <p>Castration in the genital modification and mutilation context is the removal of the <a href="/wiki/Testicles" class="mw-redirect" title="Testicles">testicles</a>. Occasionally the term is also used to refer to <a href="#penectomy">penis removal</a>, but that is less common. Castration has been performed in many cultures throughout history, but is now rare. It should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Chemical_castration" title="Chemical castration">chemical castration</a>. </p><p>The removal of one testicle (sometimes referred to as <i>unilateral castration</i>) is usually done in the modern world only for medical reasons. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Circumcision">Circumcision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Circumcision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Undue_weight plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-undue-weight" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit">help improve it</a> by rewriting it in a <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Balance" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">balanced fashion</a></b> that contextualizes different points of view.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_surgical_procedure" title="Circumcision surgical procedure">Circumcision surgical procedure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversies" title="Circumcision controversies">Circumcision controversies</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg/330px-Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg/495px-Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg/660px-Adult_circumcision_before_and_after.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6528" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Penis before and after circumcision</figcaption></figure><p>Circumcision is the removal of the <a href="/wiki/Foreskin" title="Foreskin">foreskin</a>, the double-layered fold of skin, mucosal and muscular tissue at the distal end of the human penis.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around half of all circumcisions worldwide are performed for reasons of <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">preventive healthcare</a>; half for religious or cultural reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-hay_2012_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hay_2012-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:73_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:73-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Circumcision involves either a conventional "cut and stitch" <a href="/wiki/Surgical_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical procedure">surgical procedure</a> or use of a circumcision <a href="/wiki/Surgical_instrument" title="Surgical instrument">instrument</a> or <a href="/wiki/Medical_device" title="Medical device">device</a>. Complications are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-williams_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-krill_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krill-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern proponents say that circumcision reduces the risks of a range of infections and diseases and confers sexual benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AAP_Statement_2012_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP_Statement_2012-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents, particularly of routine neonatal circumcision, question its preventive efficacy and object to subjecting non-consenting newborn males to a procedure that is potentially harmful, in their view, with little to no benefit, as well as violating their human rights and possibly negatively impacting their sex life.<sup id="cite_ref-AAP_Critique_2013_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AAP_Critique_2013-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a consensus among the world's major medical organizations and in the academic literature that circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention in high-risk populations if carried out by medical professionals under safe conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-WHO-PrevHIV_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WHO-PrevHIV-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chikutsa-2015_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chikutsa-2015-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They hold variant perspectives on the prophylactic efficacy of the elective circumcision of minors in <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed nations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreskin_restoration">Foreskin restoration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Foreskin restoration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Foreskin_restoration" title="Foreskin restoration">Foreskin restoration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png/220px-Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png/330px-Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png/440px-Forward_and_Right_View_of_Foreskin_Restoration.png 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Circumcised at birth, the foreskin has been restored over years of foreskin restoration.</figcaption></figure> <p>Foreskin restoration is the partial recreation of the <a href="/wiki/Foreskin" title="Foreskin">foreskin</a> after its removal by <a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">circumcision</a>. </p><p>Surgical restoration involves grafting skin taken from the <a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">scrotum</a> onto a portion of the penile shaft. Nonsurgical methods involve <a href="/wiki/Tissue_expansion" title="Tissue expansion">tissue expansion</a> by stretching the penile skin forward over the <a href="/wiki/Glans_penis" title="Glans penis">glans penis</a> with the aid of <a href="/wiki/Tension_(physics)" title="Tension (physics)">tension</a>. Nonsurgical restoration is the preferred method as it is less costly and typically yields better results than surgical restoration. A foreskin restoration device may be of help to men pursuing nonsurgical foreskin restoration. While restoration cannot recreate the nerves or tissues lost to circumcision, it can recreate the appearance and some of the function of a natural foreskin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infibulation">Infibulation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Infibulation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infibulation" title="Infibulation">Infibulation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anacreon_infibulated.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anacreon_infibulated.jpg/220px-Anacreon_infibulated.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anacreon_infibulated.jpg/330px-Anacreon_infibulated.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Anacreon_infibulated.jpg/440px-Anacreon_infibulated.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>The Greek poet <a href="/wiki/Anacreon" title="Anacreon">Anacreon</a> (582–485 BC), showing <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kynodesme" title="Kynodesme">kynodesmē</a></i></span></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Infibulation</i> literally means "to close with a clasp or a pin.” The word is used to include <a href="/wiki/Surgical_suture" title="Surgical suture">suturing</a> of the foreskin over the <a href="/wiki/Glans_penis" title="Glans penis">head of the penis</a>. </p><p>Early Greek infibulation consisted of tying the most distal portion of the foreskin with <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kynodesme" title="Kynodesme">kynodesme</a></i></span> to conceal the glans. The kynodesme was also used by the Etruscans and Romans (ligatura praeputii), but the Romans preferred to apply a gold, silver, or bronze ring (<i>annulus</i>), a metal clasp (<i>fibula</i>) or pin.<sup id="cite_ref-Schultheiss_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schultheiss-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern times, male infibulation may be performed for personal preferences or as part of <a href="/wiki/BDSM" title="BDSM">BDSM</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Emasculation">Emasculation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Emasculation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Emasculation" title="Emasculation">Emasculation</a></div> <p>Emasculation is the removal of both the <a href="/wiki/Penis" title="Penis">penis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">testicles</a>, the external <a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">male sex organs</a>. It differs from <a href="/wiki/Castration" title="Castration">castration</a>, which is the removal of the testicles only, although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably. </p><p>Genital nullification is a procedure practiced in a <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">body modification</a> subculture made up mostly of men who have had their genitals surgically removed. Those undergoing the procedure often go by the name of nullos, and are not necessarily <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> or <a href="/wiki/Non-binary_gender" title="Non-binary gender">nonbinary</a>; some identify as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DeMello2007_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DeMello2007-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>nullo</i> is short for <i>genital nullification</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-gizm_TheM_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gizm_TheM-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Though the procedure is mostly sought by men, female genital mutilation may be referred to as clitoral nullification.<sup id="cite_ref-Harrington2016_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harrington2016-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In modern-day <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, some members of <a href="/wiki/Hijra_(South_Asia)" title="Hijra (South Asia)">hijra</a> communities reportedly undergo emasculation. It is called <i>nirwaan</i> and seen as a <a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">rite of passage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It was part of the eunuch-making of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_court&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chinese court (page does not exist)">Chinese court</a>, and it was widespread in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_slave_trade" title="Arab slave trade">Arab slave trade</a>. A castrated slave was worth more, and this offset the losses from death.<sup id="cite_ref-Gordon_1989_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gordon_1989-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pearling">Pearling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Pearling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pearling_(body_modification)" title="Pearling (body modification)">Pearling (body modification)</a></div> <p>Pearling or genital beading is a form of body modification, the practice of permanently inserting small beads made of various materials beneath the skin of the genitals—of the labia, or of the shaft or foreskin of the penis. As well as being an aesthetic practice, this is usually intended to enhance the sexual pleasure of the receptive partner(s) during vaginal or anal intercourse. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penectomy">Penectomy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Penectomy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Penectomy" title="Penectomy">Penectomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penis_removal" title="Penis removal">Penis removal</a></div> <p>Penectomy involves the partial or total amputation of penis. Sometimes, the removal of the entire penis was done in conjunction with castration, or incorrectly referred to as castration. Removing the penis was often performed on <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> and high ranking men who would frequently be in contact with women, such as those belonging to a <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harem</a>. The hijra of India may remove their penis as an expression of their <a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">gender identity</a>. In the medical field, removal of the penis may be performed for reasons of <a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">gangrene</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>. Penis removal may occur through unintentional genital injury, such as during routine neonatal circumcision mishaps.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Ulwaluko" title="Ulwaluko">ulwaluko</a> circumcision ceremony, which is performed by spear, accidental penectomy is a serious risk.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Penis_removal" title="Penis removal">Penis removal</a> for purposes of assault or revenge is overwhelmingly a female-on-male crime,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> particularly in <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In the United States In 1907 <a href="/wiki/Bertha_Boronda" title="Bertha Boronda">Bertha Boronda</a> sliced off her husband's penis with a straight razor.<sup id="cite_ref-Bobbit_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bobbit-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/John_and_Lorena_Bobbitt" title="John and Lorena Bobbitt">Lorena Bobbit</a> infamously removed her husband's penis in 1993. In the latter case, the use of <a href="/wiki/Microsurgery" title="Microsurgery">microsurgery</a> was able to reattach Bobbitt's penis.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penis_enlargement">Penis enlargement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Penis enlargement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penis_enlargement" title="Penis enlargement">Penis enlargement</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penis_reduction">Penis reduction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Penis reduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penis_reduction" title="Penis reduction">Penis reduction</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penile_subincision">Penile subincision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Penile subincision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Penile_subincision" title="Penile subincision">Penile subincision</a></div> <p>Penile subincision is a form of genital modification involves a <a href="/wiki/Urethrotomy" title="Urethrotomy">urethrotomy</a> and vertically slitting the underside of the penis from the <a href="/wiki/Urinary_meatus" title="Urinary meatus">meatus</a> towards to the base. It was performed by people of some cultures, such as the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Indigenous Australians</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arrernte_people" title="Arrernte people">Arrente</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Luritja" title="Luritja">Luritja</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Samburu_people" title="Samburu people">Samburu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Samoans" title="Samoans">Samoans</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Native Hawaiians</a>. It may also be performed for personal preference. Penile subincision may leave a man with an increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted diseases">sexually transmitted diseases</a>, issues with fertility (due to lack of control over what direction the sperm goes after <a href="/wiki/Ejaculation" title="Ejaculation">ejaculation</a>), and may require a man to sit down while <a href="/wiki/Urination" title="Urination">urinating</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the surgery is not performed in a hospital or by a licensed medical professional, complications such as infection, <a href="/wiki/Exsanguination" title="Exsanguination">exsanguination</a>, or permanent damage are major concerns. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penile_superincision">Penile superincision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Penile superincision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A rectal slit (also known as superincision) is an incision made along the upper length of the foreskin with the intention to expose the <a href="/wiki/Glans_penis" title="Glans penis">glans penis</a> without removing skin or tissue. </p><p>The practice appears to have occurred in Ancient Egypt, though not commonly: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A few examples of <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Kingdom">Old Kingdom</a> ... statuary present some adult males—usually priests, functionaries, or low-status workers—as having undergone a vertical slit on the dorsal aspect of the prepuce, although no flesh has been removed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hodges_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hodges-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>It may be performed as a part of traditional customs, such as those in the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Islands">Pacific Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>. In the medical field, it may be performed for as an alternative to circumcision when circumcision is undesired or impractical. It remains a rare surgery and practice overall. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cosmeticmalegenitalsurgery2023_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDaninoTrouilloudBenkhadraDanino2023" class="citation journal cs1">Danino, Michel Alain; 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Steven; Taher, Mariya; Tangwa, Godfrey B.; Thomson, Michael; Townsend, Kate Goldie; Travis, Mitchell; Van Howe, Robert S.; Vash-Margita, Alla; Verhagen, Emmanuelle; Vilponen, Tiina; Villani, Michela; Viloria, Hida; Vintiadis, Elly; Virgili, Tommaso; Vissandjée, Bilkis; Ungar-Sargon, Eliyahu; Wahlberg, Anna; Wald, Rebecca; Walsh, Reubs J.; Weisenberg, Desmond; Wenger, Hannah; Wisdom, Travis; Zelayandia, Ernesto; Ziemińska, Renata; Zieselman, Kimberly; Ziyada, Mai Mahgoub (17 July 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/15265161.2024.2353823">"Genital Modifications in Prepubescent Minors: When May Clinicians Ethically Proceed?"</a>. <i>The American Journal of Bioethics</i>: 50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F15265161.2024.2353823">10.1080/15265161.2024.2353823</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11590%2F474747">11590/474747</a></span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 October</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Bioethics&rft.atitle=Genital+Modifications+in+Prepubescent+Minors%3A+When+May+Clinicians+Ethically+Proceed%3F&rft.pages=50&rft.date=2024-07-17&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11590%2F474747&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F15265161.2024.2353823&rft.aulast=Abdulcadir&rft.aufirst=Jasmine&rft.au=Adler%2C+Peter+W.&rft.au=Almonte%2C+Melanie+T.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+Frank+W.+J.&rft.au=Arguedas-Ram%C3%ADrez%2C+Gabriela&rft.au=Aulisio%2C+Mark+P.&rft.au=Bader%2C+Dina&rft.au=Balashinsky%2C+David&rft.au=Baratz%2C+Arlene+B.&rft.au=Bari%C5%9F%2C+Maide&rft.au=Bauer%2C+Greta&rft.au=Behrensen%2C+Maren&rft.au=Ben-Yami%2C+Hanoch&rft.au=Boddy%2C+Janice&rft.au=Bootwala%2C+Yasmin&rft.au=Bowman-Smart%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Bruce%2C+Lori&rft.au=Buckler%2C+Max&rft.au=Cabral+Grinspan%2C+Mauro&rft.au=Cannoot%2C+Pieter&rft.au=Carpenter%2C+Morgan&rft.au=Catto%2C+Marie-Xavi%C3%A8re&rft.au=Catal%C3%A1n%2C+Mois%C3%A9s&rft.au=Chambers%2C+Clare&rft.au=Chapin%2C+Georganne&rft.au=Chegwidden%2C+James&rft.au=Christian+Ghattas%2C+Dan&rft.au=Clough%2C+Sharyn&rft.au=Conroy%2C+Ron%C3%A1n+M.&rft.au=Dabbagh%2C+Hossein&rft.au=Dalke%2C+Katharine+B.&rft.au=Dalli%C3%A8re%2C+Sophie&rft.au=Danon%2C+Limor+Meoded&rft.au=Davis%2C+Dena+S.&rft.au=Davis%2C+Georgiann&rft.au=Dawson%2C+Angela+J.&rft.au=DeLaet%2C+Debra+L.&rft.au=Dranseika%2C+Vilius&rft.au=DuBoff%2C+Max&rft.au=Dwyer%2C+James+G.&rft.au=Earp%2C+Brian+D.&rft.au=Esho%2C+Tammary&rft.au=Ess%C3%A9n%2C+Birgitta&rft.au=Fahmy%2C+Mohamed+A.+Baky&rft.au=Feder%2C+Ellen+K.&rft.au=Ferreira%2C+Nuno&rft.au=Fillod%2C+Odile&rft.au=Florquin%2C+St%C3%A9phanie&rft.au=Fold%C3%A8s%2C+Pierre&rft.au=Fox%2C+Marie&rft.au=Frisch%2C+Morten&rft.au=Fusaschi%2C+Michela&rft.au=Garland%2C+Fae&rft.au=Geisheker%2C+John&rft.au=Gheaus%2C+Anca&rft.au=Gim%C3%A9nez+Barbat%2C+Teresa&rft.au=Levin+Freifrau+von+Gleichen%2C+Tobe&rft.au=Godwin%2C+Samantha&rft.au=Goldman%2C+Ronald&rft.au=Gonzalez-Polledo%2C+E.+J.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+Jenny&rft.au=Gradilla%2C+Alexandro+Jos%C3%A9&rft.au=Gruenbaum%2C+Ellen&rft.au=Gwaambuka%2C+Tatenda&rft.au=Hatem-Gantzer%2C+Ghada&rft.au=Hakim%2C+M.&rft.au=Hammond%2C+Tim&rft.au=Hannikainen%2C+Ivar+R.&rft.au=van+der+Have%2C+Miriam&rft.au=Herbenick%2C+Debby&rft.au=Higashi%2C+Yuko&rft.au=Hill%2C+B.+Jessie&rft.au=Johansen%2C+R.+Elise+B.&rft.au=Johari%2C+Aarefa&rft.au=Johnson-Agbakwu%2C+Crista&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Matthew+T.&rft.au=Kimani%2C+Samue&rft.au=Komba%2C+Eva&rft.au=Kolak%2C+Julia&rft.au=Koukoui%2C+Sophia&rft.au=Kraus%2C+Cynthia&rft.au=Latham%2C+Stephen+R.&rft.au=Laurent%2C+Bo&rft.au=Learner%2C+Hazel&rft.au=Lempert%2C+Antony&rft.au=Lenta%2C+Patrick&rft.au=Lesslar%2C+Olivia&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Liao%2C+Lih-Mei&rft.au=Lorshbough%2C+Erika&rft.au=Lurenbaum%2C+Jean-Christophe&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+Noni+E.&rft.au=McAllister%2C+Ryan&rft.au=Meddings%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Merli%2C+Claudia&rft.au=Mertens%2C+Mayli&rft.au=Milos%2C+Marilyn&rft.au=Mishori%2C+Ranit&rft.au=Monro%2C+Surya&rft.au=Moss%2C+Lisa+Braver&rft.au=Munzer%2C+Stephen+R.&rft.au=Nazri%2C+Hannah+M.&rft.au=Ncayiyana%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Neiders%2C+Ivars&rft.au=Ngosso%2C+Lond%C3%A9&rft.au=Nguena%2C+Marianne&rft.au=van+Niekerk%2C+Anton+A.&rft.au=Nobis%2C+Nathan&rft.au=Oduor%2C+Alphonce+Odhiambo&rft.au=O%E2%80%99Neill%2C+Sarah&rft.au=Ottenheimer%2C+Deborah&rft.au=Paalanen%2C+Panda&rft.au=Palacios-Gonz%C3%A1lez%2C+C%C3%A9sar&rft.au=Qing%2C+Xin&rft.au=Radcliffe+Richards%2C+Janet&rft.au=Ramus%2C+Franck&rft.au=Rashid+Khan%2C+Abdul&rft.au=Ray%2C+Saarrah&rft.au=Reis%2C+Elizabeth&rft.au=Reis-Dennis%2C+Samuel&rft.au=Remennick%2C+Larissa&rft.au=Richard%2C+Fabienne&rft.au=Roen%2C+Katrina&rft.au=Rubashkyn%2C+Eliana&rft.au=Sarajlic%2C+Eldar&rft.au=Sardi%2C+Lauren&rft.au=Schuklenk%2C+Udo&rft.au=Shahvisi%2C+Arianne&rft.au=Shaw%2C+David&rft.au=Sinden%2C+Guy&rft.au=Sidler%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Skitka%2C+Linda&rft.au=Somerville%2C+Margaret+A.&rft.au=Sterckx%2C+Sigrid&rft.au=Svoboda%2C+J.+Steven&rft.au=Taher%2C+Mariya&rft.au=Tangwa%2C+Godfrey+B.&rft.au=Thomson%2C+Michael&rft.au=Townsend%2C+Kate+Goldie&rft.au=Travis%2C+Mitchell&rft.au=Van+Howe%2C+Robert+S.&rft.au=Vash-Margita%2C+Alla&rft.au=Verhagen%2C+Emmanuelle&rft.au=Vilponen%2C+Tiina&rft.au=Villani%2C+Michela&rft.au=Viloria%2C+Hida&rft.au=Vintiadis%2C+Elly&rft.au=Virgili%2C+Tommaso&rft.au=Vissandj%C3%A9e%2C+Bilkis&rft.au=Ungar-Sargon%2C+Eliyahu&rft.au=Wahlberg%2C+Anna&rft.au=Wald%2C+Rebecca&rft.au=Walsh%2C+Reubs+J.&rft.au=Weisenberg%2C+Desmond&rft.au=Wenger%2C+Hannah&rft.au=Wisdom%2C+Travis&rft.au=Zelayandia%2C+Ernesto&rft.au=Ziemi%C5%84ska%2C+Renata&rft.au=Zieselman%2C+Kimberly&rft.au=Ziyada%2C+Mai+Mahgoub&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Fepdf%2F10.1080%2F15265161.2024.2353823&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"David Reimer, 38, Subject of the John/Joan Case" <a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">The New York Times</a>, New York, US, Published May 12, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isna.org/node/97">ISNA's Amicus Brief on Intersex Genital Surgery</a> <a href="/wiki/Intersex_Society_of_North_America" title="Intersex Society of North America">The Intersex Society of North America</a>, Dated February 7, 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karen S Vogt, MD, Michael J Bourgeois, MD, Arlan L Rosenbloom, MD, Mary L Windle, PharmD, George. P Chrousos, MD, FAAP, MACP, MACE, FRCP, Merrily P M Poth, MD, Stephen Kemp, MD, PhD <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/923178-overview#a0199">Microphallus: Epidemiology</a> <a href="/wiki/Medscape" title="Medscape">Medscape</a>, Updated August 3, 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.isna.org/faq/surgery">"What's ISNA's position on surgery?"</a>. <i>Intersex Society of North America</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Intersex+Society+of+North+America&rft.atitle=What%27s+ISNA%27s+position+on+surgery%3F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.isna.org%2Ffaq%2Fsurgery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEichert2019" class="citation journal cs1">Eichert, David (2019). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Homosexualization' Revisited: An Audience-Focused Theorization of Wartime Male Sexual Violence". <i>International Feminist Journal of Politics</i>. <b>21</b> (3): 409–433. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14616742.2018.1522264">10.1080/14616742.2018.1522264</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:150313647">150313647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Feminist+Journal+of+Politics&rft.atitle=%27Homosexualization%27+Revisited%3A+An+Audience-Focused+Theorization+of+Wartime+Male+Sexual+Violence&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=409-433&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14616742.2018.1522264&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A150313647%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eichert&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPuriHöllwarth2009" class="citation book cs1">Puri, Prem; Höllwarth, Michael E. (2009). <i>Pediatric surgery: diagnosis and management</i>. Berlin New York: Springer. p. 963. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-69560-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-69560-8"><bdi>978-3-540-69560-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pediatric+surgery%3A+diagnosis+and+management&rft.place=Berlin+New+York&rft.pages=963&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-540-69560-8&rft.aulast=Puri&rft.aufirst=Prem&rft.au=H%C3%B6llwarth%2C+Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlumenthalBerek2013" class="citation book cs1">Blumenthal, Paul D.; Berek, Jonathan S. 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Wolters Kluwer Health. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781451153897" title="Special:BookSources/9781451153897"><bdi>9781451153897</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Practical+Guide+to+Office+Gynecologic+Procedures&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Wolters+Kluwer+Health&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781451153897&rft.aulast=Blumenthal&rft.aufirst=Paul+D.&rft.au=Berek%2C+Jonathan+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNICEF2016-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-UNICEF2016_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#UNICEF2016">UNICEF 2016</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Definition of the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125million-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125million_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 22: "More than 125 million girls and women alive today have been cut in the 29 countries in Africa and the Middle East where FGM/C is concentrated.<p> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 121, n. 62: "This estimate [125 million] is derived from weighted averages of FGM/C prevalence among girls aged 0 to 14 and girls and women aged 15 to 49, using the most recently available DHS, MICS and SHHS data (1997–2012) for the 29 countries where FGM/C is concentrated. The number of girls and women who have been cut was calculated using 2011 demographic figures produced by the UN Population Division ... The number of cut women aged 50 and older is based on FGM/C prevalence in women aged 45 to 49."</p></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yoder2008p13-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Yoder2008p13_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. Stanley Yoder, Shane Khan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/WP39/WP39.pdf">"Numbers of women circumcised in Africa: The Production of a Total"</a>, USAID, DHS Working Papers, No. 39, March 2008, pp. 13–14: "Infibulation is practiced largely in countries located in northeastern Africa: Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan. Survey data are available for Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Djibouti. Sudan alone accounts for about 3.5 million of the women. ... [T]he estimate of the total number of women infibulated in [Djibouti, Somalia, Eritrea, northern Sudan, Ethiopia, Guinea, Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Chad, Nigeria, Cameroon and Tanzania, for women 15–49 years old] comes to 8,245,449, or just over eight million women." Also see Appendix B, Table 2 ("Types of FGC"), p. 19.<p> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">UNICEF 2013</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150405083031/http://www.unicef.org/media/files/FGCM_Lo_res.pdf">Archived</a> 2015-04-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 182, identifies "sewn closed" as most common in Djibouti, Eritrea, Somalia for 15–49 age group (survey in 2000 for Sudan was not included), and for daughters, Djibouti, Eritrea, Niger and Somalia. UNICEF statistical profiles on FGM, showing type of FGM: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_DJI.pdf">Djibouti</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030110609/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_DJI.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (December 2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_ERI.pdf">Eritrea</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030113629/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_ERI.pdf">Archived</a> 2014-10-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (July 2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_SOM.pdf">Somalia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141030114149/http://data.unicef.org/corecode/uploads/document6/uploaded_country_profiles/corecode/30/Countries/FGMC_SOM.pdf">Archived</a> October 30, 2014, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (December 2013).</p><p> <a href="/wiki/Gerry_Mackie" title="Gerry Mackie">Gerry Mackie</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pages.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/MackieASR.pdf">"Ending Footbinding and Infibulation: A Convention Account"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190720061010/http://pages.ucsd.edu/~gmackie/documents/MackieASR.pdf">Archived</a> 2019-07-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>American Sociological Review</i>, 61(6), December 1996 (pp. 999–1017), p. 1002: "Infibulation, the harshest practice, occurs contiguously in Egyptian Nubia, the Sudan, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia, also known as Islamic Northeast Africa."</p></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coe.int/en/web/conventions/full-list/-/conventions/rms/090000168008482e">"Full list"</a>. <i>Treaty Office</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Treaty+Office&rft.atitle=Full+list&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.coe.int%2Fen%2Fweb%2Fconventions%2Ffull-list%2F-%2Fconventions%2Frms%2F090000168008482e&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_General_Assembly" class="citation web cs1">United Nations General Assembly. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm">"A/RES/48/104 – Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women – UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements"</a>. <i>www.un-documents.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.un-documents.net&rft.atitle=A%2FRES%2F48%2F104+%E2%80%93+Declaration+on+the+Elimination+of+Violence+against+Women+%E2%80%93+UN+Documents%3A+Gathering+a+body+of+global+agreements&rft.au=United+Nations+General+Assembly&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.un-documents.net%2Fa48r104.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFnthWORD_Magazine" class="citation web cs1">nthWORD Magazine. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100714011000/http://www.nthword.com/issue5/Interview_Liz_Canner_Orgasm_Inc.php">"nthWORD Magazine Interview with Liz Canner, filmmaker of Orgasm, Inc"</a>. 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"From Vaginal Exception to Exceptional Vagina: The Biopolitics of Female Genital Cosmetic Surgery". <i>Sexualities</i>. <b>15</b> (7): 778–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1363460712454073">10.1177/1363460712454073</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145095068">145095068</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sexualities&rft.atitle=From+Vaginal+Exception+to+Exceptional+Vagina%3A+The+Biopolitics+of+Female+Genital+Cosmetic+Surgery&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=778-94&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1363460712454073&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145095068%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Rodrigues+Sara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:7_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoshaBolnickKoyle2012" class="citation book cs1">Yosha, Assaf; Bolnick, David; Koyle, Martin (2012). <i>Surgical Guide to Circumcision</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Publishing" title="Springer Publishing">Springer Publishing</a>. pp. 256–257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781447128588" title="Special:BookSources/9781447128588"><bdi>9781447128588</bdi></a>. <q>It seems likely that in the near future revised recommendations, taking a more positive attitude to circumcision, are likely in many English-speaking countries. What of the future? Current medical advice and public health projects now underway seem to point to a worldwide increase in circumcision rates in the first half of the twenty-first century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Surgical+Guide+to+Circumcision&rft.pages=256-257&rft.pub=Springer+Publishing&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781447128588&rft.aulast=Yosha&rft.aufirst=Assaf&rft.au=Bolnick%2C+David&rft.au=Koyle%2C+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-hay_2012-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-hay_2012_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHayLevin2012" class="citation book cs1">Hay W, Levin M (25 June 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=V8lMJniWK_QC"><i>Current Diagnosis and Treatment Pediatrics 21/E</i></a>. McGraw Hill Professional. pp. 18–19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-177971-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-177971-5"><bdi>978-0-07-177971-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160118224324/https://books.google.com/books?id=V8lMJniWK_QC">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Current+Diagnosis+and+Treatment+Pediatrics+21%2FE&rft.pages=18-19&rft.pub=McGraw+Hill+Professional&rft.date=2012-06-25&rft.isbn=978-0-07-177971-5&rft.aulast=Hay&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Levin%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DV8lMJniWK_QC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:73-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:73_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlan_GlasperRichardsonRandall2021" class="citation book cs1">Alan Glasper, Edward; Richardson, James; Randall, Duncan (2021). "Promote, Restore, and Stabilise Health Status in Children". <i>A Textbook of Children's and Young People's Nursing</i>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier_Health_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Elsevier Health Sciences">Elsevier Health Sciences</a>. p. 382. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780702065033" title="Special:BookSources/9780702065033"><bdi>9780702065033</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Promote%2C+Restore%2C+and+Stabilise+Health+Status+in+Children&rft.btitle=A+Textbook+of+Children%27s+and+Young+People%27s+Nursing&rft.pages=382&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9780702065033&rft.aulast=Alan+Glasper&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft.au=Richardson%2C+James&rft.au=Randall%2C+Duncan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">About 0.13% in American neonates; Krill AJ, Palmer LS, Palmer JS (2011). "Complications of circumcision". TheScientificWorldJournal. 11: 2458–2468. doi:10.1100/2011/373829. PMC 3253617. PMID 22235177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-williams-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-williams_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliamsKapila1993" class="citation journal cs1">Williams N, Kapila L (October 1993). "Complications of circumcision". <i>The British Journal of Surgery</i>. <b>80</b> (10): 1231–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbjs.1800801005">10.1002/bjs.1800801005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8242285">8242285</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27220497">27220497</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Complications+of+circumcision&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1231-6&rft.date=1993-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27220497%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8242285&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbjs.1800801005&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Kapila%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-krill-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-krill_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrillPalmerPalmer2011" class="citation journal cs1">Krill AJ, Palmer LS, Palmer JS (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3253617">"Complications of circumcision"</a>. <i>TheScientificWorldJournal</i>. <b>11</b>: 2458–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1100%2F2011%2F373829">10.1100/2011/373829</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3253617">3253617</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22235177">22235177</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=TheScientificWorldJournal&rft.atitle=Complications+of+circumcision&rft.volume=11&rft.pages=2458-68&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3253617%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22235177&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1100%2F2011%2F373829&rft.aulast=Krill&rft.aufirst=AJ&rft.au=Palmer%2C+LS&rft.au=Palmer%2C+JS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3253617&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSociety" class="citation web cs1">Society, Canadian Paediatric. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cps.ca/en/documents/position/circumcision">"Newborn male circumcision | Canadian Paediatric Society"</a>. <i>cps.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-06-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cps.ca&rft.atitle=Newborn+male+circumcision+%7C+Canadian+Paediatric+Society&rft.aulast=Society&rft.aufirst=Canadian+Paediatric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcps.ca%2Fen%2Fdocuments%2Fposition%2Fcircumcision&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP_Statement_2012-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAP_Statement_2012_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171107023110/https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/newborn-male-circumcision.aspx">"Newborn Male Circumcision"</a>. American Academy of Pediatrics. 27 August 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aap.org/en-us/about-the-aap/aap-press-room/pages/Newborn-Male-Circumcision.aspx">the original</a> on 7 November 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Newborn+Male+Circumcision&rft.pub=American+Academy+of+Pediatrics&rft.date=2012-08-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aap.org%2Fen-us%2Fabout-the-aap%2Faap-press-room%2Fpages%2FNewborn-Male-Circumcision.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AAP_Critique_2013-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AAP_Critique_2013_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAigrainBarauskasBjarnasonBoddy2013" class="citation journal cs1">Aigrain, Yves; Barauskas, Vidmantas; Bjarnason, Ragnar; Boddy, Su-Anna; Czauderna, Piotr; de Gier, Robert P.E.; de Jong, Tom P.V.M.; Fasching, Günter; Fetter, Willem; Gahr, Manfred; Graugaard, Christian; Greisen, Gorm; Gunnarsdottir, Anna; Hartmann, Wolfram; Havranek, Petr; Hitchcock, Rowena; Huddart, Simon; Janson, Staffan; Jaszczak, Poul; Kupferschmid, Christoph; Lahdes-Vasama, Tuija; Lindahl, Harry; MacDonald, Noni; Markestad, Trond; Märtson, Matis; Nordhov, Solveig Marianne; Pälve, Heikki; Petersons, Aigars; Quinn, Feargal; Qvist, Niels; Rosmundsson, Thrainn; Saxen, Harri; Söder, Olle; Stehr, Maximilian; von Loewenich, Volker C.H.; Wallander, Johan; Wijnen, Rene (April 2013). <a href="/wiki/Morten_Frisch" title="Morten Frisch">Frisch, Morten</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/4/796.full">"Cultural Bias in the AAP's 2012 Technical Report and Policy Statement on Male Circumcision"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Pediatrics_(journal)" title="Pediatrics (journal)">Pediatrics</a></i>. <b>131</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Pediatrics" title="American Academy of Pediatrics">American Academy of Pediatrics</a>: 796–800. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-2896">10.1542/peds.2012-2896</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23509170">23509170</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40444911">40444911</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200106180615/https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/content/131/4/796.full">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 January</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pediatrics&rft.atitle=Cultural+Bias+in+the+AAP%27s+2012+Technical+Report+and+Policy+Statement+on+Male+Circumcision&rft.volume=131&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=796-800&rft.date=2013-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A40444911%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23509170&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1542%2Fpeds.2012-2896&rft.aulast=Aigrain&rft.aufirst=Yves&rft.au=Barauskas%2C+Vidmantas&rft.au=Bjarnason%2C+Ragnar&rft.au=Boddy%2C+Su-Anna&rft.au=Czauderna%2C+Piotr&rft.au=de+Gier%2C+Robert+P.E.&rft.au=de+Jong%2C+Tom+P.V.M.&rft.au=Fasching%2C+G%C3%BCnter&rft.au=Fetter%2C+Willem&rft.au=Gahr%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Graugaard%2C+Christian&rft.au=Greisen%2C+Gorm&rft.au=Gunnarsdottir%2C+Anna&rft.au=Hartmann%2C+Wolfram&rft.au=Havranek%2C+Petr&rft.au=Hitchcock%2C+Rowena&rft.au=Huddart%2C+Simon&rft.au=Janson%2C+Staffan&rft.au=Jaszczak%2C+Poul&rft.au=Kupferschmid%2C+Christoph&rft.au=Lahdes-Vasama%2C+Tuija&rft.au=Lindahl%2C+Harry&rft.au=MacDonald%2C+Noni&rft.au=Markestad%2C+Trond&rft.au=M%C3%A4rtson%2C+Matis&rft.au=Nordhov%2C+Solveig+Marianne&rft.au=P%C3%A4lve%2C+Heikki&rft.au=Petersons%2C+Aigars&rft.au=Quinn%2C+Feargal&rft.au=Qvist%2C+Niels&rft.au=Rosmundsson%2C+Thrainn&rft.au=Saxen%2C+Harri&rft.au=S%C3%B6der%2C+Olle&rft.au=Stehr%2C+Maximilian&rft.au=von+Loewenich%2C+Volker+C.H.&rft.au=Wallander%2C+Johan&rft.au=Wijnen%2C+Rene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fpediatrics.aappublications.org%2Fcontent%2F131%2F4%2F796.full&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarren2010" class="citation book cs1">Warren, John (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2wYabLqzbFEC&pg=PA75">"Physical Effects of Circumcision"</a>. In Denniston, George C.; Hodges, Frederick M.; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marilyn_Milos&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marilyn Milos (page does not exist)">Milos, Marilyn Fayre</a> (eds.). <i>Genital Autonomy: Protecting Personal Choice</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Springer-Verlag" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer-Verlag">Springer-Verlag</a>. pp. 75–79. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-90-481-9446-9_7">10.1007/978-90-481-9446-9_7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9446-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-481-9446-9"><bdi>978-90-481-9446-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200806031140/https://books.google.com/books?id=2wYabLqzbFEC&pg=PA75">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Physical+Effects+of+Circumcision&rft.btitle=Genital+Autonomy%3A+Protecting+Personal+Choice&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=75-79&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-90-481-9446-9_7&rft.isbn=978-90-481-9446-9&rft.aulast=Warren&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2wYabLqzbFEC%26pg%3DPA75&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvoboda2013" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Steven_Svoboda" title="J. Steven Svoboda">Svoboda, J. Steven</a> (July 2013). "Circumcision of male infants as a human rights violation". <i>Journal of Medical Ethics</i>. <b>39</b> (7): 469–474. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fmedethics-2012-101229">10.1136/medethics-2012-101229</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1473-4257">1473-4257</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23698885">23698885</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:7461936">7461936</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=Circumcision+of+male+infants+as+a+human+rights+violation&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=469-474&rft.date=2013-07&rft.issn=1473-4257&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A7461936%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23698885&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fmedethics-2012-101229&rft.aulast=Svoboda&rft.aufirst=J.+Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO-PrevHIV-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WHO-PrevHIV_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-000854-0">"Preventing HIV Through Safe Voluntary Medical Male Circumcision For Adolescent Boys And Men In Generalized HIV Epidemics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211122140037/https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/978-92-4-000854-0">Archived</a> from the original on 22 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Preventing+HIV+Through+Safe+Voluntary+Medical+Male+Circumcision+For+Adolescent+Boys+And+Men+In+Generalized+HIV+Epidemics&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fpublications%2Fi%2Fitem%2F978-92-4-000854-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chikutsa-2015-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chikutsa-2015_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For sources on this, see: <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChikutsaMaharaj2015" class="citation journal cs1">Chikutsa A, Maharaj P (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4489047">"Social representations of male circumcision as prophylaxis against HIV/AIDS in Zimbabwe"</a>. <i>BMC Public Health</i>. <b>15</b> (1): 603. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12889-015-1967-z">10.1186/s12889-015-1967-z</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1471-2458">1471-2458</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4489047">4489047</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26133368">26133368</a>. <q>It is now generally accepted in public health spheres that medical male circumcision is efficacious in the prevention of HIV infection.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Social+representations+of+male+circumcision+as+prophylaxis+against+HIV%2FAIDS+in+Zimbabwe&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=603&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4489047%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1471-2458&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26133368&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs12889-015-1967-z&rft.aulast=Chikutsa&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Maharaj%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4489047&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2016" class="citation book cs1">Bell K (2016). <i>Health and Other Unassailable Values: Reconfigurations of Health, Evidence and Ethics</i>. Taylor & Francis. p. 106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-48203-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-48203-1"><bdi>978-1-317-48203-1</bdi></a>. <q>...defending the casual relation between male circumcision and reduced HIV transmission has become essentially hegemonic in the academic literature.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Health+and+Other+Unassailable+Values%3A+Reconfigurations+of+Health%2C+Evidence+and+Ethics&rft.pages=106&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-317-48203-1&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMersonInrig2017" class="citation book cs1">Merson M, Inrig S (2017). <i>The AIDS Pandemic: Searching for a Global Response</i>. <a href="/wiki/Springer_International_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer International Publishing">Springer International Publishing</a>. p. 379. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-47133-4"><bdi>978-3-319-47133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+AIDS+Pandemic%3A+Searching+for+a+Global+Response&rft.pages=379&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-3-319-47133-4&rft.aulast=Merson&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Inrig%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchoen1997" class="citation journal cs1">Schoen, Edgar J. (1997-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://adc.bmj.com/content/77/3/258">"Benefits of newborn circumcision: is Europe ignoring medical evidence?"</a>. <i>Archives of Disease in Childhood</i>. <b>77</b> (3): 258–260. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fadc.77.3.258">10.1136/adc.77.3.258</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9888">0003-9888</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1717326">1717326</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9370910">9370910</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Disease+in+Childhood&rft.atitle=Benefits+of+newborn+circumcision%3A+is+Europe+ignoring+medical+evidence%3F&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=258-260&rft.date=1997-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1717326%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0003-9888&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9370910&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fadc.77.3.258&rft.aulast=Schoen&rft.aufirst=Edgar+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fadc.bmj.com%2Fcontent%2F77%2F3%2F258&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schultheiss-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schultheiss_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD._SchultheissJ.J._MattelaerF.M._Hodges2003" class="citation journal cs1">D. 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Hodges (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1464-410X.2003.04490.x">"Preputial infibulation: from ancient medicine to modern genital piercing"</a>. <i>BJU International</i>. <b>92</b> (7): 758–763. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1464-410X.2003.04490.x">10.1046/j.1464-410X.2003.04490.x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14616462">14616462</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:8855134">8855134</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BJU+International&rft.atitle=Preputial+infibulation%3A+from+ancient+medicine+to+modern+genital+piercing&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=758-763&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A8855134%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14616462&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1464-410X.2003.04490.x&rft.au=D.+Schultheiss&rft.au=J.J.+Mattelaer&rft.au=F.M.+Hodges&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1046%252Fj.1464-410X.2003.04490.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeMello2007-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DeMello2007_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMargo_DeMello2007" class="citation book cs1">Margo DeMello (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s0122BsqrZwC&pg=PA57"><i>Encyclopedia of Body Adornment</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. pp. 57–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33695-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33695-9"><bdi>978-0-313-33695-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Body+Adornment&rft.pages=57-&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33695-9&rft.au=Margo+DeMello&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds0122BsqrZwC%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gizm_TheM-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gizm_TheM_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnibbs2015" class="citation web cs1">Knibbs, Kate (2015-05-14). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gizmodo.com/the-most-extreme-body-hacks-that-actually-change-your-p-1704056851">"The Most Extreme Body Hacks That Actually Change Your Physical Abilities"</a>. <i>Gizmodo</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Mystic Productions Press. pp. 23–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-942733-83-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-942733-83-6"><bdi>978-1-942733-83-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Traversing+Gender%3A+Understanding+Transgender+Realities&rft.pages=23-&rft.pub=Mystic+Productions+Press&rft.date=2016-05-01&rft.isbn=978-1-942733-83-6&rft.au=Lee+Harrington&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPBMHDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nanda, S. "Hijras: An Alternative Sex and Gender Role in India (in Herdt, G. 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"Total ablation of the penis after circumcision with electrocautery: A method of management and long-term followup". <i>The Journal of Urology</i>. <b>142</b> (3): 799–801. <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:10.1016/S0022-5347(17)38893-6. <a href="/wiki/PubMed_Identifier" class="mw-redirect" title="PubMed Identifier">PMID</a> 2769863</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rijken, D.J. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ulwaluko.co.za/Problems.html">Description of the problems accompanying the ritual of Ulwaluko</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211003000555/http://www.ulwaluko.co.za/Problems.html">Archived</a> 2021-10-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Ulwaluko.co.za. Retrieved 2014-03-28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bobbit-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bobbit_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1993-11-30-9311300561-story.html">"Bobbitt's Amputation Case Similar to a 1907 Account"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Orlando_Sentinel" title="Orlando Sentinel">Orlando Sentinel</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/San_Jose_Mercury_News" class="mw-redirect" title="San Jose Mercury News">San Jose Mercury News</a>. 30 November 1993<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 November</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Orlando+Sentinel&rft.atitle=Bobbitt%27s+Amputation+Case+Similar+to+a+1907+Account&rft.date=1993-11-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orlandosentinel.com%2Fnews%2Fos-xpm-1993-11-30-9311300561-story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEffronDooley" class="citation web cs1">Effron, Lauren; Dooley, Sean. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/US/john-bobbitts-surgeons-describe-day-reattached-penis-us/story?id=60023142">"John Bobbitt's surgeons describe the day they reattached his penis: 'It came to us… in a hot dog bag'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>ABC News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-04-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=John+Bobbitt%27s+surgeons+describe+the+day+they+reattached+his+penis%3A+%27It+came+to+us%E2%80%A6+in+a+hot+dog+bag%27&rft.aulast=Effron&rft.aufirst=Lauren&rft.au=Dooley%2C+Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fabcnews.go.com%2FUS%2Fjohn-bobbitts-surgeons-describe-day-reattached-penis-us%2Fstory%3Fid%3D60023142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wiki.bme.com/index.php?title=Meatotomy">"Meatotomy – BME Encyclopedia"</a>. <i>wiki.bme.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-12-13</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=wiki.bme.com&rft.atitle=Meatotomy+%E2%80%93+BME+Encyclopedia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwiki.bme.com%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DMeatotomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hodges-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hodges_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHodges2001" class="citation journal cs1">Hodges, Frederick M. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cirp.org/library/history/hodges2/">"The Ideal Prepuce in Ancient Greece and Rome: Male Genital Aesthetics and Their Relation to Lipodermos, Circumcision, Foreskin Restoration, and the Kynodesme"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_History_of_Medicine" title="Bulletin of the History of Medicine">The Bulletin of the History of Medicine</a></i>. <b>75</b> (Fall 2001): 375–405. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fbhm.2001.0119">10.1353/bhm.2001.0119</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11568485">11568485</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:29580193">29580193</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-02-06</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Bulletin+of+the+History+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Ideal+Prepuce+in+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome%3A+Male+Genital+Aesthetics+and+Their+Relation+to+Lipodermos%2C+Circumcision%2C+Foreskin+Restoration%2C+and+the+Kynodesme&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=Fall+2001&rft.pages=375-405&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A29580193%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11568485&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fbhm.2001.0119&rft.aulast=Hodges&rft.aufirst=Frederick+M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cirp.org%2Flibrary%2Fhistory%2Fhodges2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGenital+modification+and+mutilation" class="Z3988"></span> Hodges draws a strong distinction between the kynodesme and infibulation " Tethering the <i>akroposthion</i> with the <i>kynodesme</i> is frequently confused with preputial infibulation, which had different objectives and was achieved by surgically piercing the prepuce and using the holes so created for the insertion of a metal clasp (fibula) in order to fasten the prepuce shut."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Genital_modification_and_mutilation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 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surgery</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oophorectomy" title="Oophorectomy">Oophorectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salpingoophorectomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Salpingoophorectomy">Salpingoophorectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fallopian_tube" title="Fallopian tube">Fallopian tubes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Falloposcopy" title="Falloposcopy">Falloposcopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salpingectomy" title="Salpingectomy">Salpingectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_ligation" title="Tubal ligation">Tubal ligation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essure" title="Essure">Essure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_reversal" title="Tubal reversal">Tubal reversal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><span class="nobold"><i>General:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitoplasty" title="Genitoplasty">Genitoplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterectomy" title="Hysterectomy">Hysterectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterotomy" title="Hysterotomy">Hysterotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_exenteration" title="Pelvic exenteration">Pelvic exenteration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_artery_embolization" title="Uterine artery embolization">Uterine artery embolization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uterus_transplantation" title="Uterus transplantation">Transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Uterine_cavity" title="Uterine cavity">Uterine cavity</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hysteroscopy" title="Hysteroscopy">Hysteroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_aspiration" title="Vacuum aspiration">Vacuum aspiration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Endometrium" title="Endometrium">Endometrium</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_biopsy" title="Endometrial biopsy">Endometrial biopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endometrial_ablation" title="Endometrial ablation">Endometrial ablation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Myometrium" title="Myometrium">Myometrium</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterine_myomectomy" title="Uterine myomectomy">Uterine myomectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: transparent;"><span class="nobold"><i><a href="/wiki/Cervix" title="Cervix">Cervix</a>:</i></span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colposcopy" title="Colposcopy">Colposcopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_conization" title="Cervical conization">Cervical conization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loop_electrical_excision_procedure" title="Loop electrical excision procedure">LEEP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_cerclage" title="Cervical cerclage">Cervical cerclage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervical_screening" title="Cervical screening">Cervical screening</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pap_test" title="Pap test">pap test</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cervicectomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cervicectomy">Cervicectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessary" title="Pessary">Pessary</a> insertion</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaginectomy" title="Vaginectomy">Vaginectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culdoscopy" title="Culdoscopy">Culdoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culdocentesis" title="Culdocentesis">Culdocentesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episiotomy" title="Episiotomy">Episiotomy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_husband_stitch" class="mw-redirect" title="The husband stitch">husband stitch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymenotomy" title="Hymenotomy">Hymenotomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colpocleisis" title="Colpocleisis">Colpocleisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymenorrhaphy" title="Hymenorrhaphy">Hymenorrhaphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_wet_mount" title="Vaginal wet mount">Vaginal wet mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginal_transplantation" title="Vaginal transplantation">Vaginal transplantation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulvectomy" title="Vulvectomy">Vulvectomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labiaplasty" title="Labiaplasty">Labiaplasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitoral_hood_reduction" title="Clitoral hood reduction">Clitoral hood reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestibulectomy" title="Vestibulectomy">Vestibulectomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">Medical imaging</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gynecologic_ultrasonography" title="Gynecologic ultrasonography">Gynecologic ultrasonography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterosalpingography" title="Hysterosalpingography">Hysterosalpingography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_reproductive_health" title="Template talk:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_reproductive_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human reproductive health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Sexual_and_reproductive_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_rights" title="Reproductive rights">Rights</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Reproductive Justice">Reproductive Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraceptive_security" title="Contraceptive security">Contraceptive security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion-rights_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="Abortion-rights movements">Abortion-rights movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodily_integrity#Genital_integrity" title="Bodily integrity">Genital integrity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision_controversies" title="Circumcision controversies">Circumcision controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_education" title="Sex education">Sex education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_counseling" title="Genetic counseling">Genetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-conception_counseling" title="Pre-conception counseling">Pre-conception counseling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Planning</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_childlessness" title="Voluntary childlessness">Childfreeness</a>/<a href="/wiki/Childlessness" title="Childlessness">childlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_spacing" title="Birth spacing">Birth spacing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenting" title="Parenting">Parenting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoption" title="Adoption">adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster_care" title="Foster care">foster care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_theft" class="mw-redirect" title="Sperm theft">Sperm theft</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Birth_Control" class="mw-redirect" title="Birth Control">Contraception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hormonal_contraception" title="Hormonal contraception">Hormonal contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_contraceptive" title="Male contraceptive">Male contraception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">Condom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intrauterine_device" title="Intrauterine device">Intrauterine device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(medicine)" title="Sterilization (medicine)">Sterilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Assisted_reproductive_technology" title="Assisted reproductive technology">Assisted<br />reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro_fertilization" class="mw-redirect" title="In vitro fertilization">In vitro fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intracytoplasmic_sperm_injection" title="Intracytoplasmic sperm injection">ICSI</a></li> <li>Gamete Cryopreservation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oocyte_cryopreservation" title="Oocyte cryopreservation">Egg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semen_cryopreservation" title="Semen cryopreservation">Sperm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sperm_bank" title="Sperm bank">Sperm bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertility_fraud" title="Fertility fraud">fertility fraud</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_health" title="Men's health">Men's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health">Women's</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vulvovaginal_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulvovaginal health">vulvovaginal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Research <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Self-report_sexual_risk_behaviors" title="Self-report sexual risk behaviors">self-report sexual risk behaviors</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy" title="Pregnancy">Pregnancy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unintended_pregnancy" title="Unintended pregnancy">Unintended pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childbirth" title="Childbirth">childbirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_options_counseling" title="Pregnancy options counseling">Options counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_from_rape" title="Pregnancy from rape">Pregnancy from rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnant_patients%27_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Pregnant patients' rights">Pregnant patients' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care" title="Prenatal care">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy" title="Teenage pregnancy">Teenage pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Precocious_puberty_and_pregnancy" title="Category:Precocious puberty and pregnancy">Precocious puberty and pregnancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Identity</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gender_identity" title="Gender identity">Gender identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation" title="Sexual orientation">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">Transgender</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Genital modification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Genitourinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and gynaecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_health_care" title="Transgender health care">Transgender health care</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disorders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">Disorders of sex development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">Infertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_system_disease" title="Reproductive system disease">Reproductive system disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">Sexual dysfunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_health_clinic" title="Sexual health clinic">clinic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_dysphoria" title="Gender dysphoria">Gender dysphoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_India" title="Family planning in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Iran" title="Family planning in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contraception_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Contraception in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_Pakistan" title="Family planning in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Responsible_Parenthood_and_Reproductive_Health_Act_of_2012" title="Responsible Parenthood and Reproductive Health Act of 2012">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_planning_in_Singapore" title="Population planning in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United Kingdom">teen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning_in_the_United_States" title="Family planning in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Teenage_pregnancy_in_the_United_States" title="Teenage pregnancy in the United States">teen pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">birth control</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control movement in the United States">Birth control movement in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_condoms" title="History of condoms">History of condoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_reproductive_rights_legislation" title="Timeline of reproductive rights legislation">Timeline of reproductive rights legislation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Policy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/One-child_policy" title="One-child policy">One-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-child_policy" title="Two-child policy">Two-child policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-child_policy" title="Three-child policy">Three-child policy</a></li> <li>Financial <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baby_bonus" title="Baby bonus">baby bonus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_tax" title="Bachelor tax">bachelor tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_benefit" title="Child benefit">child benefit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tax_on_childlessness" title="Tax on childlessness">tax on childlessness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">Abortion law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" 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