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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">St Brice's Day massacre</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 19 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-19" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">19 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCq%C9%99dd%C9%99s_Brays_G%C3%BCn%C3%BC_q%C9%99tliam%C4%B1" title="Müqəddəs Brays Günü qətliamı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Müqəddəs Brays Günü qətliamı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8E%D9%86-%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3_%D9%82%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%BA%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C" title="سَن-برایس قیرغینی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سَن-برایس قیرغینی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyflafan_G%C5%B5yl_Sant_Bricius" title="Cyflafan Gŵyl Sant Bricius – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cyflafan Gŵyl Sant Bricius" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danemordet" title="Danemordet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Danemordet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.-Brice%E2%80%99s-Day-Massaker" title="St.-Brice’s-Day-Massaker – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="St.-Brice’s-Day-Massaker" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masacre_del_D%C3%ADa_de_San_Bricio" title="Masacre del Día de San Bricio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Masacre del Día de San Bricio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakro_de_Sankta_Bricio" title="Masakro de Sankta Bricio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Masakro de Sankta Bricio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D9%86%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B3" title="کشتار سنت برایس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کشتار سنت برایس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_de_la_Saint-Brice" title="Massacre de la Saint-Brice – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Massacre de la Saint-Brice" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1_%EB%B8%8C%EB%A6%AD%EC%8B%9C%EC%98%A4_%EC%B6%95%EC%9D%BC%EC%9D%98_%ED%95%99%EC%82%B4" title="성 브릭시오 축일의 학살 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성 브릭시오 축일의 학살" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacro_del_giorno_di_san_Brizio" title="Massacro del giorno di san Brizio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Massacro del giorno di san Brizio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slachtpartij_op_Sint-Brixius-dag" title="Slachtpartij op Sint-Brixius-dag – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Slachtpartij op Sint-Brixius-dag" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%81%96%E3%83%96%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%81%AE%E6%97%A5%E3%81%AE%E8%99%90%E6%AE%BA" title="聖ブリスの日の虐殺 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="聖ブリスの日の虐殺" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massakrene_p%C3%A5_Sankt_Brictiusdagen" title="Massakrene på Sankt Brictiusdagen – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Massakrene på Sankt Brictiusdagen" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massacre_do_dia_de_S%C3%A3o_Brice" title="Massacre do dia de São Brice – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Massacre do dia de São Brice" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D0%B2_%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Резня в День святого Брайса – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Резня в День святого Брайса" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masakr_na_dan_sv._Bricea" title="Masakr na dan sv. Bricea – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Masakr na dan sv. Bricea" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danemordet" title="Danemordet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Danemordet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D0%A1%D0%B2%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D0%91%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%B0" title="Різанина у день Святого Брайса – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Різанина у день Святого Брайса" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1002 killing of Danes in England</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Viking_invasions_of_England" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-vertical mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output 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style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_Viking_invasions_of_England" title="Template talk:Campaignbox Viking invasions of England"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_Viking_invasions_of_England" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox Viking invasions of England"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Viking_invasions_of_England" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><span style="font-size:91%;"><a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles"><span class="wrap">Viking invasions of England</span></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="font-size:96%;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hingston_Down" title="Battle of Hingston Down">Hingston Down</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a> (865–78)</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aclea" title="Battle of Aclea">Alcea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_York_(867)" title="Battle of York (867)">York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Englefield" title="Battle of Englefield">Englefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Reading_(871)" title="Battle of Reading (871)">Reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ashdown" title="Battle of Ashdown">Ashdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Basing" title="Battle of Basing">Basing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meretun" title="Battle of Meretun">Meretun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chippenham" title="Battle of Chippenham">Chippenham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edington" title="Battle of Edington">Edington/Ethandun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynwit" title="Battle of Cynwit">Cynwit</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">The Danelaw</a> (886–954)</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rochester" title="Battle of Rochester">Rochester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Farnham" title="Battle of Farnham">Farnham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buttington" title="Battle of Buttington">Buttington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(894)" title="Battle of Stamford (894)">First Stamford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benfleet" title="Battle of Benfleet">Benfleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Holme" title="Battle of the Holme">The Holme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tettenhall" title="Battle of Tettenhall">Tettenhall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tempsford" title="Battle of Tempsford">Tempsford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Derby" title="Battle of Derby">Derby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwold%27s_Revolt" title="Æthelwold's Revolt">Æthelwold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(918)" title="Battle of Stamford (918)">Second Stamford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corbridge" title="Battle of Corbridge">Corbridge</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh" title="Battle of Brunanburh">Brunanburh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stainmore" title="Battle of Stainmore">Stainmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Maldon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Alton" title="First Battle of Alton">First Alton</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">St Brice's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinhoe" title="Battle of Pinhoe">Pinhoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Thetford" title="Battle of Thetford">Thetford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ringmere" title="Battle of Ringmere">Ringmere</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Cnut#Conquest_of_England" title="Cnut">Cnut's invasion</a> (1015–16)</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Assandun" title="Battle of Assandun">Assandun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brentford_(1016)" title="Battle of Brentford (1016)">Brentford</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><i><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada#Invasion_of_England" title="Harald Hardrada">Harald's invasion</a> (1066)</i></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northumbrian_Revolt_of_1065" title="Northumbrian Revolt of 1065">Northumbrian Revolt of 1065</a></li> <li><br /><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fulford" title="Battle of Fulford">Fulford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Stamford Bridge</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>St. Brice's Day massacre</b> was a mass killing of <a href="/wiki/Danes_(Germanic_tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danes (Germanic tribe)">Danes</a> within England on 13 November 1002, on the order of King <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a> of England. The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_Chronicle" title="Anglo-Saxon Chronicle">Anglo-Saxon chronicle</a> relates that the massacre was carried out in response to an accusation that the Danes would "beshrew [Æthelred] of his life, and afterwards all his council, and then have his kingdom without any resistance."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King Æthelred thus ordered the killing of many Danes within his territory. The retaliation by the Danish King <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a> over the next few years would earn Æthelred the nickname Æthelred the Ill-Advised (or the Unready). </p><p>The skeletons of 37 young men and juveniles, found during an excavation at <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Oxford" title="St John's College, Oxford">St John's College</a>, Oxford, in 2008 have been assumed to be victims of the massacre.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name (<a href="/wiki/Danish_language" title="Danish language">Danish</a>: <i lang="da">Danemordet, Massakren på Sankt Brictiusdag</i>) refers to <a href="/wiki/Brice_of_Tours" title="Brice of Tours">St. Brice</a>, fifth-century <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Tours" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Tours">Bishop of Tours</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Feast_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Feast day">feast day</a> is 13 November. After several decades of relative peace, Danish raids on English territory began again in earnest in the 980s, becoming markedly more serious in the early 990s. Following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Battle of Maldon</a> in 991, Æthelred paid tribute, or <a href="/wiki/Danegeld" title="Danegeld">Danegeld</a>, to the Danish king.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Æthelred married <a href="/wiki/Emma_of_Normandy" title="Emma of Normandy">Emma of Normandy</a> in 1002, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Richard_I_of_Normandy" title="Richard I of Normandy">Richard I of Normandy</a>; her mother was a Dane named <a href="/wiki/Gunnor" title="Gunnor">Gunnor</a>, and their son was <a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Confessor" title="Edward the Confessor">Edward the Confessor</a>. Some Danes had arrived as traders and intermarried with the Anglo-Saxon population, and some settled in Wessex becoming farmers and were raising families in the Anglo-Saxon controlled areas of England.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oxfordmail_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxfordmail-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, Æthelred's kingdom had been ravaged by Danish raids every year from 997 to 1001; in 1001 a Danish army rampaged across southern England, indiscriminately burning many towns and inflicting a series of defeats on Anglo-Saxon forces that had been raised to oppose them.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_massacre">The massacre</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: The massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1002 Æthelred was told that the Danish men in his territory "would faithlessly take his life, and then all his councillors, and possess his kingdom afterwards". In response, "the king gave an order to slay all the Danes that were in England."<sup id="cite_ref-lavelle_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lavelle-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-oxford_ref_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_ref-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is generally assumed by historians that this decree was not an indiscriminate call for the extermination of England's Danish population, but targeted the belligerent Danish army, recent settlers, and remnants of Æthelred's own mercenary force, some of whom had proved fickle and disloyal by joining the Danish invaders.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the later Norman chronicler <a href="/wiki/William_of_Jumi%C3%A8ges" title="William of Jumièges">William of Jumièges</a> claims that the entire Anglo-Danish population—including men, women, and children—were targeted, modern historians hold this to be a non-contemporary exaggeration,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as there is no contemporary evidence of widespread slaughter, and the 12th century historian <a href="/wiki/Henry_of_Huntingdon" title="Henry of Huntingdon">Henry of Huntington</a> claimed that only Danish men in certain towns and regions were attacked by Æthelred's men.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian Ian Howard assumes that no more than a few hundred Danes were killed, and that the victims were nearly all members of the invading army and their families.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians believe there was noteworthy loss of life, though evidence is lacking on any specific estimates. There are historical records which state that <a href="/wiki/Gunhilde" title="Gunhilde">Gunhilde</a>, the sister of <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a>, the King of Denmark, was a victim along with her husband <a href="/wiki/Pallig" title="Pallig">Pallig Tokesen</a>, the Danish <a href="/wiki/Ealdorman" title="Ealdorman">Ealdorman</a> of <a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devonshire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He had taken part in raids on the south coast.<sup id="cite_ref-mcdonald_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcdonald-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Oxford_massacre">Oxford massacre</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Oxford massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Oxford massacre" redirects here. For the 2021 school shooting in the United States, see <a href="/wiki/Oxford_High_School_shooting" title="Oxford High School shooting">Oxford High School shooting</a>.</div> <p>The massacre in <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> was referred to by Æthelred in a <a href="/wiki/Royal_charter" title="Royal charter">royal charter</a> of 1004 as "a most just extermination" of Danes who had settled and "sprung up in this island". He goes on to proclaim it was with God's aid he rebuilt <a href="/wiki/St_Frideswide" class="mw-redirect" title="St Frideswide">St Frideswide</a>'s Church (now <a href="/wiki/Christ_Church_Cathedral,_Oxford" title="Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford">Christ Church Cathedral</a>): </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>For it is fully agreed that to all dwelling in this country it will be well known that, since a decree was sent out by me with the counsel of my leading men and magnates, to the effect that all the Danes who had sprung up in this island, sprouting like <a href="/wiki/Lolium_temulentum" title="Lolium temulentum">cockle</a> amongst the wheat, were to be destroyed by a most just extermination, and thus this decree was to be put into effect even as far as death, those Danes who dwelt in the afore-mentioned town, striving to escape death, entered this sanctuary of Christ, having broken by force the doors and bolts, and resolved to make refuge and defence for themselves therein against the people of the town and the suburbs; but when all the people in pursuit strove, forced by necessity, to drive them out, and could not, they set fire to the planks and burnt, as it seems, this church with its ornaments and its books. Afterwards, with God's aid, it was renewed by me.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_ac-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During an excavation at <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Oxford" title="St John's College, Oxford">St John's College, Oxford</a>, in 2008, the remains were found of 37 people who had been massacred. All of them appeared to be male, apart from two who were too young for their sex to be identified, and most were aged 16 to 25.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-bbc_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemical analysis carried out in 2012 by <a href="/wiki/University_of_Oxford" title="University of Oxford">Oxford University</a> researchers suggests that the remains are <a href="/wiki/Viking" class="mw-redirect" title="Viking">Viking</a>; older scars on some of the bones suggest a mixture of settlers and "Danes who had sprung up in this island",<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_ac-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including some who had old battle scars; the site's chief archaeologist concluded the victims had no defensive wounds, were unarmed, and were killed while running away from being burned alive in the church, with wounds on the back.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-arch2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The bodies show evidence of multiple serious injuries caused by a range of weapons.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their manner of death was a frenzied attack while defenceless by more than one attacker and from all sides of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-arch_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-arch-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">Radiocarbon dating</a> suggests a burial date of 960 to 1020 AD. Charring on the bones is consistent with historical records of the church burning (see above).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DNA testing of one of the bodies closely matched it with the remains of a man who had been excavated in <a href="/wiki/Otterup" title="Otterup">Otterup</a>, central Denmark, suggesting that they were either half-brothers or uncle and nephew.<sup id="cite_ref-guardian_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guardian-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ridgeway_Hill_Viking_burial_pit" title="Ridgeway Hill Viking burial pit">Ridgeway Hill Viking burial pit</a> near <a href="/wiki/Weymouth,_Dorset" title="Weymouth, Dorset">Weymouth, Dorset</a>, a site dated as being between 970 and 1038 AD discovered when building a new relief road, contained 54 Scandinavian males all beheaded, suggesting a mass execution that may be linked to Oxford and the decree by Æthelred.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_ac-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historians'_views"><span id="Historians.27_views"></span>Historians' views</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Historians' views"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some historians, such as <a href="/wiki/Frank_Stenton" title="Frank Stenton">Frank Stenton</a>, have viewed the massacre as a political act which helped to provoke <a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard#Invasions_of_England" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn's invasion</a> of 1003.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Audrey MacDonald states the massacre eventually led to the accession of <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a> in 1016.<sup id="cite_ref-mcdonald_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcdonald-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Levi Roach states, "These purges bred suspicion and division at a critical moment, and in the end [Æthelred's] death was soon followed by the conquest of England by the Danish ruler <a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-roach_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-roach-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other historians are more sympathetic to Æthelred. <a href="/wiki/Simon_Keynes" title="Simon Keynes">Simon Keynes</a> in his Oxford Online <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">DNB</a></i> article on Æthelred described it as the reaction of a people who had suffered under repeated Danish attacks through mercenaries who had turned on their employers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ian Howard believes the massacre was committed in response to the treachery of Æthelred's mercenary army,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Barbara Yorke</a> describes it as "the type of hard-hitting reply that was necessary in a world inhabited by Vikings."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Æthelred's biographer Ryan Lavelle suggests that the massacre was probably confined to frontier towns such as Oxford, and larger towns with small Danish communities, such as <a href="/wiki/Bristol" title="Bristol">Bristol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gloucester" title="Gloucester">Gloucester</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a> within territory under Æthelred's control noting lack of remorse shown in the Oxford charter which exploited ethnic hatred and <a href="/wiki/Millenarianism" title="Millenarianism">millenarianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-lavelle_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lavelle-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is clear that the massacre was not widespread. Numerous historians agree that not only was a campaign of widespread extermination across all of England implausible, but that there is extremely limited archaeological or historical evidence for wholesale slaughter.<sup id="cite_ref-oxford_ref_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oxford_ref-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The killing in Oxford almost exclusively targeted males of military age.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historian <a href="/wiki/Levi_Roach" title="Levi Roach">Levi Roach</a> also notes that it is impossible to conclusively link the mass grave in Oxford and those elsewhere to St. Brice's day, as there was regular sectarian violence across England during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That the Danelaw remained calm and content under Æthelred's hegemony has been taken as evidence that the killings were local to certain areas at best.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_10-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Needless to say," writes Ann Williams, "the decree was not aimed at the English of Scandinavian descent living in the eastern shires."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_11-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a few years after the massacre, Æthelred granted land to a Dane named Toti outside Oxford, and many Scandinavian figures remained at his court, demonstrating that the St Brice's Day decree was not an order for a general extermination.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">House of Knýtlinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_massacres_in_Great_Britain" title="List of massacres in Great Britain">List of massacres in Great Britain</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/657/pg657-images.html">"The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle"</a>. <i>www.gutenberg.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Mail&rft.atitle=Experts+reveal+brutal+Viking+massacre&rft.date=2010-11-05&rft.aulast=Sloan&rft.aufirst=Liam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordmail.co.uk%2Fnews%2F8496707.experts-reveal-brutal-viking-massacre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lavelle-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lavelle_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lavelle_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLavelle2008" class="citation book cs1">Lavelle, Ryan (1 November 2008). <i>Aethelred II: King of the English</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_History_Press" title="The History Press">The History Press</a>. pp. 104–109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0752446783" title="Special:BookSources/978-0752446783"><bdi>978-0752446783</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aethelred+II%3A+King+of+the+English&rft.pages=104-109&rft.pub=The+History+Press&rft.date=2008-11-01&rft.isbn=978-0752446783&rft.aulast=Lavelle&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford_ref-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_ref_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_ref_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100529842">"Oxford Reference"</a>. <i>Oxford University Press</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+University+Press&rft.atitle=Oxford+Reference&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803100529842&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbels2018" class="citation book cs1">Abels, Richard Philip (2018). <i>Æthelred the Unready: The Failed King</i>. Penguin monarchs. London: Allen Lane. pp. 48–49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197950-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-197950-2"><bdi>978-0-14-197950-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%86thelred+the+Unready%3A+The+Failed+King&rft.place=London&rft.series=Penguin+monarchs&rft.pages=48-49&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-14-197950-2&rft.aulast=Abels&rft.aufirst=Richard+Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_10-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoward2010" class="citation book cs1">Howard, Ian (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.30861/9781407307251"><i>The Reign of Æthelred II: King of the English, Emperor of all the Peoples of Britain, 978-1016</i></a>. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press. pp. 41–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.30861%2F9781407307251">10.30861/9781407307251</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0725-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4073-0725-1"><bdi>978-1-4073-0725-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reign+of+%C3%86thelred+II%3A+King+of+the+English%2C+Emperor+of+all+the+Peoples+of+Britain%2C+978-1016&rft.place=Ann+Arbor%2C+MI&rft.pages=41-42&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.30861%2F9781407307251&rft.isbn=978-1-4073-0725-1&rft.aulast=Howard&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.30861%2F9781407307251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_11-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2003" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Ann (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/title/ocm51780838"><i>Æthelred the Unready: the ill-counselled king</i></a>. London; New York: Hambledon and London : distributed in the United States and Canada exclusively by Palgrave Macillan. pp. 53–54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-382-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85285-382-2"><bdi>978-1-85285-382-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51780838">51780838</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%86thelred+the+Unready%3A+the+ill-counselled+king&rft.place=London%3B+New+York&rft.pages=53-54&rft.pub=Hambledon+and+London+%3A+distributed+in+the+United+States+and+Canada+exclusively+by+Palgrave+Macillan&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2Focm51780838&rft.isbn=978-1-85285-382-2&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Ftitle%2Focm51780838&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_12-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2016" class="citation book cs1">Roach, Levi (2016). <i>Æthelred the Unready</i>. New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press. pp. 192–199. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22972-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-22972-1"><bdi>978-0-300-22972-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%86thelred+the+Unready&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+Connecticut&rft.pages=192-199&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-300-22972-1&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Levi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcdonald-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcdonald_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcdonald_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacDonald2009" class="citation book cs1">MacDonald, Audrey (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?entry=t110.e3749&srn=1&ssid=543160236#FIRSTHIT"><i>St Brice's Day Massacre</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956763-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-956763-8"><bdi>978-0-19-956763-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=St+Brice%27s+Day+Massacre&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-956763-8&rft.aulast=MacDonald&rft.aufirst=Audrey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fviews%2FENTRY.html%3Fentry%3Dt110.e3749%26srn%3D1%26ssid%3D543160236%23FIRSTHIT&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|work=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford_ac-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_ac_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWates" class="citation web cs1">Wates, Michele. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091007141741/http://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/2002-03/v15n1/05.shtml">"Massacre at St Frideswide's"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Today" title="Oxford Today">Oxford Today</a></i> (Michaelmas 2002 ed.). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/2002-03/v15n1/05.shtml">the original</a> on 7 October 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Today&rft.atitle=Massacre+at+St+Frideswide%27s&rft.aulast=Wates&rft.aufirst=Michele&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk%2F2002-03%2Fv15n1%2F05.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-bbc_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrd2011" class="citation news cs1">Ord, Louise (12 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-14476039">"Skeletons reveal Viking massacre"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Skeletons+reveal+Viking+massacre&rft.date=2011-08-12&rft.aulast=Ord&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-14476039&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-arch2-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-arch2_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurrani" class="citation web cs1">Durrani, Nadia. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archaeology.org/issues/109-1311/sidebars/1513-st-brices-day-massacre-st-johns-college-oxford">"Burial Pit, ca. 960–1020, St. John's College, Oxford"</a>. <i>Archaeology Magazine</i>. Archaeological Institute of America<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 May</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Archaeology+Magazine&rft.atitle=Burial+Pit%2C+ca.+960%E2%80%931020%2C+St.+John%27s+College%2C+Oxford&rft.aulast=Durrani&rft.aufirst=Nadia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archaeology.org%2Fissues%2F109-1311%2Fsidebars%2F1513-st-brices-day-massacre-st-johns-college-oxford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-guardian-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-guardian_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-guardian_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSample2021" class="citation news cs1">Sample, Ian (9 June 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jun/09/skeletons-of-viking-men-to-be-reunited-in-danish-exhibition">"Skeletons of Viking men to be reunited in Danish exhibition"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Skeletons+of+Viking+men+to+be+reunited+in+Danish+exhibition&rft.date=2021-06-09&rft.aulast=Sample&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2021%2Fjun%2F09%2Fskeletons-of-viking-men-to-be-reunited-in-danish-exhibition&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/05/120501204839.htm">"Skeletons found at mass burial site in Oxford could be 10th-century Viking raiders"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/ScienceDaily" title="ScienceDaily">ScienceDaily</a></i>. 1 May 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 June</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ScienceDaily&rft.atitle=Skeletons+found+at+mass+burial+site+in+Oxford+could+be+10th-century+Viking+raiders&rft.date=2012-05-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2012%2F05%2F120501204839.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStenton1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Stenton" title="Frank Stenton">Stenton, Frank</a> (1971). <i>Anglo-Saxon England</i> (3 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 380. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198217169" title="Special:BookSources/978-0198217169"><bdi>978-0198217169</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anglo-Saxon+England&rft.pages=380&rft.edition=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=978-0198217169&rft.aulast=Stenton&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-roach-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-roach_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2016" class="citation web cs1">Roach, Levi (11 November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yalebooks.yale.edu/2016/11/11/the-st-brices-day-massacre-then-and-now/">"The St. Brice's Day Massacre: Then and Now"</a>. <i>Yale University Press</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Yale+University+Press&rft.atitle=The+St.+Brice%27s+Day+Massacre%3A+Then+and+Now&rft.date=2016-11-11&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Levi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyalebooks.yale.edu%2F2016%2F11%2F11%2Fthe-st-brices-day-massacre-then-and-now%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeynes2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_Keynes" title="Simon Keynes">Keynes, Simon</a> (23 September 2004). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/8915">"Æthelred II [Ethelred; known as Ethelred the Unready]"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a></i> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8915">10.1093/ref:odnb/8915</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C3%86thelred+II+%5BEthelred%3B+known+as+Ethelred+the+Unready%5D&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004-09-23&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8915&rft.aulast=Keynes&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F8915&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</span><span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(subscription required)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYorke1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Yorke" title="Barbara Yorke">Yorke, Barbara</a> (1995). <i>Wessex in the Early Middle Ages</i>. London, UK: Leicester University Press. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1856-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1856-1"><bdi>978-0-7185-1856-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wessex+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=London%2C+UK&rft.pages=138&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7185-1856-1&rft.aulast=Yorke&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFerguson2009" class="citation book cs1">Ferguson, Robert (2009). "16". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HY_klT7NjvAC"><i>The Vikings, a History</i></a>. Viking Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781101151426" title="Special:BookSources/9781101151426"><bdi>9781101151426</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=16&rft.btitle=The+Vikings%2C+a+History&rft.pub=Viking+Penguin&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9781101151426&rft.aulast=Ferguson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHY_klT7NjvAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASt+Brice%27s+Day+massacre" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Vaughan, Richard <i>The Chronicle of John of Wallingford</i> (<a href="/wiki/English_Historical_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="English Historical Review">English Historical Review</a> 73.286. pp. 66–77. January 1958)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Viking_activity_in_Great_Britain" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Viking_activity_in_Great_Britain" title="Template:Viking activity in Great Britain"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Viking_activity_in_Great_Britain" title="Template talk:Viking activity in Great Britain"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Viking_activity_in_Great_Britain" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Viking activity in Great Britain"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Viking_activity_in_Great_Britain" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Viking_activity_in_the_British_Isles" title="Viking activity in the British Isles">Viking activity in Great Britain</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anglo-Saxon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offa_of_Mercia" title="Offa of Mercia">Offa of Mercia</a> (757–796)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86lla_of_Northumbria" title="Ælla of Northumbria">Ælla of Northumbria</a> (unk–867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_the_Martyr" title="Edmund the Martyr">Edmund the Martyr</a> of East Anglia (855–869)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred_the_Unready" title="Æthelred the Unready">Æthelred the Unready</a> (978–1013, 1014–1016)</li> <li>Wessex: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecgberht,_King_of_Wessex" title="Ecgberht, King of Wessex">Ecgberht</a> (802–839)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelwulf,_King_of_Wessex" title="Æthelwulf, King of Wessex">Æthelwulf</a> (839–858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_the_Great" title="Alfred the Great">Alfred the Great</a> (871–899)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_the_Elder" title="Edward the Elder">Edward the Elder</a> (899–924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelstan" title="Æthelstan">Æthelstan</a> (924–939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eadred" title="Eadred">Eadred</a> (946–954</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelred,_Lord_of_the_Mercians" title="Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians">Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 881</span>–911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelfl%C3%A6d" title="Æthelflæd">Æthelflæd</a>, Lady of the Mercians (911–918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odda,_Ealdorman_of_Devon" title="Odda, Ealdorman of Devon">Odda, Ealdorman of Devon</a> (878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulfhere,_Ealdorman_of_Wiltshire" title="Wulfhere, Ealdorman of Wiltshire">Wulfhere, Ealdorman of Wiltshire</a> (855–?877)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viking</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Monarchs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Kn%C3%BDtlinga" title="House of Knýtlinga">Knýtlinga</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Harthacnut" title="Harthacnut">Harthacnut</a> (1035–1042)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnut" title="Cnut">Cnut</a> (1016–1035)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Harefoot" title="Harold Harefoot">Harold Harefoot</a> (1035–1040)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svein_Knutsson" title="Svein Knutsson">Svein Knutsson</a> (1030–1035)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guthred" title="Guthred">Guthred</a> (883–895)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Bloodaxe" title="Eric Bloodaxe">Eric Bloodaxe</a> (947–948, 952–954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amla%C3%ADb_Cuar%C3%A1n" title="Amlaíb Cuarán">Amlaíb Cuarán</a> (941–944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gofraid_ua_%C3%8Dmair" title="Gofraid ua Ímair">Gofraid ua Ímair</a> (921–934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Guthfrithson" title="Olaf Guthfrithson">Olaf Guthfrithson</a> (939–941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnall_ua_%C3%8Dmair" title="Ragnall ua Ímair">Ragnall ua Ímair</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 914</span>–921)</li></ul></li> <li>England <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sweyn_Forkbeard" title="Sweyn Forkbeard">Sweyn Forkbeard</a> (1013–1014)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecgberht_I_of_Northumbria" title="Ecgberht I of Northumbria">Ecgberht I of Northumbria</a> (867–872)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgred_of_Mercia" title="Burgred of Mercia">Burgred of Mercia</a> (852–874)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceolwulf_II_of_Mercia" title="Ceolwulf II of Mercia">Ceolwulf II of Mercia</a> (874–880)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eohric_of_East_Anglia" title="Eohric of East Anglia">Eohric of East Anglia</a> (917–927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ivar_the_Boneless" title="Ivar the Boneless">Ivar the Boneless</a> (865–870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfdan_Ragnarsson" title="Halfdan Ragnarsson">Halfdan Ragnarsson</a> (865–877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ubba" title="Ubba">Ubba</a> (865–878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hvitserk" title="Hvitserk">Hvitserk</a> (865–870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guthrum" title="Guthrum">Guthrum</a> (874–890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastein#"Hastein"_in_England" title="Hastein">Hastein</a> (892–896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorkell_the_Tall" title="Thorkell the Tall">Thorkell the Tall</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 970</span>–1024)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Battles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viking raids: 793–850</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lindisfarne#Vikings" title="Lindisfarne">Lindisfarne</a> (793)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Sheppey#Vikings" title="Isle of Sheppey">Isle of Sheppey</a> (835)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hingston_Down" title="Battle of Hingston Down">Battle of Hingston Down</a> (838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rochester,_Kent#Saxon" title="History of Rochester, Kent">Battle of Rochester</a> (842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carhampton#History" title="Carhampton">Carhampton</a> (843)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Aclea" title="Battle of Aclea">Battle of Aclea</a> (851)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">First invasion 865–896</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Heathen_Army(865–78)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Heathen_Army" title="Great Heathen Army">Great Heathen Army</a><br />(865–78)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_York_(867)" title="Battle of York (867)">Battle of York</a> (867)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nottingham#Anglo-Saxon_era" title="History of Nottingham">Siege of Nottingham</a> (867)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Englefield" title="Battle of Englefield">Battle of Englefield</a> (870)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ashdown" title="Battle of Ashdown">Battle of Ashdown</a> (871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Meretun" title="Battle of Meretun">Battle of Meretun</a> (871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Basing" title="Battle of Basing">Battle of Basing</a> (871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Reading_(871)" title="Battle of Reading (871)">Battle of Reading</a> (871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swanage#History" title="Swanage">Sea Battle near Swanage</a> (877)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chippenham" title="Battle of Chippenham">Battle of Chippenham</a> (878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cynwit" title="Battle of Cynwit">Battle of Cynwit</a> (878)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Edington" title="Battle of Edington">Battle of Edington</a> (878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/London#Anglo-Saxon_and_Viking_period_London" title="London">Battle of London</a> (886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exeter#Medieval_times" title="Exeter">Siege of Exeter</a> (893, 1001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farnham#The_Anglo-Saxon_period" title="Farnham">Battle of Fearnhamme</a> (893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Benfleet" title="Battle of Benfleet">Battle of Benfleet</a> (894)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">The Danelaw</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Buttington" title="Battle of Buttington">Buttington</a> (893)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(894)" title="Battle of Stamford (894)">First Stamford</a> (894)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Holme" title="Battle of the Holme">The Holme</a> (902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tettenhall" title="Battle of Tettenhall">Tettenhall</a> (910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Tempsford" title="Battle of Tempsford">Tempsford</a> (917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Derby" title="Battle of Derby">Derby</a> (917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_(918)" title="Battle of Stamford (918)">Second Stamford</a> (918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Corbridge" title="Battle of Corbridge">Corbridge</a> (918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh" title="Battle of Brunanburh">Brunanburh</a> (937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stainmore" title="Battle of Stainmore">Stainmore</a> (954)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Second invasion: 980–1012</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">The Danelaw</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maldon" title="Battle of Maldon">Maldon</a> (991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Pinhoe" title="Battle of Pinhoe">Battle of Pinhoe</a> (1001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Battle_of_Alton" title="First Battle of Alton">First Alton</a> (1001)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">St Brice's Day</a> (1002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Ringmere" title="Battle of Ringmere">Ringmere</a> (1010)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cnut%27s_invasion_of_England" title="Cnut's invasion of England">Cnut's invasion</a> (1015–1016)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brentford_(1016)" title="Battle of Brentford (1016)">Brentford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Assandun" title="Battle of Assandun">Assandun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Harald_Hardrada#Invasion_of_England" title="Harald Hardrada">Harald's invasion</a> (1066)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fulford" title="Battle of Fulford">Fulford</a> (1066)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Stamford_Bridge" title="Battle of Stamford Bridge">Stamford Bridge</a> (1066)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Viking settlements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danelaw" title="Danelaw">Danelaw</a> (865–896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_York" title="Scandinavian York">Jorvik</a> (866–954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea Empire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">English <a href="/wiki/Petty_kingdom" title="Petty kingdom">petty kingdoms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a> (519–927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kent" title="Kingdom of Kent">Kent</a> (410–825)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northumbria" title="Northumbria">Northumbria</a> (653–954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a> (527–918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_East_Anglia" title="Kingdom of East Anglia">East Anglia</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 550</span>–918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Wedmore" title="Treaty of Wedmore">Treaty of Wedmore</a> (886)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Alfred_and_Guthrum" title="Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum">Treaty of Alfred and Guthrum</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 890</span>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Brunanburh_(poem)" title="Battle of Brunanburh (poem)">"Battle of Brunanburh" (poem)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuerdale_Hoard" title="Cuerdale Hoard">Cuerdale Hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_runestones" title="England runestones">England runestones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furness_Hoard" title="Furness Hoard">Furness Hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Old_Norse_origin" title="List of English words of Old Norse origin">List of English words of Old Norse origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse" title="Old Norse">Old Norse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ragnar_Lodbrok" title="Ragnar Lodbrok">Ragnar Lodbrok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_and_Scandinavian_diaspora_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nordic and Scandinavian diaspora in the United Kingdom">Nordic and Scandinavian diaspora in the United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silverdale_Hoard" title="Silverdale Hoard">Silverdale Hoard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vale_of_York_Hoard" title="Vale of York Hoard">Vale of York Hoard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&oldid=1257238243">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=St_Brice%27s_Day_massacre&oldid=1257238243</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" 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