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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Etymology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_discourses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_discourses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Early modern discourses</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modern_discourses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early modern discourses subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_discourses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-German_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#German_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>German Romanticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-German_Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_Romanticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_Romanticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>English Romanticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_Romanticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthropology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthropology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Anthropology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthropology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Sociology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sociology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_researchers_and_development_of_cultural_sociology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_researchers_and_development_of_cultural_sociology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Early researchers and development of cultural sociology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_researchers_and_development_of_cultural_sociology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Cultural studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Psychology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection_of_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection_of_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Protection of culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection_of_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Articles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Articles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12.2</span> <span>Articles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Articles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 202 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-202" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">202 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%A3%E1%88%95%E1%88%8D" title="ባሕል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ባሕል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-smn mw-list-item"><a href="https://smn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulttuur" title="Kulttuur – Inari Sami" lang="smn" hreflang="smn" data-title="Kulttuur" data-language-autonym="Anarâškielâ" data-language-local-name="Inari Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Anarâškielâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%A9" title="ثقافة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثقافة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc mw-list-item"><a href="https://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%A1%DC%AA%DC%95%DC%98%DC%AC%DC%90" title="ܡܪܕܘܬܐ – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc" data-title="ܡܪܕܘܬܐ" data-language-autonym="ܐܪܡܝܐ" data-language-local-name="Aramaic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ܐܪܡܝܐ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="সংস্কৃতি – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupy" title="Arandupy – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arandupy" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Маданият – Avaric" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Маданият" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="Avaric" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yati" title="Yati – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Yati" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99d%C9%99niyy%C9%99t" title="Mədəniyyət – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mədəniyyət" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="مدنیت – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="مدنیت" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="সংস্কৃতি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BBn-h%C3%B2a" title="Bûn-hòa – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bûn-hòa" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D2%99%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B8%D3%99%D1%82" title="Мәҙәниәт – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәҙәниәт" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="संस्कृति – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Култура – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Култура" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuitua" title="Kuitua – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Kuitua" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%93%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="རིག་གནས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="རིག་གནས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sevenadur" title="Sevenadur – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Sevenadur" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BB" title="Соёл – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Соёл" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ch mw-list-item"><a href="https://ch.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuttura" title="Kuttura – Chamorro" lang="ch" hreflang="ch" data-title="Kuttura" data-language-autonym="Chamoru" data-language-local-name="Chamorro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chamoru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsika" title="Tsika – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Tsika" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diwylliant" title="Diwylliant – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Diwylliant" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaya_ni_taada" title="Kaya ni taada – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Kaya ni taada" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dagbanli</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dv mw-list-item"><a href="https://dv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DE%90%DE%A6%DE%8E%DE%A7%DE%8A%DE%A6%DE%8C%DE%AA" title="ސަގާފަތު – Divehi" lang="dv" hreflang="dv" data-title="ސަގާފަތު" data-language-autonym="ދިވެހިބަސް" data-language-local-name="Divehi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ދިވެހިބަސް</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B1" title="Κουλτούρα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κουλτούρα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult%C3%B9ra" title="Cultùra – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Cultùra" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8C_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C" title="Культуранть мазычись – Erzya" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Культуранть мазычись" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="Erzya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturo" title="Kulturo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kulturo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coltura" title="Coltura – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Coltura" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF" title="فرهنگ – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskriti" title="Sanskriti – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Sanskriti" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Culture" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuer" title="Kultuer – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kultuer" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Culture" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult%C3%BAr" title="Cultúr – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cultúr" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultoor" title="Cultoor – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Cultoor" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultar" title="Cultar – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Cultar" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Ingush" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="Ingush" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B9n-fa" title="Vùn-fa – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Vùn-fa" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AC%B8%ED%99%94" title="문화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="문화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%27ada" title="Al'ada – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Al'ada" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mo%CA%BBomeheu" title="Moʻomeheu – Hawaiian" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Moʻomeheu" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="Hawaiian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%B7%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B5%D5%A9" title="Մշակույթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մշակույթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="संस्कृति – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturo" title="Kulturo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kulturo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Culture" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bpy mw-list-item"><a href="https://bpy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="সংস্কৃতি – Bishnupriya" lang="bpy" hreflang="bpy" data-title="সংস্কৃতি" data-language-autonym="বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী" data-language-local-name="Bishnupriya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%C3%A6" title="Культурæ – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Культурæ" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ирон</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menning" title="Menning – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Menning" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%95%D7%AA" title="תרבות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תרבות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulturi" title="Kulturi – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Kulturi" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%82%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%83%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಂಸ್ಕೃತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="კულტურა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კულტურა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%8E%D9%86%D9%9B%D8%B3" title="سَنٛس – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="سَنٛس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B9ltura" title="Kùltura – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Kùltura" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5%D1%82" title="Мәдениет – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Мәдениет" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonisogeth" title="Gonisogeth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Gonisogeth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utamaduni" title="Utamaduni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utamaduni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilti" title="Kilti – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Kilti" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiltir" title="Kiltir – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Kiltir" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87and" title="Çand – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Çand" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Маданият – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Маданият" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%97%E0%BA%B3" title="ວັດທະນະທຳ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ວັດທະນະທຳ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C5%ABra" title="Kultūra – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kultūra" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C5%ABra" title="Kultūra – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Kultūra" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur" title="Cultuur – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Cultuur" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur" title="Cultur – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Cultur" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kul%27tuuru" title="Kul'tuuru – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Kul'tuuru" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/kulnu" title="kulnu – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="kulnu" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebyobuwangwa_(Culture)" title="Ebyobuwangwa (Culture) – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Ebyobuwangwa (Culture)" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Luganda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C3%BAra" title="Kultúra – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kultúra" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B8%84u%E1%B8%8D%C3%A2j%C3%A2" title="Ḅuḍâjâ – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Ḅuḍâjâ" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Madhurâ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Култура – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Култура" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolontsaina" title="Kolontsaina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kolontsaina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="സംസ്കാരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സംസ്കാരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80" title="संस्कृती – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="संस्कृती" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90" title="კულტურა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კულტურა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%87" title="ثقافه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثقافه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A8" title="دب – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="دب" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budayo" title="Budayo – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Budayo" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%99ng-hu%C3%A1" title="Ùng-huá – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Ùng-huá" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%91%D0%BB" title="Соёл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Соёл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%89%E1%80%BA%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ယဉ်ကျေးမှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယဉ်ကျေးမှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur" title="Cultuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Cultuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF" title="संस्कृति – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="संस्कृति" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%BF" title="तजिलजि – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="तजिलजि" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="文化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulture" title="Kulture – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Kulture" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D3%B1%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Тӱвыра – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Тӱвыра" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madaniyat" title="Madaniyat – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Madaniyat" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%AD%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B0" title="ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸੱਭਿਆਚਾਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="ثقافت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ثقافت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%91%E1%80%AC%EA%A9%BB%E1%80%9A%E1%80%B1%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%82%8F%E1%80%84%E1%80%B2%E1%80%B8" title="ထာꩻယေန်ႏငဲး – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="ထာꩻယေန်ႏငဲး" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%87%DA%85%D9%88%D8%A8" title="هڅوب – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="هڅوب" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolcha" title="Kolcha – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Kolcha" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%8C" title="វប្បធម៌ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="វប្បធម៌" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medeniyet" title="Medeniyet – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Medeniyet" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur%C4%83" title="Cultură – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cultură" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawsay_saphi" title="Kawsay saphi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kawsay saphi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Култура – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Култура" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Култуура – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Култуура" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/lalangawan" title="lalangawan – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="lalangawan" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sakizaya</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="ثقافت – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="ثقافت" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultur" title="Cultur – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Cultur" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%98%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="සංස්කෘතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="සංස්කෘතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture" title="Culture – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Culture" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="ثقافت – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="ثقافت" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss mw-list-item"><a href="https://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhlonipho" title="Inhlonipho – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss" data-title="Inhlonipho" data-language-autonym="SiSwati" data-language-local-name="Swati" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>SiSwati</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kult%C3%BAra_(spolo%C4%8Densk%C3%A9_vedy)" title="Kultúra (spoločenské vedy) – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kultúra (spoločenské vedy)" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaqan" title="Dhaqan – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dhaqan" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF" title="چاند – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="چاند" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Култура – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Култура" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budaya" title="Budaya – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Budaya" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulttuuri" title="Kulttuuri – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kulttuuri" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultur" title="Kultur – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kultur" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="பண்பாடு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்பாடு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yidles" title="Yidles – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Yidles" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D0%B4%D3%99%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82" title="Мәдәният – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мәдәният" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%83%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="సంస్కృతి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="సంస్కృతి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%92%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1" title="วัฒนธรรม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วัฒนธรรม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D1%80%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Фарҳанг – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фарҳанг" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8F%84%E1%8F%8D%E1%8F%9B%E1%8E%A0%E1%8F%81%E1%8E%B2" title="ᏄᏍᏛᎠᏁᎲ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᏄᏍᏛᎠᏁᎲ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BClt%C3%BCr" title="Kültür – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kültür" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BClt%C3%BCr" title="Kültür – Turkmen" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Kültür" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="Turkmen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tw mw-list-item"><a href="https://tw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amamer%C9%9B" title="Amamerɛ – Twi" lang="tw" hreflang="tw" data-title="Amamerɛ" data-language-autonym="Twi" data-language-local-name="Twi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Twi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Культура – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Культура" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%AA" title="ثقافت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ثقافت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%DB%88%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%88%D8%B1" title="كۈلتۈر – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="كۈلتۈر" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vwnzva" title="Vwnzva – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Vwnzva" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultura" title="Cultura – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Cultura" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kul%27tur" title="Kul'tur – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Kul'tur" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%83n_h%C3%B3a" title="Văn hóa – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Văn hóa" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo mw-list-item"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuliv" title="Kuliv – Volapük" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Kuliv" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="Volapük" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultuur" title="Kultuur – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Kultuur" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuzance" title="Tuzance – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Tuzance" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="文化" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultura" title="Kultura – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kultura" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="文化" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ndzhavuko" title="Ndzhavuko – Tsonga" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ndzhavuko" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="Tsonga" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8" title="קולטור – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קולטור" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80%E1%B9%A3%C3%A0" title="Àṣà – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Àṣà" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="文化" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagon" title="Zagon – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Zagon" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultuur" title="Cultuur – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Cultuur" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolt%C5%ABra" title="Koltūra – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Koltūra" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96" title="文化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="文化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99d%C9%99nij%C9%99t" title="Mədənijət – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Mədənijət" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11042#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Social behavior and norms of a society</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Cell_culture" title="Cell culture">Cell culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tissue_culture" title="Tissue culture">Tissue culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Culture_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Culture (disambiguation)">Culture (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg/220px-9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg/330px-9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg/440px-9_Bisonte_Magdaleniense_pol%C3%ADcromo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1181" data-file-height="789" /></a><figcaption>Human <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> expression developed as prehistoric humans reached <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG/220px-Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG/330px-Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG/440px-Singapore._Sri_Mariamman._Gopuram._South_East-19.JPG 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a> and expressive <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> are important aspects of human culture.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_(3).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG/220px-Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG/330px-Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG/440px-Volksfestumzug_in_Vilshofen_a.d._Donau_2012_%283%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3015" /></a><figcaption>Germans marching during a <a href="/wiki/Folk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk culture">folk culture</a> celebration</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Culture</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'k' in 'kind'">k</span><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="/tʃ/: 'ch' in 'China'">tʃ</span><span title="/ər/: 'er' in 'letter'">ər</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">KUL</span>-chər</i></a>) is a concept that encompasses the <a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">social behavior</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">norms</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">beliefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">arts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">customs</a>, capabilities, <a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">attitude</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habit" title="Habit">habits</a> of the individuals in these groups.<sup id="cite_ref-tyor1871_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tyor1871-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Culture is often originated from or attributed to a specific region or location. </p><p>Humans acquire culture through the <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> processes of <a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">enculturation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a>, which is shown by the diversity of cultures across societies. </p><p>A <a href="/wiki/Cultural_norm" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural norm">cultural norm</a> codifies acceptable conduct in society; it serves as a guideline for behavior, dress, language, and demeanor in a situation, which serves as a template for expectations in a social group. Accepting only a <a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">monoculture</a> in a social group can bear risks, just as a single species can wither in the face of environmental change, for lack of functional responses to the change.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus in military culture, <a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">valor</a> is counted a typical behavior for an individual and duty, honor, and loyalty to the social group are counted as virtues or functional responses in the <a href="/wiki/Continuum_of_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuum of conflict">continuum of conflict</a>. In the practice of religion, analogous attributes can be identified in a social group. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Cultural change</a>, or repositioning, is the reconstruction of a cultural concept of a society.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies. </p><p>Organizations like <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> attempt to preserve culture and cultural heritage. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Africa_Speaks!_(1930)_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg/220px-Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg/330px-Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg/440px-Africa_Speaks%21_%281930%29_-_Pygmy_Drummers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1257" data-file-height="942" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Pygmy_music" title="Pygmy music">Pygmy music</a> has been <a href="/wiki/Polyphonic_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyphonic music">polyphonic</a> well before their discovery by non-African explorers of the <a href="/wiki/Baka_people_(Cameroon_and_Gabon)" title="Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)">Baka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aka_people" title="Aka people">Aka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ef%C3%A9_people" title="Efé people">Efe</a>, and other foragers of the Central African forests, in the 1200s, which is at least 200 years before polyphony developed in Europe. Note the multiple lines of singers and dancers. The motifs are independent, with theme and variation interweaving.<sup id="cite_ref-obert_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obert-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of music is thought to be the first expression of polyphony in world music.</figcaption></figure> <p>Culture is considered a central concept in <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, encompassing the range of phenomena that are transmitted through social <a href="/wiki/Learning" title="Learning">learning</a> in human <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">societies</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cultural_universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural universals">Cultural universals</a> are found in all human societies. These include expressive forms like <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Music" title="Music">music</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">dance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technologies</a> like <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tool usage</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cooking</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shelter_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter (building)">shelter</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a>. The concept of <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a> covers the physical expressions of culture, such as technology, architecture and art, whereas the immaterial aspects of culture such as principles of <a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">social organization</a> (including practices of <a href="/wiki/Political_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Political organization">political organization</a> and social <a href="/wiki/Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions">institutions</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">mythology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> (both <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">written</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oral_literature" title="Oral literature">oral</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> comprise the <a href="/wiki/Intangible_cultural_heritage" title="Intangible cultural heritage">intangible cultural heritage</a> of a society.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">humanities</a>, one sense of culture as an attribute of the individual has been the degree to which they have cultivated a particular level of sophistication in <a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">the arts</a>, sciences, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, or manners. The level of cultural sophistication has also sometimes been used to distinguish <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a> from less complex societies. Such hierarchical perspectives on culture are also found in <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class-based</a> distinctions between a <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a> of the social <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">low culture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Folk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk culture">folk culture</a> of the lower classes, distinguished by the stratified access to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">cultural capital</a>. In common parlance, culture is often used to refer specifically to the symbolic markers used by <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnic groups</a> to distinguish themselves visibly from each other such as <a href="/wiki/Body_modification" title="Body modification">body modification</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clothing" title="Clothing">clothing</a> or <a href="/wiki/Jewelry" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewelry">jewelry</a>. <a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Mass culture</a> refers to the <a href="/wiki/Mass_production" title="Mass production">mass-produced</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">mass mediated</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_culture" title="Consumer culture">consumer culture</a> that emerged in the 20th century. Some schools of philosophy, such as <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, have argued that culture is often used politically as a tool of the elites to manipulate the <a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">proletariat</a> and create a <a href="/wiki/False_consciousness" title="False consciousness">false consciousness</a>. Such perspectives are common in the discipline of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>. In the wider <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, the theoretical perspective of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(cultural_studies)" title="Cultural materialism (cultural studies)">cultural materialism</a> holds that human symbolic culture arises from the material conditions of human life, as humans create the conditions for physical survival, and that the basis of culture is found in <a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">evolved biological</a> dispositions. </p><p>When used as a <a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">count noun</a>, a "culture" is the set of customs, <a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">traditions</a>, and values of a society or community, such as an ethnic group or nation. Culture is the set of knowledge acquired over time. In this sense, <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">multiculturalism</a> values the peaceful coexistence and mutual respect between different cultures inhabiting the same planet. Sometimes "culture" is also used to describe specific practices within a subgroup of a society, a <a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">subculture</a> (e.g. "<a href="/wiki/Bro_culture" title="Bro culture">bro culture</a>"), or a <a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">counterculture</a>. Within <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, the ideology and analytical stance of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">cultural relativism</a> hold that cultures cannot easily be objectively ranked or evaluated because any evaluation is necessarily situated within the value system of a given culture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <p>The modern term "culture" is based on a term used by the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Roman</a> orator <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Tusculanae_Disputationes" title="Tusculanae Disputationes">Tusculanae Disputationes</a></i>, where he wrote of a cultivation of the soul or <i>"cultura animi",</i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> using an <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> <a href="/wiki/Metaphor" title="Metaphor">metaphor</a> for the development of a philosophical soul, understood <a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">teleologically</a> as the highest possible ideal for human development. <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pufendorf" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Pufendorf">Samuel Pufendorf</a> took over this metaphor in a modern context, meaning something similar, but no longer assuming that philosophy was man's natural perfection. His use, and that of many writers after him, "<i>refers to all the ways in which human beings overcome their original <a href="/wiki/Barbarian" title="Barbarian">barbarism</a>, and through artifice, become fully human."</i><sup id="cite_ref-velkley_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-velkley-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1986, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Edward_S._Casey" title="Edward S. Casey">Edward S. Casey</a> wrote, "The very word <i>culture</i> meant 'place tilled' in Middle English, and the same word goes back to Latin <i>colere</i>, 'to inhabit, care for, till, worship' and <i>cultus</i>, 'A cult, especially a religious one.' To be cultural, to have a culture, is to inhabit a place sufficiently intensely to cultivate it—to be responsible for it, to respond to it, to attend to it caringly."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> Culture described by <a href="/wiki/Richard_Velkley" title="Richard Velkley">Richard Velkley</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-velkley_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-velkley-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><blockquote><p>... originally meant the cultivation of the soul or mind, acquires most of its later modern meaning in the writings of the 18th-century German thinkers, who were on various levels developing <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a>'s criticism of "<a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modern</a> <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a>." Thus a contrast between "culture" and "<a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>" is usually implied in these authors, even when not expressed as such.</p></blockquote> <p>In the words of anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">E.B. Tylor</a>, it is "that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETylor19741_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETylor19741-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, in a contemporary variant, "Culture is defined as a social domain that emphasizes the practices, discourses and material expressions, which, over time, express the continuities and discontinuities of social meaning of a life held in common.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Advanced_Learner%27s_Dictionary" title="Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary">Cambridge English Dictionary</a></i> states that culture is "the way of life, especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of people at a particular time."<sup id="cite_ref-dict_cult_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict_cult-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Terror_management_theory" title="Terror management theory">Terror management theory</a> posits that culture is a series of activities and worldviews that provide humans with the basis for perceiving themselves as "person[s] of worth within the world of meaning"—raising themselves above the merely physical aspects of existence, in order to deny the animal insignificance and death that <i>Homo sapiens</i> became aware of when they acquired a larger brain.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word is used in a general sense as the evolved ability to categorize and represent experiences with <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbols</a> and to act imaginatively and creatively. This ability arose with the evolution of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a> in humans around 50,000 years ago and is often thought to be unique to <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>. However, some other species have demonstrated similar, though much less complicated, abilities for social learning. It is also used to denote the complex networks of practices and accumulated knowledge and ideas that are transmitted through social <a href="/wiki/Social_interaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Social interaction">interaction</a> and exist in specific human groups, or cultures, using the plural form.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Change">Change</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Culture change</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg/220px-Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg/330px-Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg/440px-Beatles_ad_1965_just_the_beatles_crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1156" data-file-height="839" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/The_Beatles" title="The Beatles">The Beatles</a> exemplified changing cultural dynamics, not only in music, but fashion and lifestyle. Over a half century after their emergence, they continue to have a <a href="/wiki/Cultural_impact_of_the_Beatles" title="Cultural impact of the Beatles">worldwide cultural impact</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Raimon_Panikkar" title="Raimon Panikkar">Raimon Panikkar</a> identified 29 ways in which <a href="/wiki/Cultural_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural change">cultural change</a> can be brought about, including growth, development, evolution, <a href="/wiki/Involution_(esoterism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Involution (esoterism)">involution</a>, renovation, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reconception&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reconception (page does not exist)">reconception</a>, reform, <a href="/wiki/Social_innovation" title="Social innovation">innovation</a>, revivalism, <a href="/wiki/Social_revolution" title="Social revolution">revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">progress</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_osmosis" title="Social osmosis">osmosis</a>, borrowing, <a href="/wiki/Eclecticism" title="Eclecticism">eclecticism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a>, modernization, <a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">indigenization</a>, and transformation.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this context, modernization could be viewed as adoption of Enlightenment era beliefs and practices, such as science, rationalism, industry, commerce, democracy, and the notion of progress. <a href="/wiki/Rein_Raud" title="Rein Raud">Rein Raud</a>, building on the work of <a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Umberto Eco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Alexander" title="Jeffrey C. Alexander">Jeffrey C. Alexander</a>, has proposed a model of cultural change based on claims and bids, which are judged by their <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_adequacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive adequacy">cognitive adequacy</a> and endorsed or not endorsed by the symbolic authority of the cultural community in question.<sup id="cite_ref-meaning-in-action_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meaning-in-action-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indig2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/180px-Indig2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/270px-Indig2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Indig2.jpg/360px-Indig2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8230" data-file-height="10041" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century engraving showing <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Australians" title="Indigenous Australians">Australian natives</a> opposing the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Captain_James_Cook" class="mw-redirect" title="Captain James Cook">Captain James Cook</a> in 1770</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Cultural_invention" title="Cultural invention">Cultural invention</a> has come to mean any innovation that is new and found to be useful to a group of people and expressed in their behavior but which does not exist as a physical object. Humanity is in a global "accelerating culture change period," driven by the expansion of international commerce, the mass media, and above all, the <a href="/wiki/World_population" title="World population">human population</a> explosion, among other factors. <a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Culture repositioning</a> means the reconstruction of the cultural concept of a society.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cultures are internally affected by both forces encouraging change and forces resisting change. These forces are related to both <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a> and natural events, and are involved in the perpetuation of cultural ideas and practices within <a href="/wiki/Structuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuration">current structures</a>, which themselves are subject to change.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Social conflict and the development of technologies can produce changes within a society by altering social dynamics and promoting new <a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">cultural models</a>, and spurring or enabling generative action. These social shifts may accompany <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideological</a> shifts and other types of cultural change. For example, the U.S. <a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">feminist movement</a> involved new practices that produced a shift in gender relations, altering both gender and economic structures. Environmental conditions may also enter as factors. For example, after tropical forests returned at the end of the last <a href="/wiki/Ice_age" title="Ice age">ice age</a>, plants suitable for domestication were available, leading to the invention of <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, which in turn brought about many cultural innovations and shifts in social dynamics.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gorskii_04412u.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Full-length profile portrait of a woman, standing on a carpet at the entrance to a yurt, dressed in traditional clothing and jewelry" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gorskii_04412u.jpg/220px-Gorskii_04412u.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gorskii_04412u.jpg/330px-Gorskii_04412u.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Gorskii_04412u.jpg/440px-Gorskii_04412u.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3159" data-file-height="2643" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkmen</a> woman, on a carpet at the entrance to a <a href="/wiki/Yurt" title="Yurt">yurt</a>, in traditional clothing. Sense of time is dependent on culture. A 1913 photo, but can be difficult to date for a viewer, due to the absence of cultural cues.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cultures are externally affected via contact between societies, which may also produce—or inhibit—social shifts and changes in cultural practices. War or competition over resources may impact technological development or social dynamics. Additionally, cultural ideas may transfer from one society to another, through diffusion or acculturation. In <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diffusion (anthropology)">diffusion</a>, the form of something (though not necessarily its meaning) moves from one culture to another. For example, Western restaurant chains and culinary brands sparked curiosity and fascination to the Chinese as China opened its economy to international trade in the late 20th-century.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "Stimulus diffusion" (the sharing of ideas) refers to an element of one culture leading to an invention or propagation in another. "Direct borrowing", on the other hand, tends to refer to technological or tangible diffusion from one culture to another. <a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a> theory presents a research-based model of why and when individuals and cultures adopt new ideas, practices, and products.<sup id="cite_ref-wolfram2017_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wolfram2017-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">Acculturation</a> has different meanings. Still, in this context, it refers to the replacement of traits of one culture with another, such as what happened to certain <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native American</a> tribes and many indigenous peoples across the globe during the process of <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>. Related processes on an individual level include <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a> (adoption of a different culture by an individual) and <a href="/wiki/Transculturation" title="Transculturation">transculturation</a>. The transnational flow of culture has played a major role in merging different cultures and sharing thoughts, ideas, and beliefs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modern_discourses">Early modern discourses</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="German_Romanticism">German Romanticism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg/170px-Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg/255px-Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg/340px-Johann_gottfried_herder.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1081" data-file-height="1414" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Johann_Herder" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Herder">Johann Herder</a> called attention to national cultures.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804) formulated an individualist definition of "enlightenment" similar to the concept of <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">bildung</a></i></span>: "Enlightenment is man's emergence from his self-incurred immaturity."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that this immaturity comes not from a lack of understanding, but from a lack of courage to think independently. Against this intellectual cowardice, Kant urged: "<span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Sapere Aude</i></span>" ("Dare to be wise!"). In reaction to Kant, German scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Johann Gottfried Herder</a> (1744–1803) argued that human creativity, which necessarily takes unpredictable and highly diverse forms, is as important as human rationality. Moreover, Herder proposed a collective form of <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Bildung</i></span>: "For Herder, <span title="German-language text"><span lang="de" style="font-style: normal;">Bildung</span></span> was the totality of experiences that provide a coherent identity, and sense of common destiny, to a people."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Adolf_Bastian.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Adolf_Bastian.jpg/170px-Adolf_Bastian.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Adolf_Bastian.jpg/255px-Adolf_Bastian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Adolf_Bastian.jpg/340px-Adolf_Bastian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1140" data-file-height="1575" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Bastian" title="Adolf Bastian">Adolf Bastian</a> developed a universal model of culture.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1795, the Prussian linguist and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt" title="Wilhelm von Humboldt">Wilhelm von Humboldt</a> (1767–1835) called for an anthropology that would synthesize Kant's and Herder's interests. During the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic era</a>, scholars in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, especially those concerned with <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalist</a> movements—such as the nationalist struggle to create a "Germany" out of diverse principalities, and the nationalist struggles by ethnic minorities against the <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a>—developed a more inclusive notion of culture as "<a href="/wiki/World_view" class="mw-redirect" title="World view">worldview</a>" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Weltanschauung</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this school of thought, each ethnic group has a distinct worldview that is incommensurable with the worldviews of other groups. Although more inclusive than earlier views, this approach to culture still allowed for distinctions between "civilized" and "primitive" or "tribal" cultures. </p><p>In 1860, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Bastian" title="Adolf Bastian">Adolf Bastian</a> (1826–1905) argued for "the psychic unity of mankind."<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He proposed that a scientific comparison of all human societies would reveal that distinct worldviews consisted of the same basic elements. According to Bastian, all human societies share a set of "elementary ideas" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Elementargedanken</i></span>); different cultures, or different "folk ideas" (<span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Völkergedanken</i></span>), are local modifications of the elementary ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view paved the way for the modern understanding of culture. <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a> (1858–1942) was trained in this tradition, and he brought it with him when he left Germany for the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="English_Romanticism">English Romanticism</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg/170px-Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg/255px-Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg/340px-Matthew_Arnold_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_16745.jpg 2x" data-file-width="421" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>British poet and critic <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> viewed "culture" as the cultivation of the humanist ideal.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 19th century, <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanists</a> such as <a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English</a> poet and essayist <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Matthew Arnold</a> (1822–1888) used the word "culture" to refer to an ideal of individual human refinement, of "the best that has been thought and said in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-anarchy_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anarchy-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concept of culture is also comparable to the <a href="/wiki/German_people" class="mw-redirect" title="German people">German</a> concept of <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">bildung</i></span>: "...culture being a pursuit of our total <a href="/wiki/Perfection" title="Perfection">perfection</a> by means of getting to know, on all the matters which most concern us, the best which has been thought and said in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-anarchy_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-anarchy-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice, <i>culture</i> referred to an <a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">elite</a> ideal and was associated with such activities as <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_classical_music" class="mw-redirect" title="European classical music">classical music</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haute_cuisine" title="Haute cuisine">haute cuisine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As these forms were associated with urban life, "culture" was identified with "civilization" (from Latin: <i lang="la">civitas</i>, <small><abbr title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> </small>'city'). Another facet of the <a href="/wiki/Romanticism" title="Romanticism">Romantic</a> movement was an interest in <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a>, which led to identifying a "culture" among non-elites. This distinction is often characterized as that between <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>, namely that of the <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social group</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">low culture</a>. In other words, the idea of "culture" that developed in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries reflected inequalities within European societies.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg/170px-Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg/255px-Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/12/Edward_Burnett_Tylor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="292" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption>British anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Tylor</a> was one of the first English-speaking scholars to use the term culture in an inclusive and universal sense.</figcaption></figure> <p>Matthew Arnold contrasted "culture" with <a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">anarchy</a>; other Europeans, following <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophers</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, contrasted "culture" with "the state of nature." According to Hobbes and Rousseau, the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Native Americans</a> who were being conquered by Europeans from the 16th centuries on were living in a state of nature; this opposition was expressed through the contrast between "civilized" and "uncivilized."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this way of thinking, one could classify some countries and nations as more civilized than others and some people as more cultured than others. This contrast led to <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Social_Darwinism" title="Social Darwinism">Social Darwinism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Henry_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lewis Henry Morgan">Lewis Henry Morgan</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolution" title="Cultural evolution">cultural evolution</a>. Just as some critics have argued that the distinction between high and low cultures is an expression of the conflict between European elites and non-elites, other critics have argued that the distinction between civilized and uncivilized people is an expression of the conflict between European colonial powers and their colonial subjects. </p><p>Other 19th-century critics, following Rousseau, have accepted this differentiation between higher and lower culture, but have seen the refinement and <a href="/wiki/Sophistication" title="Sophistication">sophistication</a> of high culture as corrupting and unnatural developments that obscure and distort people's essential nature. These critics considered <a href="/wiki/Folk_music" title="Folk music">folk music</a> (as produced by "the folk," i.e., rural, illiterate, peasants) to honestly express a natural way of life, while classical music seemed superficial and decadent. Equally, this view often portrayed <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples" title="Indigenous peoples">indigenous peoples</a> as "<a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">noble savages</a>" living <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authentic</a> and unblemished lives, uncomplicated and uncorrupted by the highly stratified <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalist</a> systems of <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">the West</a>. </p><p>In 1870 the anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Burnett_Tylor" title="Edward Burnett Tylor">Edward Tylor</a> (1832–1917) applied these ideas of higher versus lower culture to propose a theory of the <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of religion">evolution of religion</a>. According to this theory, religion evolves from more polytheistic to more monotheistic forms.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the process, he redefined culture as a diverse set of activities characteristic of all <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> societies. This view paved the way for the modern understanding of religion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/American_anthropology" title="American anthropology">American anthropology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg/170px-Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg/255px-Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg/340px-Gobustan_ancient_Azerbaycan_full.jpg 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Petroglyphs in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Gobustan_State_Reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Gobustan State Reserve">Gobustan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, dating back to 10,000 BCE and indicating a thriving culture</figcaption></figure> <p>Although anthropologists worldwide refer to Tylor's definition of culture,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in the 20th century "culture" emerged as the central and unifying concept of American <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, where it most commonly refers to the universal human capacity to classify and encode human <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experiences</a> <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolically</a>, and to communicate symbolically encoded experiences socially.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American anthropology is organized into four fields, each of which plays an important role in research on culture: <a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">biological anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">linguistic anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, and in the United States and Canada, <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kulturbrille</i></span>, or "culture glasses," coined by German American anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Franz_Boas" title="Franz Boas">Franz Boas</a>, refers to the "lenses" through which a person sees their own culture. Martin Lindstrom asserts that <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kulturbrille</i></span>, which allow a person to make sense of the culture they inhabit, "can blind us to things outsiders pick up immediately."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sociology">Sociology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Sociology of culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:04162012Bailes032.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/04162012Bailes032.JPG/220px-04162012Bailes032.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/04162012Bailes032.JPG/330px-04162012Bailes032.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/04162012Bailes032.JPG/440px-04162012Bailes032.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4912" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>An example of folkloric dancing in <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The sociology of culture concerns culture as manifested in <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>. For sociologist <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Georg Simmel</a> (1858–1918), culture referred to "the cultivation of individuals through the agency of external forms which have been objectified in the course of history."<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, culture in the <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociological</a> field can be defined as the ways of thinking, the ways of acting, and the material objects that together shape a people's way of life. Culture can be either of two types, <a href="/wiki/Non-material_culture" title="Non-material culture">non-material culture</a> or <a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">material culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-material culture refers to the non-physical ideas that individuals have about their culture, including values, belief systems, rules, norms, morals, language, organizations, and institutions, while material culture is the physical evidence of a culture in the objects and architecture they make or have made. The term tends to be relevant only in archeological and anthropological studies, but it specifically means all material evidence which can be attributed to culture, past or present. </p><p>Cultural sociology first emerged in <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Germany</a> (1918–1933), where sociologists such as <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Weber" title="Alfred Weber">Alfred Weber</a> used the term <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Kultursoziologie</i></span> ('cultural sociology'). Cultural sociology was then reinvented in the English-speaking world as a product of the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">cultural turn</a> of the 1960s, which ushered in <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuralism (sociology)">structuralist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">postmodern</a> approaches to social science. This type of cultural sociology may be loosely regarded as an approach incorporating <a href="/wiki/Cultural_analysis" title="Cultural analysis">cultural analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>. Cultural sociologists tend to reject scientific methods, instead <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutically</a> focusing on words, artifacts and symbols.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Culture has since become an important concept across many branches of sociology, including resolutely scientific fields like <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_network" title="Social network">social network analysis</a>. As a result, there has been a recent influx of quantitative sociologists to the field. Thus, there is now a growing group of sociologists of culture who are, confusingly, not cultural sociologists. These scholars reject the abstracted postmodern aspects of cultural sociology, and instead, look for a theoretical backing in the more scientific vein of <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:7SEEN_89.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/7SEEN_89.jpg/220px-7SEEN_89.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/7SEEN_89.jpg/330px-7SEEN_89.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/7SEEN_89.jpg/440px-7SEEN_89.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1199" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a> is a good sample of popular and <a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a> culture that is celebrated by people in more than 22 countries with different nations and religions, at the 1st day of spring. It has been celebrated by diverse communities for over 7,000 years.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_researchers_and_development_of_cultural_sociology">Early researchers and development of cultural sociology</h3></div> <p>The sociology of culture grew from the intersection between sociology (as shaped by early theorists like <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a>) with the growing discipline of <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, wherein researchers pioneered ethnographic strategies for describing and analyzing a variety of cultures around the world. Part of the legacy of the early development of the field lingers in the methods (much of cultural, sociological research is qualitative), in the theories (a variety of critical approaches to sociology are central to current research communities), and in the substantive focus of the field. For instance, relationships between <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, political control, and <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a> were early and lasting concerns in the field. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_studies">Cultural studies</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></div> <p>In the United Kingdom, sociologists and other scholars influenced by <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a> (1932–2014) and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</a> (1921–1988) developed <a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">cultural studies</a>. Following nineteenth-century Romantics, they identified culture with consumption goods and leisure activities (such as art, music, film, <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, sports, and clothing). They saw patterns of consumption and leisure as determined by <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">relations of production</a>, which led them to focus on class relations and the organization of production.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United Kingdom, cultural studies focuses largely on the study of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>; that is, on the social meanings of mass-produced consumer and leisure goods. <a href="/wiki/Richard_Hoggart" title="Richard Hoggart">Richard Hoggart</a> coined the term in 1964 when he founded the Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Contemporary_Cultural_Studies" title="Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies">Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies</a> or CCCS.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has since become strongly associated with <a href="/wiki/Stuart_Hall_(cultural_theorist)" title="Stuart Hall (cultural theorist)">Stuart Hall</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who succeeded Hoggart as Director.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural studies in this sense, then, can be viewed as a limited concentration scoped on the intricacies of consumerism, which belongs to a wider culture sometimes referred to as <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western civilization</a> or <a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">globalism</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Metropolitan_Museum_1_(4675714481).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg/220px-Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg/330px-Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg/440px-Metropolitan_Museum_1_%284675714481%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4615" data-file-height="3084" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manhattan" title="Manhattan">Manhattan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Visual_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual art">Visual art</a> can be one expression of <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>From the 1970s onward, Stuart Hall's pioneering work, along with that of his colleagues <a href="/wiki/Paul_Willis_(cultural_theorist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Willis (cultural theorist)">Paul Willis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dick_Hebdige" title="Dick Hebdige">Dick Hebdige</a>, Tony Jefferson, and <a href="/wiki/Angela_McRobbie" title="Angela McRobbie">Angela McRobbie</a>, created an international intellectual movement. As the field developed, it began to combine <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">literary theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Media_influence" class="mw-redirect" title="Media influence">media theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film/video studies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Museum_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum studies">museum studies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a> to study cultural phenomena or cultural texts. In this field researchers often concentrate on how particular phenomena relate to matters of <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationality" title="Nationality">nationality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">ethnicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">social class</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cultural studies is concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">meaning</a> and practices of everyday life. These practices comprise the ways people do particular things (such as watching <a href="/wiki/Television" title="Television">television</a> or eating out) in a given culture. It also studies the meanings and uses people attribute to various objects and practices. Specifically, culture involves those meanings and practices held independently of reason. Watching television to view a public perspective on a historical event should not be thought of as culture unless referring to the medium of television itself, which may have been selected culturally; however, schoolchildren watching television after school with their friends to "fit in" certainly qualifies since there is no grounded reason for one's participation in this practice. </p><p>In the context of cultural studies, a text includes not only <a href="/wiki/Written_language" title="Written language">written language</a>, but also <a href="/wiki/Film" title="Film">films</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">photographs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fashion" title="Fashion">fashion</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hairstyle" title="Hairstyle">hairstyles</a>: the texts of cultural studies comprise all the meaningful artifacts of culture.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the discipline widens the concept of culture. Culture, for a cultural-studies researcher, not only includes traditional <a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">high culture</a> (the culture of <a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">ruling</a> <a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">social groups</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a>, but also everyday meanings and practices. The last two, in fact, have become the main focus of cultural studies. A further and recent approach is <a href="/wiki/Comparative_cultural_studies" title="Comparative cultural studies">comparative cultural studies</a>, based on the disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Comparative_literature" title="Comparative literature">comparative literature</a> and cultural studies.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars in the United Kingdom and the United States developed somewhat different versions of cultural studies after the late 1970s. The British version of cultural studies had originated in the 1950s and 1960s, mainly under the influence of Richard Hoggart, <a href="/wiki/E.P._Thompson" class="mw-redirect" title="E.P. Thompson">E.P. Thompson</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Williams" title="Raymond Williams">Raymond Williams</a>, and later that of Stuart Hall and others at the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Birmingham" title="University of Birmingham">University of Birmingham</a>. This included overtly political, <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">left-wing</a> views, and criticisms of <a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">popular culture</a> as "capitalist" <a href="/wiki/Mass_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass culture">mass culture</a>; it absorbed some of the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a> critique of the "<a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">culture industry</a>" (i.e. mass culture). This emerges in the writings of early British cultural-studies scholars and their influences: see the work of (for example) Raymond Williams, Stuart Hall, Paul Willis, and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Gilroy" title="Paul Gilroy">Paul Gilroy</a>. </p><p>In the United States, Lindlof and Taylor write, "cultural studies [were] grounded in a pragmatic, liberal-pluralist tradition."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American version of cultural studies initially concerned itself more with understanding the subjective and appropriative side of audience reactions to, and uses of, <a href="/wiki/Mass_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Mass culture">mass culture</a>; for example, American cultural-studies advocates wrote about the liberatory aspects of <a href="/wiki/Fandom" title="Fandom">fandom</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The distinction between American and British strands, however, has faded.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2009)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Some researchers, especially in early British cultural studies, apply a <a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxist</a> model to the field. This strain of thinking has some influence from the <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a>, but especially from the <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralist</a> Marxism of <a href="/wiki/Louis_Althusser" title="Louis Althusser">Louis Althusser</a> and others. The main focus of an orthodox Marxist approach concentrates on the production of <a href="/wiki/Value_(personal_and_cultural)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (personal and cultural)">meaning</a>. This model assumes a mass production of culture and identifies <a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">power</a> as residing with those producing <a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">cultural artifacts</a>. </p><p>In a Marxist view, the <a href="/wiki/Mode_of_production" title="Mode of production">mode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relations_of_production" title="Relations of production">relations of production</a> form the economic base of society, which constantly interacts and influences <a href="/wiki/Base_and_superstructure" title="Base and superstructure">superstructures</a>, such as culture.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other approaches to cultural studies, such as <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> cultural studies and later American developments of the field, distance themselves from this view. They criticize the Marxist assumption of a single, dominant meaning, shared by all, for any cultural product. The non-Marxist approaches suggest that different ways of consuming cultural artifacts affect the meaning of the product. </p><p>This view comes through in the book <i>Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman</i> (by Paul du Gay <i>et al.</i>),<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which seeks to challenge the notion that those who produce commodities control the meanings that people attribute to them. Feminist cultural analyst, theorist, and art historian <a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Griselda Pollock</a> contributed to cultural studies from viewpoints of <a href="/wiki/Art_history" title="Art history">art history</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a>. The writer <a href="/wiki/Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Julia Kristeva</a> is among influential voices at the turn of the century, contributing to cultural studies from the field of art and psychoanalytical <a href="/wiki/French_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="French feminism">French feminism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Petrakis and Kostis (2013) divide cultural background variables into two main groups:<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>The first group covers the variables that represent the "efficiency orientation" of the societies: performance orientation, <a href="/wiki/Future_orientation" title="Future orientation">future orientation</a>, assertiveness, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.</li> <li>The second covers the variables that represent the "social orientation" of societies, i.e., the attitudes and lifestyles of their members. These variables include gender egalitarianism, institutional collectivism, in-group collectivism, and human orientation.</li></ol> <p>In 2016, a new approach to culture was suggested by <a href="/wiki/Rein_Raud" title="Rein Raud">Rein Raud</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-meaning-in-action_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meaning-in-action-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who defines culture as the sum of resources available to human beings for making sense of their world and proposes a two-tiered approach, combining the study of texts (all reified meanings in circulation) and cultural practices (all repeatable actions that involve the production, dissemination or transmission of purposes), thus making it possible to re-link anthropological and sociological study of culture with the tradition of textual theory. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology">Psychology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg/220px-NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg/330px-NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg/440px-NYC_Pride_2019_05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4048" data-file-height="3036" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/NYC_Pride_March" title="NYC Pride March">NYC Pride March</a> is the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_LGBT_events" class="mw-redirect" title="List of largest LGBT events">world's largest LGBT event</a>. Regional variation exists with respect to <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a> in different parts of the world.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boulier1.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Boulier1.JPG/220px-Boulier1.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Boulier1.JPG/330px-Boulier1.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Boulier1.JPG 2x" data-file-width="409" data-file-height="307" /></a><figcaption>Cognitive tools suggest a way for people from certain culture to deal with real-life problems, like <i><a href="/wiki/Suanpan" title="Suanpan">Suanpan</a></i> for Chinese to perform mathematical calculation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Starting in the 1990s,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31">: 31 </span></sup> psychological research on culture influence began to grow and challenge the universality assumed in general psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 158–168">: 158–168 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Culture psychologists began to try to explore the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Emotions_and_culture" title="Emotions and culture">emotions and culture</a>, and answer whether the human mind is independent from culture. For example, people from collectivistic cultures, such as the Japanese, suppress their positive emotions more than their American counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Culture may affect the way that people experience and express emotions. On the other hand, some researchers try to look for differences between people's <a href="/wiki/Big_Five_personality_traits_and_culture" title="Big Five personality traits and culture">personalities across cultures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-adults_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-adults-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cheung_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cheung-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As different cultures dictate distinctive <a href="/wiki/Norms_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norms (sociology)">norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">culture shock</a> is also studied to understand how people react when they are confronted with other cultures. <a href="/wiki/LGBT_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT culture">LGBT culture</a> is displayed with significantly different levels of <a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">tolerance</a> within different cultures and nations. Cognitive tools may not be accessible or they may function differently cross culture.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 19">: 19 </span></sup> For example, people who are raised in a culture with an <a href="/wiki/Abacus" title="Abacus">abacus</a> are trained with distinctive reasoning style.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cultural lenses may also make people view the same outcome of events differently. Westerners are more motivated by their successes than their failures, while East Asians are better motivated by the avoidance of failure.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Culture is important for psychologists to consider when understanding the human mental operation. The notion of the anxious, unstable, and rebellious adolescent has been criticized by experts, such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_Epstein" title="Robert Epstein">Robert Epstein</a>, who state that an undeveloped brain is not the main cause of teenagers' turmoils.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have criticized this understanding of adolescence, classifying it as a relatively recent phenomenon in human history created by modern society,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and have been highly critical of what they view as the <a href="/wiki/Infantilization" title="Infantilization">infantilization</a> of young adults in American society.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Robert Epstein and Jennifer, "American-style teen turmoil is absent in more than 100 cultures around the world, suggesting that such mayhem is not biologically inevitable. Second, the brain itself changes in response to experiences, raising the question of whether adolescent brain characteristics are the cause of teen tumult or rather the result of lifestyle and experiences."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Moshman has also stated in regards to adolescence that brain research "is crucial for a full picture, but it <a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">does not provide an ultimate explanation</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection_of_culture">Protection of culture</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_(12).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg/220px-Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg/330px-Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg/440px-Restauration_cercueil-egyptien_Mbalyon_%2812%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egyptian</a> monument</figcaption></figure> <p>There are a number of international agreements and national laws relating to the protection of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">cultural heritage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">cultural diversity</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and its partner organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Blue_Shield_International" title="Blue Shield International">Blue Shield International</a> coordinate international protection and local implementation.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Hague_Convention_for_the_Protection_of_Cultural_Property_in_the_Event_of_Armed_Conflict" title="Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict">Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict</a> and the UNESCO <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_and_Promotion_of_the_Diversity_of_Cultural_Expressions" title="Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions">Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions</a> deal with the protection of culture. Article 27 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> deals with cultural heritage in two ways: it gives people the right to participate in cultural life on the one hand and the right to the protection of their contributions to cultural life on the other.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 21st century, the protection of culture has been the focus of increasing activity by national and international organizations. The <a href="/wiki/UN" class="mw-redirect" title="UN">UN</a> and UNESCO promote cultural preservation and cultural diversity through declarations and legally-binding conventions or treaties. The aim is not to protect a person's property, but rather to preserve the cultural heritage of humanity, especially in the event of war and armed conflict. According to <a href="/wiki/Karl_von_Habsburg" title="Karl von Habsburg">Karl von Habsburg</a>, President of Blue Shield International, the destruction of cultural assets is also part of psychological warfare. The target of the attack is the identity of the opponent, which is why symbolic cultural assets become a main target. It is also intended to affect the particularly sensitive cultural memory, the growing cultural diversity and the economic basis (such as tourism) of a state, region or municipality.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tourism is having an increasing impact on the various forms of culture. On the one hand, this can be physical impact on individual objects or the destruction caused by increasing environmental pollution and, on the other hand, socio-cultural effects on society.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/28px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/42px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/56px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">Cultural area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism" title="Cultural tourism">Cultural tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_21" title="Culture 21">Culture 21</a> – United Nations plan of action</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour#Cultures_of_honour_and_cultures_of_law" title="Honour">Honour § Cultures of honour and cultures of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_culture" title="Outline of culture">Outline of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recombinant_culture" title="Recombinant culture">Recombinant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-tyor1871-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-tyor1871_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Tylor, Edward. (1871). <i>Primitive Culture</i>. Vol 1. New York: J.P. Putnam's Son</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jackson, Y. <i>Encyclopedia of Multicultural Psychology</i>, p. 203</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChigbu2014" class="citation journal cs1">Chigbu, Uchendu Eugene (November 24, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13668803.2014.981506">"Repositioning culture for development: women and development in a Nigerian rural community"</a>. <i>Community, Work & Family</i>. <b>18</b> (3): 334–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13668803.2014.981506">10.1080/13668803.2014.981506</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1366-8803">1366-8803</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144448501">144448501</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220730074444/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13668803.2014.981506">Archived</a> from the original on July 30, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Community%2C+Work+%26+Family&rft.atitle=Repositioning+culture+for+development%3A+women+and+development+in+a+Nigerian+rural+community&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=334-350&rft.date=2014-11-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144448501%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1366-8803&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13668803.2014.981506&rft.aulast=Chigbu&rft.aufirst=Uchendu+Eugene&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1080%2F13668803.2014.981506&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-obert-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-obert_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Obert (2013) <a href="/wiki/Song_from_the_Forest" title="Song from the Forest">Song from the Forest</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Macionis,_Gerber_and_2010_53_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacionisGerber2011" class="citation book cs1">Macionis, John J; Gerber, Linda Marie (2011). <i>Sociology</i>. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-700161-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-700161-3"><bdi>978-0-13-700161-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/652430995">652430995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F652430995&rft.isbn=978-0-13-700161-3&rft.aulast=Macionis&rft.aufirst=John+J&rft.au=Gerber%2C+Linda+Marie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCicéronBouhier1812" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Cicéron, Marcus Tullius Cicero; Bouhier, Jean (1812). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZcOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA273"><i>Tusculanes</i></a> (in French). Nismes: J. Gaude. p. 273. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/457735057">457735057</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180902230800/https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZcOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA273">Archived</a> from the original on September 2, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 3,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tusculanes&rft.place=Nismes&rft.pages=273&rft.pub=J.+Gaude&rft.date=1812&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F457735057&rft.aulast=Cic%C3%A9ron&rft.aufirst=Marcus+Tullius+Cicero&rft.au=Bouhier%2C+Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0ZcOAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-velkley-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-velkley_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-velkley_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelkley2002" class="citation book cs1">Velkley, Richard L (2002). "The Tension in the Beautiful: On Culture and Civilization in Rousseau and German Philosophy". <i>Being after Rousseau: philosophy and culture in question</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 11–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-85256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-85256-0"><bdi>978-0-226-85256-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/47930775">47930775</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Tension+in+the+Beautiful%3A+On+Culture+and+Civilization+in+Rousseau+and+German+Philosophy&rft.btitle=Being+after+Rousseau%3A+philosophy+and+culture+in+question&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=11-30&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F47930775&rft.isbn=978-0-226-85256-0&rft.aulast=Velkley&rft.aufirst=Richard+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorrells2015" class="citation book cs1">Sorrells, Kathryn (2015). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/interculturalcom0000sorr"><i>Intercultural Communication: Globalization and Social Justice</i></a></span>. Los Angeles: Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2744-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-2744-4"><bdi>978-1-4129-2744-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intercultural+Communication%3A+Globalization+and+Social+Justice&rft.place=Los+Angeles&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-2744-4&rft.aulast=Sorrells&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finterculturalcom0000sorr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (January 2018)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETylor19741-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETylor19741_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTylor1974">Tylor 1974</a>, 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesMageeScerriSteger2015" class="citation book cs1">James, Paul; Magee, Liam; Scerri, Andy; Steger, Manfred (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9294719"><i>Urban Sustainability in Theory and Practice: Circles of Sustainability</i></a>. London: Routledge. p. 53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-02572-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-02572-1"><bdi>978-1-138-02572-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/942553107">942553107</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170626015736/http://www.academia.edu/9294719/Urban_Sustainability_in_Theory_and_Practice_Circles_of_Sustainability_2015_">Archived</a> from the original on June 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Urban+Sustainability+in+Theory+and+Practice%3A+Circles+of+Sustainability&rft.place=London&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F942553107&rft.isbn=978-1-138-02572-1&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Magee%2C+Liam&rft.au=Scerri%2C+Andy&rft.au=Steger%2C+Manfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9294719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dict_cult-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dict_cult_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/culture">"Meaning of "culture"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>Cambridge English Dictionary</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150815114957/http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/culture">Archived</a> from the original on August 15, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 26,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Cambridge+English+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Meaning+of+%22culture%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Fculture&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPyszczynskiSolomonGreenberg2015" class="citation book cs1">Pyszczynski, Tom; Solomon, Sheldon; Greenberg, Jeff (2015). <i>Thirty Years of Terror Management Theory</i>. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology. 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Guilford Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-1479-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4625-1479-3"><bdi>978-1-4625-1479-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161231020831/https://books.google.com/books?id=g_9dAgAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on December 31, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Answering the Question: What is Enlightenment?" (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Beantwortung der Frage: Was ist Aufklärung?</i>) <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">Berlinische Monatsschrift</i></span>, December (Berlin Monthly)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEldridge" class="citation web cs1">Eldridge, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090123162257/http://www.philosophy.uncc.edu/mleldrid/SAAP/USC/pbt1.html">"The German Bildung Tradition"</a>. <a href="/wiki/UNC_Charlotte" class="mw-redirect" title="UNC Charlotte">UNC Charlotte</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Today+in+Science+History&rft.atitle=Biography+of+Adolf+Bastian%2C+ethnologist&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftodayinsci.com%2FB%2FBastian_Adolf%2FBastianAdolf.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiron2003" class="citation thesis cs1">Liron, Tal (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170102111430/http://home.uchicago.edu/~tliron/boas/boas.pdf"><i>Franz Boas and the discovery of culture</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (Thesis). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52888196">52888196</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.uchicago.edu/~tliron/boas/boas.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on January 2, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Franz+Boas+and+the+discovery+of+culture&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52888196&rft.aulast=Liron&rft.aufirst=Tal&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.uchicago.edu%2F~tliron%2Fboas%2Fboas.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-anarchy-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-anarchy_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-anarchy_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnold1869" class="citation web cs1">Arnold, Matthew (1869). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html">"Culture and Anarchy"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170106012655/http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_all.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 6, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Culture+and+Anarchy&rft.date=1869&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.library.utoronto.ca%2Futel%2Fnonfiction_u%2Farnoldm_ca%2Fca_all.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Williams (1983), p. 90. Cited in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1997" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Shuker (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpop0000shuk_i1i5/page/5"><i>Understanding popular music</i></a>. Routledge. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingpop0000shuk_i1i5/page/5">5</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10723-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10723-5"><bdi>978-0-415-10723-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/245910934">245910934</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+popular+music&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F245910934&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10723-5&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Shuker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingpop0000shuk_i1i5%2Fpage%2F5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span> argues that contemporary definitions of culture fall into three possibilities or mixture of the following three: <ul><li>"a general process of intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development."</li> <li>"a particular way of life, whether of a people, period or a group."</li> <li>"the works and practices of intellectual and especially artistic activity."</li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bakhtin 1981, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunneReus-Smit2017" class="citation book cs1">Dunne, Timothy; Reus-Smit, Christian (2017). <i>The globalization of international society</i>. Oxford. pp. 102–121. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-251193-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-251193-5"><bdi>978-0-19-251193-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+globalization+of+international+society&rft.pages=102-121&rft.pub=Oxford&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-19-251193-5&rft.aulast=Dunne&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft.au=Reus-Smit%2C+Christian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McClenon, pp. 528–29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngioni1973" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Angioni" title="Giulio Angioni">Angioni, Giulio</a> (1973). <i>Tre saggi sull'antropologia dell'età coloniale</i> (in Italian). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/641869481">641869481</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tre+saggi+sull%27antropologia+dell%27et%C3%A0+coloniale&rft.date=1973&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F641869481&rft.aulast=Angioni&rft.aufirst=Giulio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTeslow2016" class="citation book cs1">Teslow, Tracy (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/980557304"><i>Constructing race: the science of bodies and cultures in American anthropology</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60338-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-316-60338-3"><bdi>978-1-316-60338-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/980557304">980557304</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901075631/https://www.worldcat.org/title/constructing-race-the-science-of-bodies-and-cultures-in-american-anthropology/oclc/980557304">Archived</a> from the original on September 1, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 10,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constructing+race%3A+the+science+of+bodies+and+cultures+in+American+anthropology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F980557304&rft.isbn=978-1-316-60338-3&rft.aulast=Teslow&rft.aufirst=Tracy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fworldcat.org%2Foclc%2F980557304&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200122150855/https://www.lexico.com/definition/anthropology">"anthropology"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Lexico" title="Lexico">Lexico</a> UK English Dictionary</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lexico.com/definition/anthropology">the original</a> on January 22, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=anthropology&rft.btitle=Lexico+UK+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Fanthropology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernandezHanchettJeganathanNicholas2015" class="citation web cs1">Fernandez, James W.; Hanchett, Suzanne L.; Jeganathan, Pradeep; Nicholas, Ralph W.; Robotham, Donald Keith; Smith, Eric A. (August 31, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology">"anthropology | Britannica.com"</a>. <i>Britannica.com</i>. Encyclopedia Britannica. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161030210125/https://www.britannica.com/science/anthropology">Archived</a> from the original on October 30, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Britannica.com&rft.atitle=anthropology+%7C+Britannica.com&rft.date=2015-08-31&rft.aulast=Fernandez&rft.aufirst=James+W.&rft.au=Hanchett%2C+Suzanne+L.&rft.au=Jeganathan%2C+Pradeep&rft.au=Nicholas%2C+Ralph+W.&rft.au=Robotham%2C+Donald+Keith&rft.au=Smith%2C+Eric+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fanthropology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">"What is Anthropology? – Advance Your Career"</a>. American Anthropological Association. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161026173505/http://www.americananthro.org/AdvanceYourCareer/Content.aspx?ItemNumber=2150">Archived</a> from the original on October 26, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+Anthropology%3F+%E2%80%93+Advance+Your+Career&rft.pub=American+Anthropological+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.americananthro.org%2FAdvanceYourCareer%2FContent.aspx%3FItemNumber%3D2150&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavilandMcBridePrinsWalrath2011" class="citation book cs1">Haviland, William A.; McBride, Bunny; Prins, Harald E.L.; Walrath, Dana (2011). <i>Cultural Anthropology: The Human Challenge</i>. Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-81082-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-81082-7"><bdi>978-0-495-81082-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/731048150">731048150</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cultural+Anthropology%3A+The+Human+Challenge&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2FCengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F731048150&rft.isbn=978-0-495-81082-7&rft.aulast=Haviland&rft.aufirst=William+A.&rft.au=McBride%2C+Bunny&rft.au=Prins%2C+Harald+E.L.&rft.au=Walrath%2C+Dana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindström2016" class="citation book cs1">Lindström, Martin (2016). <i>Small data: the tiny clues that uncover huge trends</i>. London: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-250-08068-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-250-08068-4"><bdi>978-1-250-08068-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/921994909">921994909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Small+data%3A+the+tiny+clues+that+uncover+huge+trends&rft.place=London&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F921994909&rft.isbn=978-1-250-08068-4&rft.aulast=Lindstr%C3%B6m&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimmel1971" class="citation book cs1">Simmel, Georg (1971). Levine, Donald N (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/951272809"><i>Georg Simmel on individuality and social forms: selected writings</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. xix. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75776-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-75776-6"><bdi>978-0-226-75776-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/951272809">951272809</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912194431/https://www.worldcat.org/title/oclc/951272809">Archived</a> from the original on September 12, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 29,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Georg+Simmel+on+individuality+and+social+forms%3A+selected+writings&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=xix&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F951272809&rft.isbn=978-0-226-75776-6&rft.aulast=Simmel&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F951272809&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSokal1996" class="citation web cs1">Sokal, Alan D. (June 5, 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/lingua_franca_v4/lingua_franca_v4.html">"A Physicist Experiments with Cultural Studies"</a>. <i>Lingua Franca</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070326152500/http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/lingua_franca_v4/lingua_franca_v4.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 26, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lingua+Franca&rft.atitle=A+Physicist+Experiments+with+Cultural+Studies&rft.date=1996-06-05&rft.aulast=Sokal&rft.aufirst=Alan+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physics.nyu.edu%2Ffaculty%2Fsokal%2Flingua_franca_v4%2Flingua_franca_v4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span> Physicist <a href="/wiki/Alan_Sokal" title="Alan Sokal">Alan Sokal</a> published a paper in a journal of cultural sociology stating that gravity was a social construct that should be examined hermeneutically. See <a href="/wiki/Sokal_affair" title="Sokal affair">Sokal affair</a> for further details.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGriswold1987" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Griswold" title="Wendy Griswold">Griswold, Wendy</a> (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.2307/271027">"A Methodological Framework for the Sociology of Culture"</a>. <i>Sociological Methodology</i>. <b>17</b>: 1–35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F271027">10.2307/271027</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0081-1750">0081-1750</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/271027">271027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Sociological+Methodology&rft.atitle=A+Methodological+Framework+for+the+Sociology+of+Culture&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=1-35&rft.date=1987&rft.issn=0081-1750&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F271027%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F271027&rft.aulast=Griswold&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.2307%2F271027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlinRyan2002" class="citation book cs1">Berlin, Isaiah; Ryan, Alan (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/karlmarxhislifee00berl/page/130"><i>Karl Marx: His Life and Environment</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/karlmarxhislifee00berl/page/130">130</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510326-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-510326-7"><bdi>978-0-19-510326-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/611127754">611127754</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Karl+Marx%3A+His+Life+and+Environment&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F611127754&rft.isbn=978-0-19-510326-7&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Isaiah&rft.au=Ryan%2C+Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkarlmarxhislifee00berl%2Fpage%2F130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1983" class="citation cs1">Williams, Raymond (1983). <i>Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–93, 236–38. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/906396817">906396817</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keywords%3A+A+Vocabulary+of+Culture+and+Society&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=87-93%2C+236-38&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F906396817&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1972" class="citation book cs1">Berger, John (1972). <i>Ways of seeing</i>. Peter Smithn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-563-12244-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-563-12244-9"><bdi>978-0-563-12244-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/780459348">780459348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ways+of+seeing&rft.pub=Peter+Smithn&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F780459348&rft.isbn=978-0-563-12244-9&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Studying Culture – Reflections and Assessment: An Interview with Richard Hoggart". <i>Media, Culture & Society</i>. <b>13</b>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Media%2C+Culture+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Studying+Culture+%E2%80%93+Reflections+and+Assessment%3A+An+Interview+with+Richard+Hoggart&rft.volume=13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2007" class="citation news cs1">Adams, Tim (September 23, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/sep/23/communities.politicsphilosophyandsociety">"Cultural hallmark"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077">0261-3077</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161031030223/https://www.theguardian.com/society/2007/sep/23/communities.politicsphilosophyandsociety">Archived</a> from the original on October 31, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Cultural+hallmark&rft.date=2007-09-23&rft.issn=0261-3077&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsociety%2F2007%2Fsep%2F23%2Fcommunities.politicsphilosophyandsociety&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2004" class="citation book cs1">James, Procter (2004). <i>Stuart Hall</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26267-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26267-5"><bdi>978-0-415-26267-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/318376213">318376213</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stuart+Hall&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F318376213&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26267-5&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Procter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSardarVan_LoonAppignanesi1994" class="citation book cs1">Sardar, Ziauddin; Van Loon, Borin; Appignanesi, Richard (1994). <i>Introducing Cultural Studies</i>. New York: Totem Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-587-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84046-587-7"><bdi>978-1-84046-587-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/937991291">937991291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Cultural+Studies&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Totem+Books&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F937991291&rft.isbn=978-1-84046-587-7&rft.aulast=Sardar&rft.aufirst=Ziauddin&rft.au=Van+Loon%2C+Borin&rft.au=Appignanesi%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFiskeTurnerHodge1987" class="citation book cs1">Fiske, John; Turner, Graeme; Hodge, Robert Ian Vere (1987). <i>Myths of Oz: reading Australian popular culture</i>. London: Allen and Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-330391-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-04-330391-7"><bdi>978-0-04-330391-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/883364628">883364628</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+of+Oz%3A+reading+Australian+popular+culture&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Allen+and+Unwin&rft.date=1987&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F883364628&rft.isbn=978-0-04-330391-7&rft.aulast=Fiske&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Turner%2C+Graeme&rft.au=Hodge%2C+Robert+Ian+Vere&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakhtinHolquist1981" class="citation book cs1">Bakhtin, Mikhail Mikhaĭlovich; Holquist, Michael (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://proxy2.hec.ca/login?url=http://site.ebrary.com/lib/hecm/Doc?id=10439450"><i>The dialogic imagination four essays</i></a>. Austin: University of Texas Press. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/872436352">872436352</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210901075632/https://login.proxy2.hec.ca/login">Archived</a> from the original on September 1, 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 1,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+dialogic+imagination+four+essays&rft.place=Austin&rft.pages=4&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F872436352&rft.aulast=Bakhtin&rft.aufirst=Mikhail+Mikha%C4%ADlovich&rft.au=Holquist%2C+Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fproxy2.hec.ca%2Flogin%3Furl%3Dhttp%3A%2F%2Fsite.ebrary.com%2Flib%2Fhecm%2FDoc%3Fid%3D10439450&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thepress.purdue.edu/series/comparative-cultural-studies">"Comparative Cultural Studies"</a>. <i>Purdue University Press</i>. 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20120805230001/http://www.thepress.purdue.edu/series/comparative-cultural-studies">Archived</a> from the original on August 5, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 30,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Purdue+University+Press&rft.atitle=Comparative+Cultural+Studies&rft.date=2015&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thepress.purdue.edu%2Fseries%2Fcomparative-cultural-studies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindlofTaylor2002" class="citation book cs1">Lindlof, Thomas R; Taylor, Bryan C (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind/page/60"><i>Qualitative Communication Research Methods</i></a> (2nd ed.). Sage. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/qualitativecommu00lind/page/60">60</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2493-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2493-7"><bdi>978-0-7619-2493-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/780825710">780825710</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Qualitative+Communication+Research+Methods&rft.pages=60&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F780825710&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2493-7&rft.aulast=Lindlof&rft.aufirst=Thomas+R&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Bryan+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fqualitativecommu00lind%2Fpage%2F60&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonick2006" class="citation web cs1">Gonick, Cy (February 7, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/marxism">"Marxism"</a>. <i>The Canadian Encyclopedia</i>. Historica Canada. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191007044011/https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/marxism">Archived</a> from the original on October 7, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 7,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Encyclopedia&rft.atitle=Marxism&rft.date=2006-02-07&rft.aulast=Gonick&rft.aufirst=Cy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fmarxism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFdu_Gay1997" class="citation book cs1">du Gay, Paul, ed. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gX-kksNNdFIC"><i>Doing Cultural Studies: The Story of the Sony Walkman</i></a>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5402-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-5402-6"><bdi>978-0-7619-5402-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/949857570">949857570</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150926095703/https://books.google.com/books?id=gX-kksNNdFIC">Archived</a> from the original on September 26, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 2,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Doing+Cultural+Studies%3A+The+Story+of+the+Sony+Walkman&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F949857570&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-5402-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgX-kksNNdFIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacKenzie2018" class="citation web cs1">MacKenzie, Gina (August 21, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780190221911/obo-9780190221911-0063.xml">"Julia Kristeva"</a>. <i>Oxford Bibliographies</i>. 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Linden Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61035-101-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61035-101-0"><bdi>978-1-61035-101-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teen+2.0%3A+Saving+Our+Children+and+Families+from+the+Torment+of+Adolescence&rft.pub=Linden+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-61035-101-0&rft.aulast=Epstein&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOENf1J45SS0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemosDemos1969" class="citation journal cs1">Demos, John; Demos, Virginia (1969). 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"Commodification, culture and tourism". <i>Tourist Studies</i>. <b>2</b> (2): 183–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F146879702761936653">10.1177/146879702761936653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55744323">55744323</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tourist+Studies&rft.atitle=Commodification%2C+culture+and+tourism&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=183-201&rft.date=2002-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F146879702761936653&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55744323%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Shepard&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coye, N. dir. (2011), Lascaux et la conservation en milieu souterrain: actes du symposium international (Paris, 26-27 fév. 2009) = Lascaux and Preservation Issues in Subterranean Environments: Proceedings of the International Symposium (Paris, February 26 and 27), Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l'homme, 360 p.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaafar,_MasturaRasoolimanesh,_S_MostafaIsmail,_Safura2017" class="citation journal cs1">Jaafar, Mastura; Rasoolimanesh, S Mostafa; Ismail, Safura (2017). "Perceived sociocultural impacts of tourism and community participation: A case study of Langkawi Island". <i>Tourism and Hospitality Research</i>. <b>17</b> (2): 123–134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1467358415610373">10.1177/1467358415610373</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:157784805">157784805</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tourism+and+Hospitality+Research&rft.atitle=Perceived+sociocultural+impacts+of+tourism+and+community+participation%3A+A+case+study+of+Langkawi+Island&rft.volume=17&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=123-134&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1467358415610373&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A157784805%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Jaafar%2C+Mastura&rft.au=Rasoolimanesh%2C+S+Mostafa&rft.au=Ismail%2C+Safura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTylor1974" class="citation book cs1">Tylor, E.B. (1974) [1871]. <i>Primitive culture: researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom</i>. New York: Gordon Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87968-091-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87968-091-6"><bdi>978-0-87968-091-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primitive+culture%3A+researches+into+the+development+of+mythology%2C+philosophy%2C+religion%2C+art%2C+and+custom&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Gordon+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=978-0-87968-091-6&rft.aulast=Tylor&rft.aufirst=E.B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Books">Books</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarker2004" class="citation book cs1">Barker, C. (2004). <i>The Sage dictionary of cultural studies</i>. Sage.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sage+dictionary+of+cultural+studies&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeacon,_Terrence1997" class="citation book cs1">Deacon, Terrence (1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/symbolicspeciesc00deac"><i>The Symbolic Species: The Co-evolution of Language and the Brain</i></a></span>. New York and London: W.W. Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3930-3838-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3930-3838-5"><bdi>978-0-3930-3838-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Symbolic+Species%3A+The+Co-evolution+of+Language+and+the+Brain&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.pub=W.W.+Norton&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-3930-3838-5&rft.au=Deacon%2C+Terrence&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsymbolicspeciesc00deac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolloway_Jr._Ralph_L.1969" class="citation journal cs1">Holloway Jr. Ralph L. (1969). "Culture: A Human domain". <i>Current Anthropology</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 395–412. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F201036">10.1086/201036</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144502900">144502900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Culture%3A+A+Human+domain&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=395-412&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F201036&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144502900%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Holloway+Jr.+Ralph+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHymes,_Dell1969" class="citation book cs1">Hymes, Dell (1969). <i>Reinventing Anthropology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reinventing+Anthropology&rft.date=1969&rft.au=Hymes%2C+Dell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamesSzeman2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_James_(academic)" title="Paul James (academic)">James, Paul</a>; <a href="/wiki/Imre_Szeman" title="Imre Szeman">Szeman, Imre</a> (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4501557"><i>Globalization and Culture, Vol. 3: Global-Local Consumption</i></a>. London: Sage Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Globalization+and+Culture%2C+Vol.+3%3A+Global-Local+Consumption&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Szeman%2C+Imre&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F4501557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomasello,_Michael1999" class="citation journal cs1">Tomasello, Michael (1999). "The Human Adaptation for Culture". <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i>. <b>28</b>: 509–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.28.1.509">10.1146/annurev.anthro.28.1.509</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=The+Human+Adaptation+for+Culture&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=509-29&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.anthro.28.1.509&rft.au=Tomasello%2C+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhorf1941" class="citation journal cs1">Whorf, Benjamin Lee (1941). "The relation of habitual thought and behavior to language". <i>Language, Culture, and Personality: Essays in Honor of Edward Sapir</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language%2C+Culture%2C+and+Personality%3A+Essays+in+Honor+of+Edward+Sapir&rft.atitle=The+relation+of+habitual+thought+and+behavior+to+language&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Whorf&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+Lee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor,_Walter1948" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Walter (1948). <i>A Study of Archeology. Memoir 69, American Anthropological Association</i>. Carbondale IL: Southern Illinois University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Study+of+Archeology.+Memoir+69%2C+American+Anthropological+Association&rft.place=Carbondale+IL&rft.pub=Southern+Illinois+University+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.au=Taylor%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bastian, Adolf (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/55606/Adolf-Bastian">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnker2000" class="citation book cs1">Anker, Guy (2000) [2000]. <i>Global communication without universal civilization, vol.1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western</i>. INU societal research. Geneva: INU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-88155-004-1"><bdi>978-2-88155-004-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+communication+without+universal+civilization%2C+vol.1%3A+Coexisting+contemporary+civilizations%3A+Arabo-Muslim%2C+Bharati%2C+Chinese%2C+and+Western&rft.place=Geneva&rft.series=INU+societal+research&rft.pub=INU+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-2-88155-004-1&rft.aulast=Anker&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Arnold, Matthew. 1869. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html"><i>Culture and Anarchy.</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171118211142/http://www.library.utoronto.ca/utel/nonfiction_u/arnoldm_ca/ca_titlepage.html">Archived</a> November 18, 2017, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Macmillan_Publishers_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Macmillan Publishers (United States)">Macmillan.</a> Third edition, 1882, available online. Retrieved: 2006-06-28.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bakhtin" title="Bakhtin">Bakhtin</a>, M.M. (1981) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JKZztxqdIpgC">The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays</a></i>. Ed. Michael Holquist. Trans. Caryl Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06445-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06445-6">978-0-252-06445-6</a>.</li> <li>Barzilai, Gad (2003). <i>Communities and Law: Politics and Cultures of Legal Identities</i> University of Michigan Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-472-11315-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-472-11315-1">0-472-11315-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenedict1934" class="citation book cs1">Benedict, Ruth (1934). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/patternsofcultu00bene"><i>Patterns of Culture</i></a></span>. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Culture&rft.place=Boston&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Company&rft.date=1934&rft.aulast=Benedict&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpatternsofcultu00bene&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Bourdieu, Pierre (1977). <i>Outline of a Theory of Practice.</i> Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29164-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29164-4">978-0-521-29164-4</a></li> <li>Carhart. Michael C. (2007). <i>The Science of Culture in Enlightenment Germany</i>, Cambridge, <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University press</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Cohen, Anthony P. (1985). <i>The Symbolic Construction of Community.</i> New York: Routledge <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Dawkins, R. (1999) [1982]. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Extended_Phenotype" title="The Extended Phenotype">The Extended Phenotype: The Long Reach of the Gene.</a></i> Oxford Paperbacks. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288051-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-288051-2">978-0-19-288051-2</a></li> <li>Findley & Rothney (1986). <i>Twentieth-Century World</i>, Houghton Mifflin <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Geertz, Clifford (1973). <i>The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays</i>. New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09719-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-465-09719-7">978-0-465-09719-7</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeertz1957" class="citation journal cs1">Geertz, Clifford (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1957.59.1.02a00040">"Ritual and Social Change: A Javanese Example"</a>. <i>American Anthropologist</i>. <b>59</b>: 32–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1957.59.1.02a00040">10.1525/aa.1957.59.1.02a00040</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Anthropologist&rft.atitle=Ritual+and+Social+Change%3A+A+Javanese+Example&rft.volume=59&rft.pages=32-54&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Faa.1957.59.1.02a00040&rft.aulast=Geertz&rft.aufirst=Clifford&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1525%252Faa.1957.59.1.02a00040&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACulture" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Goodall, J. (1986). <i>The Chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of Behavior.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-11649-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-11649-8">978-0-674-11649-8</a></li> <li>Hoult, T.F., ed. (1969). <i>Dictionary of Modern Sociology</i>. Totowa, New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Jary, D. and J. Jary (1991). <i>The HarperCollins Dictionary of Sociology.</i> New York: HarperCollins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-271543-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-271543-7">0-06-271543-7</a></li> <li>Keiser, R. Lincoln (1969). <i>The Vice Lords: Warriors of the Streets</i>. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-080361-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-080361-1">978-0-03-080361-1</a>.</li> <li>Kroeber, A.L. and C. Kluckhohn (1952). <i>Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Definitions.</i> Cambridge, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Kim, Uichol (2001). "Culture, science and indigenous psychologies: An integrated analysis." In D. Matsumoto (Ed.), <i>Handbook of culture and psychology.</i> Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>McClenon, James. Tylor, Edward B(urnett) (1998) <i>Encyclopedia of Religion and Society</i>. Ed. William Swatos and Peter Kivisto. Walnut Creek: AltaMira, pp. 528–529. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Middleton, R. (1990). <i>Studying Popular Music</i>. Philadelphia: Open University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-335-15275-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-335-15275-9">978-0-335-15275-9</a>.</li> <li>O'Neil, D. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm">Cultural Anthropology Tutorials</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041204152854/http://anthro.palomar.edu/tutorials/cultural.htm">Archived</a> December 4, 2004, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Behavioral Sciences Department, Palomar College, San Marco, California. Retrieved: 2006-07-10.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Reagan, Ronald</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm">"Final Radio Address to the Nation"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160130224216/http://www.reagan.utexas.edu/archives/speeches/1989/011489a.htm">Archived</a> January 30, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, January 14, 1989. Retrieved June 3, 2006.</li> <li>Reese, W.L. (1980). <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Religion: Eastern and Western Thought.</i> New Jersey US; Sussex, UK: Humanities Press. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/education/imld_2002/unversal_decla.shtml">Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity</a>, issued on <a href="/wiki/International_Mother_Language_Day" title="International Mother Language Day">International Mother Language Day</a>,</li> <li>White, L. (1949). <i>The Science of Culture: A study of man and civilization.</i> New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Wilson, Edward O. (1998). <i><a href="/wiki/Consilience:_The_Unity_of_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge">Consilience: The Unity of Knowledge</a>.</i> New York: Vintage. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76867-8">978-0-679-76867-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/books/joshua-rothman/meaning-culture">The Meaning of "Culture"</a> (2014-12-27), Joshua Rothman, <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style 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data-file-height="430" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Culture" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Culture">Texts</a> from Wikisource</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Culture" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Culture">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></span><span class="sister-link"><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Culture" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Culture">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</span></li><li><span class="sister-logo"><span class="mw-valign-middle" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg/27px-Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture" title="Template:Culture"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture" title="Template talk:Culture"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Culture</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_culture" title="Outline of culture">Outline</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_astronomy" title="Cultural astronomy">Cultural astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience" title="Cultural neuroscience">Cultural neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturology" title="Culturology">Culturology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioculture" title="Bioculture">Bioculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_communication" title="Cross-cultural communication">Cross-cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_leadership" title="Cross-cultural leadership">Cross-cultural leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychiatry" title="Cross-cultural psychiatry">Cross-cultural psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_analytics" title="Cultural analytics">Cultural analytics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_economics" title="Cultural economics">Cultural economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insects_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Insects in culture">Cultural entomology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">Cultural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mediation" title="Cultural mediation">Cultural mediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Cultural values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturomics" title="Culturomics">Culturomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_learning" title="Intercultural learning">Intercultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_relations" title="Intercultural relations">Intercultural relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_culture" title="Internet culture">Internet culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture_studies" title="Popular culture studies">Popular culture studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics_of_culture" title="Semiotics of culture">Semiotics of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Sociology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound culture">Sound culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_culture" title="Theology of culture">Theology of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcultural_nursing" title="Transcultural nursing">Transcultural nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructed culture">Constructed culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominant_culture" title="Dominant culture">Dominant culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk culture">Folk culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualistic_culture" title="Individualistic culture">Individualistic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_culture" title="Legal culture">Legal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_culture" title="Low culture">Low culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microculture" title="Microculture">Microculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_culture" title="Official culture">Official culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Political culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civic_political_culture" title="Civic political culture">Civic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture" title="Popular culture">Popular culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_pop_culture" title="Urban pop culture">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Primitive culture">Primitive culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_through_culture" title="Resistance through culture">Resistance through culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subculture" title="Subculture">Subculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_culture" title="Alternative culture">Alternative culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fandom" title="Fandom">Fandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Far-right_subcultures" title="Far-right subcultures">Far-right subcultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_subculture" title="Youth subculture">Youth subculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_subcultures" title="List of subcultures">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_culture" title="Super culture">Super culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_culture" title="Vernacular culture">Vernacular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture_by_location" title="Category:Culture by location">Culture by location</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acculturation" title="Acculturation">Acculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appreciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural appreciation">Cultural appreciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_appropriation" title="Cultural appropriation">Cultural appropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_area" title="Cultural area">Cultural area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_artifact" title="Cultural artifact">Cultural artifact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_baggage" title="Cultural baggage">Cultural baggage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_behavior" title="Cultural behavior">Cultural behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_capital" title="Cultural capital">Cultural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_capital" title="Cross-cultural capital">Cross-cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_communication" title="Cultural communication">Cultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conflict" title="Cultural conflict">Cultural conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_cringe" title="Cultural cringe">Cultural cringe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_emphasis" title="Cultural emphasis">Cultural emphasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_framework" title="Cultural framework">Cultural framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_destroyed_heritage" title="List of destroyed heritage">Destroyed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_icon" title="Cultural icon">Cultural icon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">Cultural identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural industry">Cultural industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_invention" title="Cultural invention">Cultural invention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_landscape" title="Cultural landscape">Cultural landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_learning" title="Cultural learning">Cultural learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_leveling" title="Cultural leveling">Cultural leveling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_memory" title="Cultural memory">Cultural memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_practice" title="Cultural practice">Cultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_property" title="Cultural property">Cultural property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_reproduction" title="Cultural reproduction">Cultural reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_system" title="Cultural system">Cultural system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_technology" title="Cultural technology">Cultural technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_universal" title="Cultural universal">Cultural universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultureme" title="Cultureme">Cultureme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enculturation" title="Enculturation">Enculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-_and_low-context_cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="High- and low-context cultures">High- and low-context cultures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturality" class="mw-redirect" title="Interculturality">Interculturality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Material_culture" title="Material culture">Material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-material_culture" title="Non-material culture">Non-material culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organizational_culture" title="Organizational culture">Organizational culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_culture" title="Print culture">Print culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoculture" title="Protoculture">Protoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_mobility" title="Relational mobility">Relational mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">Safety culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoculture" title="Technoculture">Technoculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Trans-cultural diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturation" title="Transculturation">Transculturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_culture" title="Visual culture">Visual culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Politics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_mentality" title="Colonial mentality">Colonial mentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer_capitalism" title="Consumer capitalism">Consumer capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_cultural_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross cultural sensitivity">Cross cultural sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_attach%C3%A9" title="Cultural attaché">Cultural attaché</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_backwardness" title="Cultural backwardness">Cultural backwardness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Bolshevism" title="Cultural Bolshevism">Cultural Bolshevism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_conservatism" title="Cultural conservatism">Cultural conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_contracts" title="Cultural contracts">Cultural contracts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_deprivation" title="Cultural deprivation">Cultural deprivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diplomacy" title="Cultural diplomacy">Cultural diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_environmentalism" title="Cultural environmentalism">Cultural environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_exception" title="Cultural exception">Cultural exception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_globalization" title="Cultural globalization">Cultural globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_hegemony" title="Cultural hegemony">Cultural hegemony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_intelligence" title="Cultural intelligence">Cultural intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_liberalism" title="Cultural liberalism">Cultural liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_nationalism" title="Cultural nationalism">Cultural nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_policy" title="Cultural policy">Cultural policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_racism" title="Cultural racism">Cultural racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_radicalism" title="Cultural radicalism">Cultural radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_retention" title="Cultural retention">Cultural retention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_rights" title="Cultural rights">Cultural rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_safety" title="Cultural safety">Cultural safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_silence" title="Cultural silence">Cultural silence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_subsidy" title="Cultural subsidy">Cultural subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Zionism" title="Cultural Zionism">Cultural Zionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_change" title="Culture change">Culture change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_minister" title="Culture minister">Culture minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_fear" title="Culture of fear">Culture of fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_war" title="Culture war">Culture war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deculturalization" title="Deculturalization">Deculturalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominator_culture" title="Dominator culture">Dominator culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Interculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Monoculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biculturalism" title="Biculturalism">Biculturalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_democracy" title="Multiracial democracy">Multiracial democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluriculturalism" title="Pluriculturalism">Pluriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transculturism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transculturism">Transculturism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role of Christianity in civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Culture">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Hindus" title="Cultural Hindus">Cultural Hindus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslims" title="Cultural Muslims">Cultural Muslims</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_culture" title="Jewish culture">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_art_and_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Sikh art and culture">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;list;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_culture" title="Animal culture">Animal culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeological_culture" title="Archaeological culture">Archaeological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_scale" title="Bennett scale">Bennett scale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cannabis_culture" title="Cannabis culture">Cannabis culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_of_culture" title="Circuit of culture">Circuit of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_culture" title="Coffee culture">Coffee culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural" title="Cross-cultural">Cross-cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_center" title="Cultural center">Cultural center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence" title="Cultural competence">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural critic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_determinism" title="Cultural determinism">Cultural determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_diversity" title="Cultural diversity">Cultural diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_evolutionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural evolutionism">Cultural evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_homogenization" title="Cultural homogenization">Cultural homogenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_institution" title="Cultural institution">Cultural institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_jet_lag" title="Cultural jet lag">Cultural jet lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_lag" title="Cultural lag">Cultural lag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mosaic" title="Cultural mosaic">Cultural mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">Cultural movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mulatto" title="Cultural mulatto">Cultural mulatto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_probe" title="Cultural probe">Cultural probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_tourism" title="Cultural tourism">Cultural tourism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pop-culture_tourism" title="Pop-culture tourism">Pop-culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_translation" title="Cultural translation">Cultural translation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">Cultural turn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_sensibility" title="Cultural sensibility">Cultural sensibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_menstruation" title="Culture and menstruation">Culture and menstruation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_positive_psychology" title="Culture and positive psychology">Culture and positive psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_and_social_cognition" title="Culture and social cognition">Culture and social cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_gap" title="Culture gap">Culture gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_hero" title="Culture hero">Culture hero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_industry" title="Culture industry">Culture industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_shock" title="Culture shock">Culture shock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturgen" title="Culturgen">Culturgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_culture" title="Children's culture">Children's culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyberculture">Cyberculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_and_culture" title="Death and culture">Death and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_culture" title="Disability culture">Disability culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deaf_culture" title="Deaf culture">Deaf culture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_culture" title="Drinking culture">Drinking culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_culture" title="Drug culture">Drug culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">Eastern culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotions_and_culture" title="Emotions and culture">Emotions and culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_communication" title="Intercultural communication">Intercultural communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercultural_competence" class="mw-redirect" title="Intercultural competence">Intercultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languaculture" title="Languaculture">Languaculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_things_in_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Living things in culture">Living things in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_culture" title="Media culture">Media culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppositional_culture" title="Oppositional culture">Oppositional culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participatory_culture" title="Participatory culture">Participatory culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permission_culture" title="Permission culture">Permission culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_culture" title="Rape culture">Rape culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remix_culture" title="Remix culture">Remix culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tea_culture" title="Tea culture">Tea culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformation_of_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Transformation of culture">Transformation of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_culture" title="Urban culture">Urban culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfare_culture" title="Welfare culture">Welfare culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_culture" title="Youth culture">Youth culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Culture" title="Category:Culture">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Culture" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Culture">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Culture" title="Wikipedia:Culture">WikiProject</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Template:Culture" title="Special:RecentChangesLinked/Template:Culture">Changes</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Humanities" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Humanities" title="Template:Humanities"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Humanities" title="Template talk:Humanities"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Humanities"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Humanities" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disciplines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;height:2.5em;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classics" title="Classics">Classical studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts#Literary_arts" title="The arts">Language arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performing_arts" title="Performing arts">Performing arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dance" title="Dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musicology" title="Musicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre" title="Theatre">Theatre</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filmmaking" title="Filmmaking">Filmmaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painting" title="Painting">Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sculpture" title="Sculpture">Sculpture</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Interdisciplinary_fields" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_humanities" title="Digital humanities">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_humanities" title="Health humanities">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_humanities" title="Medical humanities">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_humanities" title="Public humanities">Public</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abductive_reasoning" title="Abductive reasoning">Abductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_arts" title="The arts">The arts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">Belles-lettres</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bildung" title="Bildung">Bildung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism" title="Criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_literacy" title="Cultural literacy">Cultural literacy</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_culture" title="High culture">High</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_knowledge" title="General knowledge">General knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_condition" title="Human condition">Human condition</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Humanitas" title="Humanitas">Humanitas</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts_education" title="Liberal arts education">Liberal arts education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trivium" title="Trivium">Trivium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrivium" title="Quadrivium">Quadrivium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_character" title="Moral character">Moral character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-realization" title="Self-realization">Self-realization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-reflection" title="Self-reflection">Self-reflection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Work of art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Journal_of_Archaeology" title="American Journal of Archaeology">American Journal of Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daedalus_(journal)" title="Daedalus (journal)">Daedalus</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_of_Humanities" title="History of Humanities">History of Humanities</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitas_(journal)" title="Humanitas (journal)">Humanitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_and_Social_Sciences_Communications" title="Humanities and Social Sciences Communications">Humanities and Social Sciences Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Controversial_Ideas" title="Journal of Controversial Ideas">Journal of Controversial Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Asiatic_Society" title="Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society">Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(journal)" title="Leonardo (journal)">Leonardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Religio" title="Nova Religio">Nova Religio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revue_des_%C3%89tudes_Arm%C3%A9niennes" title="Revue des Études Arméniennes">Revue des Études Arméniennes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_Philosophy" title="Teaching Philosophy">Teaching Philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_humanities_journals" title="List of humanities journals">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_and_Humanities_Research_Council" title="Arts and Humanities Research Council">Arts and Humanities Research Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities,_arts,_and_social_sciences" title="Humanities, arts, and social sciences">Humanities, arts, and social sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Humanities" title="Master of Humanities">Master of Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_University_for_the_Humanities" title="Moscow University for the Humanities">Moscow University for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Endowment_for_the_Humanities" title="National Endowment for the Humanities">National Endowment for the Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Humanities_Medal" title="National Humanities Medal">National Humanities Medal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Antihumanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philistinism" title="Philistinism">Philistinism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_culture#Criticism" title="Popular culture">Criticism of mass culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_essentialism" title="Educational essentialism">Educational essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities_in_the_United_States" title="Humanities in the United States">Humanities in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_considered_a_founder_in_a_Humanities_field" class="mw-redirect" title="List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field">List of people considered a founder in a Humanities field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_humanities" title="Outline of the humanities">Outline of the humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Latin_school#Studia_Humanitatis" title="Latin school">Studia Humanitatis</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_philosophy" title="Template talk:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">Anomie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmopolitanism" title="Cosmopolitanism">Cosmopolitanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Customary_law" title="Customary law">Customs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_heritage" title="Cultural heritage">Cultural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culturalism" title="Culturalism">Culturalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interculturalism" title="Interculturalism">Inter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monoculturalism" title="Monoculturalism">Mono</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture" title="Counterculture">Counter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familialism" title="Familialism">Familialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Identity_formation" title="Identity formation">Formation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyalty" title="Loyalty">Loyalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">Modernity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">Public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mores" title="Mores">Mores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_character" title="National character">National character</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reification_(Marxism)" title="Reification (Marxism)">Reification</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Ressentiment" title="Ressentiment">Ressentiment</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Sittlichkeit" title="Sittlichkeit">Sittlichkeit</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_alienation" title="Social alienation">Social alienation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Social norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Values</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family</a></li></ul></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Volksgeist" class="mw-redirect" title="Volksgeist">Volksgeist</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worldview" title="Worldview">Worldview</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Budapest_School" title="Budapest School">Budapest School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_social_teaching" title="Catholic social teaching">Catholic social teaching</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_conservatism" title="Social conservatism">Social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personalism" title="Personalism">Personalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo" title="Philo">Philo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Alpharabius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Bruni" title="Leonardo Bruni">Bruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dante_Alighieri" title="Dante Alighieri">Dante</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gelasius_I" title="Pope Gelasius I">Gelasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Maimonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemistos_Plethon" title="Gemistos Plethon">Plethon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Guicciardini" title="Francesco Guicciardini">Guicciardini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">Milton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th and 19th<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Arnold" title="Matthew Arnold">Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Bentham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Bonald" title="Louis de Bonald">Bonald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Burke" title="Edmund Burke">Burke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Carlyle" title="Thomas Carlyle">Carlyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marquis_de_Condorcet" title="Marquis de Condorcet">Condorcet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Waldo_Emerson" title="Ralph Waldo Emerson">Emerson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Engels" title="Friedrich Engels">Engels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Fourier" title="Charles Fourier">Fourier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Franklin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Adrien_Helv%C3%A9tius" title="Claude Adrien Helvétius">Helvétius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottfried_Herder" title="Johann Gottfried Herder">Herder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson" title="Thomas Jefferson">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Guillaume_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_le_Play" title="Pierre Guillaume Frédéric le Play">Le Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">Mill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Owen" title="Robert Owen">Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Renan" title="Ernest Renan">Renan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Rousseau" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau">Rousseau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Royce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ruskin" title="John Ruskin">Ruskin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germaine_de_Sta%C3%ABl" title="Germaine de Staël">de Staël</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Stirner" title="Max Stirner">Stirner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippolyte_Taine" title="Hippolyte Taine">Taine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_David_Thoreau" title="Henry David Thoreau">Thoreau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giambattista_Vico" title="Giambattista Vico">Vico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swami_Vivekananda" title="Swami Vivekananda">Vivekananda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th and 21st<br />centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Agamben" title="Giorgio Agamben">Agamben</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Arendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Badiou" title="Alain Badiou">Badiou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_de_Benoist" title="Alain de Benoist">Benoist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judith_Butler" title="Judith Butler">Butler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Camus" title="Albert Camus">Camus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_de_Beauvoir" title="Simone de Beauvoir">de Beauvoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Debord" title="Guy Debord">Debord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Eco" title="Umberto Eco">Eco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Evola" title="Julius Evola">Evola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Gandhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Gentile" title="Giovanni Gentile">Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Gramsci" title="Antonio Gramsci">Gramsci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Gu%C3%A9non" title="René Guénon">Guénon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han" title="Byung-Chul Han">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Hermann_Hoppe" title="Hans-Hermann Hoppe">Hoppe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Kirk" title="Russell Kirk">Kirk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leszek_Ko%C5%82akowski" title="Leszek Kołakowski">Kołakowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Kropotkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Lasch" title="Christopher Lasch">Lasch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Maritain" title="Jacques Maritain">Maritain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Niebuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Oakeshott" title="Michael Oakeshott">Oakeshott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Ortega_y_Gasset" title="José Ortega y Gasset">Ortega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan">Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6pke" title="Wilhelm Röpke">Röpke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">Santayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Scruton" title="Roger Scruton">Scruton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_Shariati" title="Ali Shariati">Shariati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._F._Skinner" title="B. F. Skinner">Skinner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_Sombart" title="Werner Sombart">Sombart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sowell" title="Thomas Sowell">Sowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Spengler" title="Oswald Spengler">Spengler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Voegelin" title="Eric Voegelin">Voegelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Walzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Weil" title="Simone Weil">Weil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Zinn" title="Howard Zinn">Zinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavoj_%C5%BDi%C5%BEek" title="Slavoj Žižek">Žižek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Officiis" title="De Officiis">De Officiis</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(44 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oration_on_the_Dignity_of_Man" title="Oration on the Dignity of Man">Oration on the Dignity of Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1486)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Vindication_of_Natural_Society" title="A Vindication of Natural Society">A Vindication of Natural Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1756)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_America" title="Democracy in America">Democracy in America</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1835–1840)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_and_Its_Discontents" title="Civilization and Its Discontents">Civilization and Its Discontents</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1930)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Work_of_Art_in_the_Age_of_Mechanical_Reproduction" title="The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction">The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1935)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Second_Sex" title="The Second Sex">The Second Sex</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1949)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1964)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Society_of_the_Spectacle" title="The Society of the Spectacle">The Society of the Spectacle</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1967)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_History_of_Sexuality" title="The History of Sexuality">The History of Sexuality</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1976)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Culture_of_Narcissism" title="The Culture of Narcissism">The Culture of Narcissism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Conflict_of_Visions" title="A Conflict of Visions">A Conflict of Visions</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Closing_of_the_American_Mind" title="The Closing of the American Mind">The Closing of the American Mind</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender_Trouble" title="Gender Trouble">Gender Trouble</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1990)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Malaise_of_Modernity" title="The Malaise of Modernity">The Malaise of Modernity</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1991)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Intellectuals_and_Society" title="Intellectuals and Society">Intellectuals and Society</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2010)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnotology" title="Agnotology">Agnotology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_critic" title="Cultural critic">Cultural criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pessimism" title="Cultural pessimism">Cultural pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_culture" title="Philosophy of culture">Philosophy of culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">Philosophy of education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">Philosophy of history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_criticism" title="Social criticism">Social criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" 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