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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Spas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_expectancy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_expectancy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Life expectancy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_expectancy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Pensions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maternity_and_childcare_benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maternity_and_childcare_benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Maternity and childcare benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maternity_and_childcare_benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Facilities_for_younger_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Facilities_for_younger_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Facilities for younger children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Facilities_for_younger_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Birthrate_and_abortion_rate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birthrate_and_abortion_rate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Birthrate and abortion rate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birthrate_and_abortion_rate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Housing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Housing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Housing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Housing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> 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The healthcare system featured an excess of bureaucracy, small-scale corruption, failing medical infrastructure, and outdated medical supply, while the social welfare system also fell behind in areas such as housing and nurseries.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style></p><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:auto;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Czechoslovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Czechoslovak Socialist Republic">Czechoslovak Socialist Republic</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_(1960%E2%80%931990).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coat of arms of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic"><img alt="Coat of arms of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg/100px-Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg/150px-Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg/200px-Coat_of_arms_of_Czechoslovakia_%281960%E2%80%931990%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="428" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div><hr /> <p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_Czechoslovakia_(1948%E2%80%931989)" title="History of Czechoslovakia (1948–1989)">History</a></b><br /> <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia">Politics</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of Communist Czechoslovakia">Economy</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Industry of Communist Czechoslovakia">Industry</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Agriculture_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculture of Communist Czechoslovakia">Agriculture</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Foreign trade of Communist Czechoslovakia">Foreign trade</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Czechoslovakia" title="Transport in Czechoslovakia">Transport</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Education_in_Czechoslovakia" title="Education in Czechoslovakia">Education</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Czechoslovakia" title="Demographics of Czechoslovakia">Demographics</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Government_structure_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Government structure of Communist Czechoslovakia">Government structure</a><br /> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Health and social welfare</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia">Mass media</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Resource_base_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Resource base of Communist Czechoslovakia">Resource base</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Communist Czechoslovakia">Religion</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Society of Communist Czechoslovakia">Society</a><br /> </p> <hr /></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Template:Communist Czechoslovakia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Template talk:Communist Czechoslovakia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Communist_Czechoslovakia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Communist Czechoslovakia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Characteristics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1980s, <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> had a comprehensive and universal system of <a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">social security</a> under which everyone was entitled to <a href="/wiki/Socialized_medicine" title="Socialized medicine">free medical care</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. National health planning emphasized <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">preventive medicine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2014131;_134_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2014131;_134-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Factory and local <a href="/wiki/Community_health_center" title="Community health center">health care centers</a>, <a href="/wiki/First_aid_station" class="mw-redirect" title="First aid station">first aid stations</a>, and a variety of <a href="/wiki/Medical_clinic" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical clinic">medical clinics</a> supplemented <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospitals</a> and other inpatient institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997359–361_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997359–361-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ratio of <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> to inhabitants had improved steadily, climbing from 1 per 745 in 1954 to 1 per 270 in 1989, although there were shortages of doctors in rural areas. The shift in the distribution of health resources in the 1960s and 1970s was dramatic; facilities were improved, and the number of <a href="/wiki/Health_care_personnel" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care personnel">health care personnel</a> in <a href="/wiki/Slovakia" title="Slovakia">Slovakia</a> and rural areas increased in general. Despite the improvements, about 40% of all the <a href="/wiki/Medical_equipment" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical equipment">medical equipment</a> was obsolete, facilities were outdated and in short supply, the <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> was excessive, and small <a href="/wiki/Bribery" title="Bribery">bribery</a> was widespread.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989123–124_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989123–124-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461–2462_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461–2462-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997365_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997365-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spas">Spas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Spas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Spa" title="Spa">Spas</a> in Czechoslovakia were part of the health care system.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1985 more than 460,000 people (5% of whom were children) stayed at the 35 spas in the Czech lands and 23 spas in Slovakia. Many spas had existed for centuries, such as <a href="/wiki/Bardejov" title="Bardejov">Bardejov</a> (since the 13th century) in Slovakia and <a href="/wiki/Karlovy_Vary" title="Karlovy Vary">Karlovy Vary</a> in the Czech lands. Many of them specialized in the care and treatment of particular kinds of ailments. All had either mineral or <a href="/wiki/Hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot springs">hot springs</a>, and some also offered <a href="/wiki/Mud_bath" title="Mud bath">mud treatments</a>. In bygone days, the spas were frequented by <a href="/wiki/Dynasty#Europe" title="Dynasty">European royalty</a> and the wealthy, but in the 1980s they were open to all, including foreign <a href="/wiki/Tourist" class="mw-redirect" title="Tourist">tourists</a> (who made up 10% of the patients in 1985). A number of people visited spas on vouchers provided by their <a href="/wiki/Trade_union" title="Trade union">trade unions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_expectancy">Life expectancy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Life expectancy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1984 <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a> in Czechoslovakia was 67 years for men and 75 years for women.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922462_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922462-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1950 women's life expectancy was approximately 4.6 years longer than men's; by 1983 this difference had increased to nearly 7.5 years. While female life expectancy grew slightly, male life expectancy stagnated and in males aged 15, it increased.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a> stood at 11.9 per 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Live_birth_(human)" title="Live birth (human)">live births</a> in 1988, down from 15.6 per 1,000 in 1975. As with medical care, the gap in life expectancy between the Czech lands and Slovakia was narrowed during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992637_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992637-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pensions">Pensions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1985 slightly more than one-quarter of the Czechoslovak population received some kind of <a href="/wiki/Pension" title="Pension">pension</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Elderly" class="mw-redirect" title="Elderly">elderly</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Disabled" class="mw-redirect" title="Disabled">disabled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Widow" title="Widow">widows</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Orphan" title="Orphan">orphans</a> were all entitled to assistance. Social security benefits (primarily <a href="/wiki/Retirement" title="Retirement">retirement</a> and disability) were equal for all wage earners. The average pension was less than Kcs1,000 per month (workers received an average pension of about Kcs 1,130, <a href="/wiki/Cooperative_farming" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooperative farming">cooperative farmers</a> about Kcs880, and independent farmers about Kcs720); this put <a href="/wiki/Pensioner" title="Pensioner">pensioners</a> among the lowest income earners. A substantial minority of the retired (23%) took up employment again to supplement their pensions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maternity_and_childcare_benefits">Maternity and childcare benefits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Maternity and childcare benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women workers had a full complement of maternity and childcare benefits. <a href="/wiki/Maternity_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Maternity leave">Maternity leave</a> (at 90% of full pay) was twenty-six weeks in the 1980s; an additional nine weeks were available for <a href="/wiki/Single_mother" class="mw-redirect" title="Single mother">single mothers</a> or for mothers having <a href="/wiki/Multiple_birth" title="Multiple birth">multiple births</a>. Employers could not deny a woman's request for an additional year of <a href="/wiki/Unpaid_leave" class="mw-redirect" title="Unpaid leave">unpaid leave</a> for child rearing (without loss of job seniority). A system of <a href="/wiki/Child_benefit" title="Child benefit">child allowances</a> and maternity grants also assisted women who took unpaid leave. Women were allowed three days of annual leave in case of illness within the family. There were substantial family allowances, in addition to direct grants, to single parents or families with <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">handicapped</a> children. An unmarried mother, widow, or <a href="/wiki/Divorce" title="Divorce">divorced</a> mother could not be fired if she had a child under three years of age; if she had children between three and fifteen years of age, her employer had to find her another job before dismissing her.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124–125_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124–125-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Facilities_for_younger_children">Facilities for younger children</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Facilities for younger children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Nursery_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursery school">Nursery</a> facilities for younger children were in very short supply; in 1984 they could accommodate less than 10% of children under five years of age. Beyond the sheer lack of space, nurseries were poorly distributed and were often concentrated in older centers rather than in new <a href="/wiki/Housing_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Housing development">housing developments</a> where young families were likely to reside. <a href="/wiki/Kindergarten" title="Kindergarten">Kindergartens</a> were in better supply, and a much higher percentage of children between the ages of three and six years attended these schools.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Birthrate_and_abortion_rate">Birthrate and abortion rate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Birthrate and abortion rate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>High employment of women and inadequate services contributed to the decline in Czechoslovakia's birthrate in the 1960s. Live births during the decade averaged 16 per 1,000 inhabitants, a significant drop from the 1950s. By 1968 the <a href="/wiki/Fertility_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility rate">fertility rate</a> was under 2 children per woman (in comparison with almost 3 in the 1950s); at this rate the population would not replace itself. In the Czech lands, the <a href="/wiki/Population_growth" title="Population growth">population growth</a> rate stood at its 1930s low; in Catholic Slovakia, it was the lowest on record. The government adopted a variety of explicitly <a href="/wiki/Pronatalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronatalist">pronatalist</a> policies in the 1970s. Family allowances increased, especially for second and third children. By 1973 a family with three children received roughly one-third the average worker's salary in allowances. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Birth_grant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birth grant (page does not exist)">Birth grants</a> doubled so that they were the equivalent of two to four weeks of family income. <a href="/wiki/Low-interest_loan" class="mw-redirect" title="Low-interest loan">Low-interest loans</a> to newlyweds were designed so that a portion of the principal was canceled with the birth of each child (Kcs 1,000 for the first and Kcs4,000 for each subsequent child). All told, the financial incentives were substantial. In addition, couples with children had priority on apartment <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/waiting_list" class="extiw" title="wikt:waiting list">waiting lists</a> and were entitled to larger living quarters, no small inducement in the face of Czechoslovakia's chronic housing shortage. Pronatalist policies appear to have had a strong influence on population growth during the 1970s. The birthrate climbed from its 1968 low (14.9 per 1,000 inhabitants) to a peak of 19.9 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1974—one of the highest rates among industrial nations. Perhaps a quarter of this increase reflected the increase in the number of women of child-bearing age in the 1970s. After 1974, however, the <a href="/wiki/Birthrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Birthrate">birthrate</a> steadily declined, falling to 14.5 by 1985. Figures indicated that a trend toward one-child families was emerging. The message seemed to be that after one decade the government's aid program was ineffective.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125–126_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125–126-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A major factor influencing the birthrate was the <a href="/wiki/Abortion" title="Abortion">abortion</a> rate. The number of abortions fluctuated between the 1950s and 1980s, dropping in the early 1960s and the early 1970s. In 1985 there were reportedly 144,712 abortions, or 39 abortions per 100 pregnancies (33.5 per 100 in the <a href="/wiki/Slovak_Socialist_Republic" title="Slovak Socialist Republic">Slovak Socialist Republic</a> and 42.1 per 100 in the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Socialist_Republic" title="Czech Socialist Republic">Czech Socialist Republic</a>). It has been suggested that abortion has remained one of the most favored means of <a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">birth control</a>, despite the risks involved. A 1986 change in the <a href="/wiki/Abortion_law" title="Abortion law">abortion law</a> (eliminating the panel needed to approve a request for an abortion) suggested that the regime was giving up in its efforts to reverse at least this aspect of the adverse demographic trends.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989126_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989126-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1988 the abortion rate hit its peak, at 94 abortions for every 100 live pregnancies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Housing">Housing</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Housing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since statistics did not always provide a comparison between the numbers of households and existing <a href="/wiki/Housing_unit" title="Housing unit">housing units</a>, the housing deficit remained difficult to gauge. A comparison of the number of <a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">marriages</a> annually and construction of new 1 housing units between 1960 and 1975 shows that construction exceeded marriages only in 1975. The deficit was most acute in the 1960s, when an average of housing units was built for every 10 marriages; in 1985 the ratio rose to an average of 8.8 units per 10 marriages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This approximation underestimated the housing deficit: it ignored divorces, the number of <a href="/wiki/Extended_family" title="Extended family">extended families</a> living together who would have preferred separate housing, and the decay of old housing . Even waiting lists underestimated how inadequate housing was in the 1980s. Separate housing for single adults had such a low priority with planners that single adults found it difficult even to get on a housing list.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the factors contributing to the housing shortage was the low construction rate of rental housing. Major reasons for this were high <a href="/wiki/Inflation" title="Inflation">inflation</a>, high <a href="/wiki/Construction" title="Construction">construction</a> costs, and low (heavily subsidized) rents. In 1985 the average building cost for apartments rose to Kcs2,523 per square meter, and the average monthly rent—for the seventh consecutive year—was Kcs358. Construction of individual homes peaked in 1977 at 40,107 and decreased to 29,608 in 1985. Building a home privately was possible, but acquiring labor and materials was difficult and sometimes risky; it often meant borrowing machinery illegally or paying <a href="/wiki/Bribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Bribe">bribes</a> for materials.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite substantial gains in the 1970s, Czechoslovakia entered the 1980s with a housing shortage that was likely to take years to remedy. In 1986 the government announced a slight cutback in new housing construction for the 1986–90 housing plan, further aggravating the situation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983–85_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983–85-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2014131;_134-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2014131;_134_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMoore2014">Moore 2014</a>, p. 131; 134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997359–361-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997359–361_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoffman1997">Hoffman 1997</a>, pp. 359–361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989123–124-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989123–124_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, pp. 123–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461–2462-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461–2462_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlbert1992">Albert 1992</a>, pp. 2461–2462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997365-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffman1997365_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoffman1997">Hoffman 1997</a>, p. 365.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992641_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaffelRaffel1992">Raffel & Raffel 1992</a>, p. 641.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922461_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlbert1992">Albert 1992</a>, p. 2461.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922462-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAlbert19922462_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAlbert1992">Albert 1992</a>, p. 2462.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992637-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERaffelRaffel1992637_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRaffelRaffel1992">Raffel & Raffel 1992</a>, p. 637.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124–125-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989124–125_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, pp. 124–125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125–126-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989125–126_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, pp. 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989126-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak1989126_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983_15-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983–85-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGawdiak198983–85_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGawdiak1989">Gawdiak 1989</a>, pp. 83–85.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Health_and_social_welfare_in_Communist_Czechoslovakia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <p><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAlbert1992" class="citation journal cs1">Albert, Alexa (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/397046">"Health Care in the Czech Republic: A System in Transition"</a>. <i>JAMA</i>. <b>267</b> (18): <span class="nowrap">2461–</span>2466. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1001%2Fjama.1992.03480180047016">10.1001/jama.1992.03480180047016</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0098-7484">0098-7484</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAMA&rft.atitle=Health+Care+in+the+Czech+Republic%3A+A+System+in+Transition&rft.volume=267&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2461-%3C%2Fspan%3E2466&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1001%2Fjama.1992.03480180047016&rft.issn=0098-7484&rft.aulast=Albert&rft.aufirst=Alexa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjamanetwork.com%2Fjournals%2Fjama%2Farticle-abstract%2F397046&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHealth+and+social+welfare+in+Communist+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGawdiak1989" class="citation book cs1">Gawdiak, Ihor (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/master/frd/frdcstdy/cz/czechoslovakiaco00gawd/czechoslovakiaco00gawd.pdf"><i>Czechoslovakia: a country study</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (3rd ed.). Federal Research Division & Library of Congress. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1057-5294">1057-5294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Czechoslovakia%3A+a+country+study&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division+%26+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1989&rft.issn=1057-5294&rft.aulast=Gawdiak&rft.aufirst=Ihor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftile.loc.gov%2Fstorage-services%2Fmaster%2Ffrd%2Ffrdcstdy%2Fcz%2Fczechoslovakiaco00gawd%2Fczechoslovakiaco00gawd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHealth+and+social+welfare+in+Communist+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span> </p><p><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffman1997" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffman, Lily M. 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(1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1403713">"Czechoslovakia's changing health care system"</a>. <i>Public Health Rep</i>. <b>107</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">636–</span>643. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-3549">0033-3549</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1403713">1403713</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1454975">1454975</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Public+Health+Rep.&rft.atitle=Czechoslovakia%27s+changing+health+care+system&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E636-%3C%2Fspan%3E643&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1403713%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0033-3549&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F1454975&rft.aulast=Raffel&rft.aufirst=Marshall+W.&rft.au=Raffel%2C+Norma+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1403713&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHealth+and+social+welfare+in+Communist+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span> </p><p><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.osaarchivum.org/catalog/jDen7Y1B">RFE Czechoslovak Unit</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blinken_Open_Society_Archives" title="Blinken Open Society Archives">Blinken Open Society Archives</a>, Budapest </p><p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/"><i>Country Studies</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Country+Studies&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fcollections%2Fcountry-studies%2Fabout-this-collection%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHealth+and+social+welfare+in+Communist+Czechoslovakia" class="Z3988"></span> </p> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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