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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Key_Mahāyāna_texts_for_East_Asian_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Key_Mahāyāna_texts_for_East_Asian_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Key Mahāyāna texts for East Asian Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Key_Mahāyāna_texts_for_East_Asian_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nianfo_in_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nianfo_in_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Nianfo in China </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nianfo_in_China-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Nianfo in China subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Nianfo_in_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Chinese_Pure_Land_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Chinese_Pure_Land_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 The Chinese Pure Land tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Chinese_Pure_Land_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_other_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_other_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 In other traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_other_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Chinese_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Chinese_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Modern Chinese Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Chinese_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Korea" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Korea"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 In Korea </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Korea-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nembutsu_in_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nembutsu_in_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Nembutsu in Japan </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Nembutsu_in_Japan-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Nembutsu in Japan subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Nembutsu_in_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Pure_Land_sects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Pure_Land_sects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 The Pure Land sects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Pure_Land_sects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esoteric_nembutsu" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esoteric_nembutsu"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Esoteric nembutsu </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esoteric_nembutsu-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_developments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_developments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Later developments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_developments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Vietnamese_Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Vietnamese_Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 In Vietnamese Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_Vietnamese_Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ways_of_practicing_nianfo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ways_of_practicing_nianfo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Ways of practicing nianfo </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ways_of_practicing_nianfo-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ways of practicing nianfo subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ways_of_practicing_nianfo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Many_nianfo_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Many_nianfo_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Many nianfo methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Many_nianfo_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Group_nianfo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Group_nianfo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Group nianfo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Group_nianfo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graded_nianfo_paths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graded_nianfo_paths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Graded nianfo paths </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graded_nianfo_paths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genshin's_schema_of_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genshin's_schema_of_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Genshin's schema of practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genshin's_schema_of_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mental_attitude" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mental_attitude"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Mental attitude </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mental_attitude-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phrases_used_in_recitation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phrases_used_in_recitation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Phrases used in recitation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phrases_used_in_recitation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phrases used in recitation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phrases_used_in_recitation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sanskrit" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sanskrit"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Sanskrit </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sanskrit-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nianfo_in_East_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nianfo_in_East_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Nianfo in East Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nianfo_in_East_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations_and_alternate_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_and_alternate_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Variations and alternate names </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations_and_alternate_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alternate_Sanskrit_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternate_Sanskrit_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.1 Alternate Sanskrit phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternate_Sanskrit_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Esoteric_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Esoteric_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.2 Esoteric phrases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Esoteric_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_Asian_Nianfo_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_Asian_Nianfo_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3.3 East Asian Nianfo variants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_Asian_Nianfo_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Nianfo</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" > 20 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nien-fo" title="Nien-fo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nien-fo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rememoro_pri_la_budho" title="Rememoro pri la budho – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rememoro pri la budho" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%81%D9%88" title="نیانفو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نیانفو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B4%80%EB%B6%88%EA%B3%BC_%EC%97%BC%EB%B6%88" title="관불과 염불 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="관불과 염불" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F" title="念仏 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="念仏" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nenbutsu" title="Nenbutsu – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nenbutsu" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%83%D1%86%D1%83" title="Нэмбуцу – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Нэмбуцу" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%83%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B" title="நியான்ஃபோ – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நியான்ஃபோ" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nianfo" title="Nianfo – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Nianfo" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt" title="Niệm Phật – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Niệm Phật" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5%E4%BD%9B" title="念佛 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="念佛" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1315754#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Meditation on Amitābha Buddha</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%8E%89%E9%87%8C%E8%8F%AF%E5%B1%B1%E5%AF%BA_(21)%E5%8D%97%E7%84%A1%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%8C%E9%99%80%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%A4%E7%A2%91.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/%E7%8E%89%E9%87%8C%E8%8F%AF%E5%B1%B1%E5%AF%BA_%2821%29%E5%8D%97%E7%84%A1%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%8C%E9%99%80%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%A4%E7%A2%91.jpg/250px-%E7%8E%89%E9%87%8C%E8%8F%AF%E5%B1%B1%E5%AF%BA_%2821%29%E5%8D%97%E7%84%A1%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%8C%E9%99%80%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%A4%E7%A2%91.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/%E7%8E%89%E9%87%8C%E8%8F%AF%E5%B1%B1%E5%AF%BA_%2821%29%E5%8D%97%E7%84%A1%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%8C%E9%99%80%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%A4%E7%A2%91.jpg/500px-%E7%8E%89%E9%87%8C%E8%8F%AF%E5%B1%B1%E5%AF%BA_%2821%29%E5%8D%97%E7%84%A1%E9%98%BF%E5%BD%8C%E9%99%80%E4%BD%9B%E5%8F%A4%E7%A2%91.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>Chinese Nianfo carving</figcaption></figure> The Nianfo (<a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Chinese</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5%E4%BD%9B" class="extiw" title="wikt:念佛">念佛</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: niànfó, alternatively in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F" class="extiw" title="wikt:念仏">念仏</a> (ねんぶつ, nenbutsu); <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: 염불; <a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">RR</a>: yeombul; or <a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt" class="extiw" title="wikt:niệm Phật">niệm Phật</a>) is a Buddhist practice central to <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a>. The Chinese term nianfo is a translation of <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">buddhānusmṛti</a> ("recollection of the <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddha</a>"), a classic Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">mindfulness</a> (smṛti) practice.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> Nianfo focused on the Buddha <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> is also the most important practice in <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a>. In the context of East Asian Pure Land practice, nianfo typically refers to the oral repetition of the name of <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> through the phrase "Homage to Amitabha Buddha" (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Ch</a>: 南無阿彌陀佛, <a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>: Nāmó Āmítuófó, <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Jp</a>: Namu Amida Butsu; from the <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: Namo'mitābhāya Buddhāya). It can also refer to that phrase itself, in which case it may also be called the nianfo, or "The Name" (Japanese: myōgō 名号). In most extant Pure Land traditions, faithfully reciting the name of Amitābha is mainly seen as a way to obtain birth in Amitābha's pure land of <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhāvatī</a> ("Blissful") through the Buddha's "other power". It is felt that reciting the nianfo can negate vast stores of negative <a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">karma</a> as well as channel the power of the Buddha's compassionate vow to save all beings. Sukhāvatī is a place of peace and refuge. There, one can hear the <a href="/wiki/Dharma_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dharma (Buddhism)">Dharma</a> directly from the Buddha and attain <a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a> without being distracted by the sufferings of <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">samsara</a>. In some contexts, the term nianfo can also refer to other meditative practices, such as various visualizations or the recitations of other phrases, <a href="/wiki/U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra">dharanis</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> associated with Pure Land Buddhism, the Buddha Amitābha and his attendant <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">bodhisattvas</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">Buddhānusmṛti</a></div> Mindfulness of the Buddha (<a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">buddhānusmṛti</a>) is a practice found in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist Texts</a> as part of the <a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">ten recollections</a>. The practice appears in <a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a> <a href="/wiki/Suttas" class="mw-redirect" title="Suttas">suttas</a> like <a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85guttara_Nik%C4%81ya" title="Aṅguttara Nikāya">Anguttara Nikaya</a> (AN) 11.11, 11.12, and 1.296 as a method that can lead to <a href="/wiki/Sam%C4%81dhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Samādhi">samādhi</a> and ultimately <a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">nirvana</a>. <a href="/wiki/%C4%80gama_Section" title="Āgama Section">Agamas</a> like <a href="/wiki/Ekottara_Agama" title="Ekottara Agama">EA</a> III, 1 (<a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taisho</a> Vol. II, p. 554a7-b9) also discuss the practice as a method of focusing the mind on the Buddha and his qualities.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Indian_Mahāyāna_Buddhism">Indian Mahāyāna Buddhism</h3>[<a 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div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output div:not(.notheme)>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output p>.tmp-color,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output table:not(.notheme) .tmp-color{color:inherit!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Mahayana" title="Category:Mahayana">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#FFD700;"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna"><img alt="A Lotus, one of the eight auspicious symbols in Mahāyāna" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/150px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/225px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg/300px-Ashtamangala_Lotus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="527" data-file-height="576" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upaya" title="Upaya">Skillful Means</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Transcendent Wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Transcendent Virtues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81#Mahayana_Buddhism" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara#The_doctrine_of_Vijñapti-mātra" title="Yogachara">Consciousness-only</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Three bodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">Three vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana_(Buddhism)#Apratiṣṭhita_nirvāna" title="Nirvana (Buddhism)">Non-abiding Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekay%C4%81na" title="Ekayāna">One Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">Bodhisattva Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C5%ABmi_(Buddhism)" title="Bhūmi (Buddhism)">Bodhisattva stages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land" title="Pure Land">Pure Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminous_mind" title="Luminous mind">Luminous mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">Dharani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Turnings_of_the_Wheel_of_Dharma" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma">Three Turnings</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adi-Buddha" title="Adi-Buddha">Adi-Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akshobhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81p%C4%81ramit%C4%81_Dev%C4%AB" title="Prajñāpāramitā Devī">Prajñāpāramitā Devī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Bhaiṣajyaguru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Vairocana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrasattva" title="Vajrasattva">Vajrasattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrathful_deities" title="Wrathful deities">Wrathful deities</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prajnaparamita" title="Prajnaparamita">Prajñāpāramitā sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avatamsaka_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Avatamsaka Sutra">Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81ratnak%C5%AB%E1%B9%ADa_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra">Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasamnipata_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahasamnipata Sutra">Mahāsaṃnipāta Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vimalakirti-nirdesa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vimalakirti-nirdesa">Vimalakirtinirdeśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Key_Mahayana_sources" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lalitavistara_S%C5%ABtra" title="Lalitavistara Sūtra">Lalitavistara Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhiraja_Sutra" title="Samadhiraja Sutra">Samādhirāja Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandhinirmocana_Sutra" title="Sandhinirmocana Sutra">Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gatagarbha_s%C5%ABtras" title="Tathāgatagarbha sūtras">Tathāgatagarbha sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%ABm%C4%81l%C4%81dev%C4%AB_Si%E1%B9%83han%C4%81da_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra">Śrīmālādevī Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Mah%C4%81parinirv%C4%81%E1%B9%87a_S%C5%ABtra" title="Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra">Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lankavatara_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Lankavatara Sutra">Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghanavy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Ghanavyūha Sūtra">Ghanavyūha sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Light_Sutra" title="Golden Light Sutra">Golden Light Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gataguhyaka_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra">Tathāgataguhyaka Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8Davy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra">Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism#Mahāyāna_schools" title="Schools of Buddhism">Main traditions</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Mādhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogacara" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogacara">Yogācāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen (Chan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%C3%BAc_L%C3%A2m" title="Trúc Lâm">Trúc Lâm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanistic Buddhism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Key figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81g%C4%81rjuna" class="mw-redirect" title="Nāgārjuna">Nāgārjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80ryadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Āryadeva">Āryadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lokaksema_(Buddhist_monk)" title="Lokaksema (Buddhist monk)">Lokakṣema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sthiramati" title="Sthiramati">Sthiramati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81viveka" title="Bhāviveka">Bhāvaviveka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chandrakirti" title="Chandrakirti">Candrakīrti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huineng" title="Huineng">Huineng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fazang" title="Fazang">Fazang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhanran" title="Zhanran">Zhanran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingliang_Chengguan" title="Qingliang Chengguan">Chengguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Zongmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saich%C5%8D" title="Saichō">Saichō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABkai" title="Kūkai">Kūkai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantideva" title="Shantideva">Shāntideva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81ntarak%E1%B9%A3ita" title="Śāntarakṣita">Shāntarakshita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wohnyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazu_Daoyi" title="Mazu Daoyi">Mazu Daoyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siming_Zhili" title="Siming Zhili">Siming Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahui_Zonggao" title="Dahui Zonggao">Dahui Zonggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hongzhi_Zhengjue" title="Hongzhi Zhengjue">Hongzhi Zhengjue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Aa%E1%B9%85karanandana" title="Śaṅkaranandana">Śaṅkaranandana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vir%C5%ABpa" title="Virūpa">Virūpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratn%C4%81kara%C5%9B%C4%81nti" title="Ratnākaraśānti">Ratnākaraśānti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhayakaragupta" title="Abhayakaragupta">Abhayākaragupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Nāropā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakya_Pandita" title="Sakya Pandita">Sakya Pandita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolpopa_Sherab_Gyaltsen" title="Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen">Dolpopa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangjung_Dorje,_3rd_Karmapa_Lama" class="mw-redirect" title="Rangjung Dorje, 3rd Karmapa Lama">Rangjung Dorje</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Je_Tsongkhapa" title="Je Tsongkhapa">Tsongkhapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longchenpa" title="Longchenpa">Longchenpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakuin_Ekaku" title="Hakuin Ekaku">Hakuin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing" title="Hanshan Deqing">Hanshan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouyi_Zhixu" title="Ouyi Zhixu">Ouyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Zhuhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taixu" title="Taixu">Taixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheng-yen" title="Sheng-yen">Sheng-yen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14th_Dalai_Lama" title="14th Dalai Lama">14th Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#FFD700;;background:#FFD700;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Regional traditions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Han Chinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newar_Buddhism" title="Newar Buddhism">Newar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuva" title="Tuva">Tuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">West</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Template talk:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mahāyāna Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Indian <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahāyāna</a> teachings developed the early Buddhist practices of buddhānusmṛti in more visionary directions. Some scholars like Andrew Skilton argue that Kashmiri <a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivādin</a> meditation masters influenced the development of more complex Mahayana meditations on the Buddhas.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> A key feature of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti is that it was not restricted to Shakyamuni Buddha but could also be directed at other Buddhas, like <a href="/wiki/Akshobhya" title="Akshobhya">Akṣobhya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a> Buddha. Groups of Mahāyāna sutras were composed based on these figures. With translations of these sūtras as well as the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">spread of Buddhism</a> out of India, the practice of Mahāyāna buddhānusmṛti rapidly spread to <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hajime_Nakamura" title="Hajime Nakamura">Hajime Nakamura</a> writes that in the Indian Pure Land sūtras, Mindfulness of the Buddha (buddhānusmṛti) is the essential practice and consists of meditating upon Amitābha Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-nakamura-4">[4]</a> Further, the practice of dedicating one's merit attained through such practices toward rebirth in a Buddha's <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure land">pure buddha-field</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a>: viśuddhabuddhakṣetra) became widespread as early as the 2nd century CE,<a href="#cite_note-jones-5">[5]</a> with the Buddha Amitābha rising in prominence as a Buddha who had created a perfectly pure and easily accessible buddha-field. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Key_Mahāyāna_texts_for_East_Asian_Buddhism">Key Mahāyāna texts for East Asian Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Key Mahāyāna texts for East Asian Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg/250px-Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg/330px-Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg/500px-Saifukuji-Nara-Myogo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2448" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>The Name in Japanese and Siddham script</figcaption></figure> The earliest dated sutra translated into <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a> that describes Amitabha-focused nianfo (buddhānusmṛti) is the <a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra</a> (1st century BCE), which is thought to have originated in ancient kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhāra</a>. This sutra does not enumerate any vows of Amitābha or the qualities of his <a href="/wiki/Pure_land" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure land">pure land</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhāvatī</a>, but rather briefly describes the repetition of the name of Amitābha as a means to enter his realm through meditation. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Bodhisattvas hear about the Buddha Amitabha and call him to mind again and again in this land. Because of this calling to mind, they see the Buddha Amitabha. Having seen him they ask him what dharmas it takes to be born in the realm of the Buddha Amitabha. Then the Buddha Amitabha says to these bodhisattvas: 'If you wish to come and be born in my realm, you must always call me to mind again and again, you must always keep this thought in mind without letting up, and thus you will succeed in coming to be born in my realm.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></blockquote> Among the most frequently cited examples in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism is found in the <a href="/wiki/Longer_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Sutra on the Buddha of Immeasurable Life</a> where Amitabha's vows are enumerated. The 18th, 19th and 20th vows state:<blockquote>18. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who sincerely and joyfully entrust themselves to me, desire to be born in my land, and think of me even ten times should not be born there, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. Excluded, however, are those who commit the five grave offenses and abuse the Right Dharma. 19. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who awaken aspiration for enlightenment, do various meritorious deeds, and sincerely desire to be born in my land, should not, at their death, see me appear before them surrounded by a multitude of sages, may I not attain perfect enlightenment. 20. If, when I attain buddhahood, sentient beings in the lands of the ten directions who, having heard my Name, concentrate their thoughts on my land, plant roots of virtue, and sincerely transfer their merits toward my land with a desire to be born there should not eventually fulfill their aspiration, may I not attain perfect enlightenment.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></blockquote>And this passage in the <a href="/wiki/Shorter_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taisho_Tripitaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Taisho Tripitaka">Taisho</a> no. 366):<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">O Śāriputra, beings do not arise in the buddha-land of Amitāyus Tathāgata by insignificant wholesome roots. O Śāriputra, whichever son of good family or daughter of good family, will hear the name of that bhagavān, Amitāyus Tathāgata, and having heard it will think of it, or will think of it with a mind that is undistracted for one night, or two nights, or three nights, or four nights, or five nights, or six nights, or seven nights, when that son of good family or daughter of good family will die, at their time of death, that Amitāyus Tathāgata, surrounded by a saṅgha of śrāvakas and headed by a chain of bodhisattvas will stand before them and they will die with an undisturbed mind. Having died, they will arise in the world system Sukvāvatī, the buddha-land of just that Amitāyus Tathāgata.</blockquote>Lastly, one passage from the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Sutra on the Contemplation of Amitāyus</a> (Taishō 365) was also particularly influential on East Asian Pure Land authors (Amitāyus is an alternative name for Amitābha). This passage says that even sentient beings who commit the "five grave offenses" (which include killing one's parents) and other very evil acts can be reborn in the Pure Land (though in the lowest stage of birth).<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> It also explains how one's assurance of birth in the Pure Land may be attained before death:<blockquote>When he is about to die, he may meet a good teacher, who consoles him in various ways…but he is too tormented by pain to do so. The good teacher then advises him, "If you cannot concentrate on the Buddha then you should say instead, 'Homage to Amitāyus Buddha.' " In this way, he sincerely and continuously says, "Homage to Amitāyus Buddha" ten times…. When he comes to die, he sees before him a golden lotus flower like the disk of the sun, and in an instant he is born within a lotus bud in the Land of Utmost Bliss.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> </blockquote>In the Sanskrit editions, phrases related to nianfo in the Sukhāvatīvyūha include "producing a thought directed toward a vision of Amitabha" (cittam utpādayanty amitābhasya...darśanāya) and "hearing the name" (buddhanāmaṣravaṇena).<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The shorter sutra speaks of hearing the name and "keeping it in mind" (<a href="/wiki/Manasik%C4%81ra" title="Manasikāra">manasikara</a>).<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> The Sanskrit edition of the longer sutra also speaks of "remembering [the Buddha] with a faithful mind" (prasannacittā māmanusmareyuḥ) and "obtaining even as little as one moment of a serene thought about the Tathagata" (hīnādhimuktikā bhaviṣyanti ye 'ntaśaekacittaprasādamapi tasmiṃstathāgate).<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> There are a few other influential sources on East Asian nianfo practice, including the Teaching of Manjusri 700 Line Prajñāpāramitā Sutra (Mañjuśrīparivartāparaparyāyā Saptaśatikāprajñāpāramitā), <a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu's</a> Discourse on the Pure Land (Jìngtǔ lùn 浄土論), the "Chapter on Purifying a Buddha-land" in the <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A0_zh%C3%ACd%C3%B9_l%C3%B9n" title="Dà zhìdù lùn">Dà zhìdù lùn</a> (Great Prajñāpāramitā Commentary), and the "easy path" chapter in <a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna's</a> *<a href="/wiki/Dasabhumika-vibh%C4%81s%C4%81" title="Dasabhumika-vibhāsā">Dasabhumikavibhāsā</a> (Chinese: Shí zhù pípóshā lùn 十住毘婆沙論, T.1521).<a href="#cite_note-:5-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-:7-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-:42-18">[18]</a> These various Mahayana sources were particularly important for the East Asian <a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhist tradition</a>, which is the set of beliefs and practices centered around the idea that all beings, even the most ordinary people, can attain birth in the Pure Land through the power of Amitābha Buddha. This tradition centered its practices on the nianfo.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> These sources were also influential on other Chinese traditions that practiced nianfo, including Chan and Tiantai. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nianfo_in_China">Nianfo in China</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Nianfo in China">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239334494" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="border-collapse:collapse"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffec00;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ffec00;"><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land Buddhism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Budda.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Amitabha Buddha"><img alt="Amitabha Buddha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Budda.svg/150px-Budda.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Budda.svg/225px-Budda.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Budda.svg/300px-Budda.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="472" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Buddhas and bodhisattvas</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Gautama Buddha">Shakyamuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahasthamaprapta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Medicine Master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Teachings</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land" title="Pure Land">Pure Lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinjin" title="Shinjin">Mind of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Other_power" title="Other power">Other power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_Vow" class="mw-redirect" title="Primal Vow">Primal Vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">Trikaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">Age of Dharma Decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Emptiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_Precepts" title="Bodhisattva Precepts">Bodhisattva Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81nusm%E1%B9%9Bti" title="Buddhānusmṛti">Buddha recollection</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_contemplation" title="Buddha contemplation">Buddha contemplation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C5%ABj%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Pūjā (Buddhism)">Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Chanting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra_copying" title="Sutra copying">Sutra copying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Making merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer_of_merit" title="Transfer of merit">Dedication of merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">Dhāraṇī</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Scriptures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Amit%C4%81yus_Sutra" title="The Amitāyus Sutra">Amitāyus Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha_S%C5%ABtra" title="Amitābha Sūtra">Amitābha Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81yus_Contemplation_S%C5%ABtra" title="Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra">Contemplation Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_on_the_Pure_Land" title="Discourse on the Pure Land">Discourse on the Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra#The_Aspiration_Prayer_for_Good_Conduct" title="Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">Samantabhadra Aspiration Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasabhumika-vibh%C4%81s%C4%81" title="Dasabhumika-vibhāsā">Dasabhumika-vibhāsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABra%E1%B9%85gama_S%C5%ABtra" title="Śūraṅgama Sūtra">Śūraṅgama Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani" title="Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani">Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dhāraṇī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%87%C4%AB%E1%B9%A3a_Vijaya_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" title="Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī">Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%ABlaka%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%ADha_Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%AB" title="Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī">Great Compassion Dhāraṇī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra_of_Light#Amoghapāśa_sūtras" title="Mantra of Light">Amoghapāśa sūtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Mani mantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cj%C5%8Dy%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB" title="Ōjōyōshū">Ōjōyōshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senchakush%C5%AB" title="Senchakushū">Senchakushū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-Sheet_Document" title="One-Sheet Document">One-Sheet Document</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Dgy%C5%8Dshinsh%C5%8D" title="Kyōgyōshinshō">Kyōgyōshinshō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannish%C5%8D" title="Tannishō">Tannishō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anjin_Ketsuj%C5%8D_Sh%C5%8D" title="Anjin Ketsujō Shō">Anjin Ketsujō Shō</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Key figures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nāgārjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lushan_Huiyuan" title="Lushan Huiyuan">Lushan Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jingying_Huiyuan" title="Jingying Huiyuan">Jingying Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan-luan" title="Tan-luan">Tanluan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daochuo" title="Daochuo">Daochuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huaigan" title="Huaigan">Huaigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wulong_Shaokang" title="Wulong Shaokang">Wulong Shaokang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uisang" title="Uisang">Uisang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yongming_Yanshou" title="Yongming Yanshou">Yongming Yanshou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siming_Zhili" title="Siming Zhili">Siming Zhili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zongxiao" title="Zongxiao">Zongxiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senkan" title="Senkan">Senkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genshin" title="Genshin">Genshin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuanzhao" title="Yuanzhao">Yuanzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Ziyuan" title="Mao Ziyuan">Mao Ziyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dnin" title="Ryōnin">Ryōnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Dk%C5%AB" title="Shōkū">Shōkū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bench%C5%8D" title="Benchō">Benchō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ippen" title="Ippen">Ippen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakunyo" title="Kakunyo">Kakunyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rennyo" title="Rennyo">Rennyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peng_Shaosheng" title="Peng Shaosheng">Peng Shaosheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Yunqi Zhuhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ouyi_Zhixu" title="Ouyi Zhixu">Ouyi Zhixu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Hongdao" title="Yuan Hongdao">Yuan Hongdao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jixing_Chewu" title="Jixing Chewu">Jixing Chewu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi_Yinguang" title="Shi Yinguang">Yinguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin_Kung" title="Chin Kung">Jìngkōng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guang_Qin" title="Guang Qin">Guang Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiyozawa_Manshi" title="Kiyozawa Manshi">Kiyozawa Manshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soga_Ry%C5%8Djin" title="Soga Ryōjin">Soga Ryōjin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D._T._Suzuki" title="D. T. Suzuki">D. T. Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taitetsu_Unno" title="Taitetsu Unno">Taitetsu Unno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bloom_(Buddhist)" title="Alfred Bloom (Buddhist)">Alfred Bloom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ffec00;;background:#ffec00;padding:0.2em;text-align:center;color: var(--color-base)">Schools</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="background-color:#FFFFE0; border: 2px solid #FFFFE0"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism#Chinese_Pure_Land" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Chinese Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo-shū">Jōdo-shū</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinzei" title="Chinzei">Chinzei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seizan" title="Seizan">Seizan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo Shinshū">Jōdo Shinshū</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongan-ji" title="Hongan-ji">Honganji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuzu_Nembutsu" title="Yuzu Nembutsu">Yuzu Nembutsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kakure_nenbutsu" title="Kakure nenbutsu">Kakure nenbutsu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji-shu" title="Ji-shu">Ji-shu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Huayan school">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnamese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_Churches_of_America" title="Buddhist Churches of America">Buddhist Churches of America</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Template:Pure Land Buddhism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Pure_Land_Buddhism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Pure Land Buddhism (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pure Land Buddhism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In Chinese translations of Buddhist Mahayana sources, the most common character for <a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">smṛti</a> ("mindfulness", "recollection") became 念 (niàn), and thus recollection of the Buddha became niànfó. The character <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E5%BF%B5" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:念">念</a> generally means to think, recall, contemplate, mentally focus, or even "long for". But the term is ambiguous and can also mean to recite texts aloud so as to memorize them as well as meaning "a moment in time".<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a> In China, nianfo became an important "dharma-gate" (fǎmén 法門), taught by numerous traditions and Buddhist masters.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019-21">[21]</a> Perhaps one of the earliest well-known Chinese practitioners of nianfo was <a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a>, who practiced mindfulness of the Buddha as taught in the <a href="/wiki/Pratyutpanna_Sam%C4%81dhi_S%C5%ABtra" title="Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra">Pratyutpanna Samādhi Sūtra</a> so as to have a vision of Buddha Amitābha.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> Nianfo was also taught by the founder of <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> Buddhism, patriarch <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhìyǐ</a> (538–597). In his <a href="/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan" title="Mohe Zhiguan">Móhē zhǐguān</a>, Zhìyǐ taught a practice he named <a href="/wiki/Walking_meditation#Mahāyāna" title="Walking meditation">Constantly Walking Samadhi</a> (cháng xíng sānmèi 常行三昧), in which one walks in a ritualized manner while visualizing Amitabha and reciting his name for up to 90 days.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Chinese_Pure_Land_tradition">The Chinese Pure Land tradition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Chinese Pure Land tradition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_(Zendo_Daishi),_Nanbokucho_period,_14th_century.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG/250px-Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG/330px-Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG/500px-Portrait_of_Shandao_Dashi_%28Zendo_Daishi%29%2C_Nanbokucho_period%2C_14th_century.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1720" data-file-height="2785" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of the Chinese Pure land patriarch <a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a> reciting "the nianfo" (Amitabha's name)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nembutsu_(Manpukuji_Osaka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Nembutsu_%28Manpukuji_Osaka%29.jpg/220px-Nembutsu_%28Manpukuji_Osaka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Nembutsu_%28Manpukuji_Osaka%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>The six Chinese characters of the nianfo, resting on a lotus, flanked by <a href="/wiki/Sakyamuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sakyamuni">Sakyamuni</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amitabha" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitabha">Amitabha</a></figcaption></figure> Early Chinese Pure Land figures like <a href="/wiki/Tan-luan" title="Tan-luan">Tanluan</a> (476–542) and <a href="/wiki/Daochuo" title="Daochuo">Daochuo</a> (562–645) promoted nianfo as a way to achieve rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha. Tanluan taught that, through nianfo, which included visualizing Amitabha and reciting his name with faith, one could tune into the "other power" of this Buddha, which could purify one's mind and take one to the Pure Land of <a href="/wiki/Sukhavati" title="Sukhavati">Sukhavati</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Foard-2006-26">[26]</a> Tanluan also taught that one could practice nianfo simply by holding Amitabha's name in one's mind as an image of the sound. He argued that Amitabha's name contained the full reality of that Buddha and that one could contemplate the Buddha just by contemplating the name.<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a> The main innovation of Tanluan's student Daochuo was that the world is entering the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">last days of the Dharma</a>". In this degenerate era, practices that rely solely on "self-power" (zìlì 自力) are no longer effective.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019b-27">[27]</a> As such, the only truly effective way to attain Buddhahood is to practice nianfo and rely on the "other power" (tālì 他力) of Amitabha.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008j2-28">[28]</a> Like Tanluan, Daochuo recommended a simple practice of meditating on Amitabha's name (rather than focusing on complex visualizations). He also introduced the practice of counting one's nianfo contemplations with the beads of a <a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">mala</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:3-20">[20]</a> While these early Chinese Pure Land authors taught nianfo as mostly a mental "holding of the name", <a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a> (7th century) interpreted nianfo to refer to the oral recitation of Amitabha's name.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> For Shandao, the nianfo of "orally holding Amitāyus's name" (kǒuchēng Mítuó mínghào 口稱彌陀名號) was Pure Land Buddhism's main practice. All other practices were merely auxiliary. These auxiliaries include visualization of Amitabha and his Pure Land, worshiping Amitabha, praising him, and making offerings to him.<a href="#cite_note-Williams-2008k-30">[30]</a> Over time, the term niànfó came to refer to Amitabha's name itself. While Shandao taught these auxiliary practices, he also held that reciting Amitabha's name ten times was sufficient for rebirth in Sukhavati.<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2019_pp._23-25-31">[31]</a> Nevertheless, the Pure Land tradition considered constant lifelong practice useful, since one could improve one's stage of rebirth in the Pure Land and thus attain Buddhahood faster once there (while those who did no practice would likely be born in the lower level). Shandao also practiced visualizations taught in the <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81yus_Contemplation_S%C5%ABtra" title="Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra">Amitayus Contemplation Sutra</a> and taught this method of Buddha recollection to his disciples.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The recitation of the nianfo was particularly critical for the dying and quickly became a major deathbed practice in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>. For example, in The Meritorious Dharma Gate of the Samādhi Involving Contemplation of the Ocean-like Marks of the Buddha Amitābha (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 阿彌陀佛相海三昧功德法門; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Ēmítuófó xiāng hǎi sānmèi gōngdé fǎmén), Shandao prescribes a specific set of rituals and practices (including visualization techniques) to help dying Buddhist devotees avoid bad rebirths and attain rebirth in the Pure Land. He also taught of the many dangers that could hinder a dying aspirant's rebirth in the Pure Land in his Correct Mindfulness for Rebirth at the Moment of Death (Chinese: 臨終往生正念文; pinyin: Línzhōng wǎngshēng zhèngniàn wén). These sources reflect a traditional Chinese concern about various more complicated requirements for rebirth in the Pure Land, which include but are not limited to the recitation of Amitābha's name on one's deathbed. The well-known form of the nianfo (na-mo a-mi-tuo fo) was standardized by a later Pure Land patriarch, <a href="/wiki/Fazhao" title="Fazhao">Fazhao</a> (died c. 820).<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Fazhao also promoted the melodic "five stage nianfo" (五會念佛) method, and taught nianfo at the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_court_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial court of China">imperial court</a>. This method involves five different ways of chanting the nianfo phrase: in a slow sonorous way, slow but rising in pitch, moderate tempo, gradually accelerating in tempo, and chanting only Amituofo very rapidly.<a href="#cite_note-:17-34">[34]</a> Later Chinese Pure Land patriarchs were known for their syncretism of nianfo recitation with Chan meditation. The "dual path of Chan and Pure Land cultivation" is an important feature of Chinese Buddhism, which often combines nianfo with Chan Buddhist meditation.<a href="#cite_note-Yuan,_Margaret_1986._p._55-35">[35]</a> Figures considered Pure Land patriarchs who also combined nianfo with Chan include <a href="/wiki/Yongming_Yanshou" title="Yongming Yanshou">Yongming Yanshou</a> (904–975) and <a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Yunqi Zhuhong</a> (1535–1615).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Zhuhong was a learned figure who argued that the goal of Pure Land nianfo practice was "nianfo <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a>" (Ch.: nianfo sanmei), a "single, unperturbed mind" focused on Amitabha Buddha in which one realizes that the Buddha is one's own pure and <a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">empty</a> mind.<a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> According to Zhuhong:<blockquote>To contemplate the Buddha (nianfo) is to contemplate the mind (nianxin). Birth there (in the Pure Land) does not entail birth away from here. Mind, Buddha, and sentient beings are all of one substance; the middle stream (<a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">nonduality</a>) does not abide on the two banks (this world and the Pure Land).<a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> </blockquote>Zhuhong taught that one could attain these realizations even through simple nianfo methods, though he taught simple and complex methods according to his student's needs.<a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_other_traditions">In other traditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: In other traditions">edit</a>]</div> The practice of nianfo was also widely practiced in other schools of East Asian Buddhism, including in the <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Chan / Zen</a> traditions and in the <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> (Lotus) and <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81vata%E1%B9%83saka_S%C5%ABtra" title="Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra">Avatamsaka</a>) schools. Tiantai nianfo practices were part of the tradition since its founding by <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>. Later figures like Shěngcháng (959–1020), <a href="/wiki/Siming_Zhili" title="Siming Zhili">Sìmíng Zhīlǐ</a>, (960–1028), and Ciyun Zunshi (964–1032) popularized nianfo practice by founding lay "lotus societies" (lianshe).<a href="#cite_note-:19-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Tiantai authors also wrote works on Pure land nianfo practice like Zōngxiǎo's (1151–1214) Lèbāng wénlèi 樂邦文類 (Anthology of the Land of Bliss, T.1969A).<a href="#cite_note-:19-38">[38]</a> The earliest sources of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Chan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chan">Chinese Chan</a> school discuss nianfo practice as a Chan meditation method. The works of the Chan patriarchs like <a href="/wiki/Dayi_Daoxin" title="Dayi Daoxin">Daoxin</a> (580-651) and <a href="/wiki/Yuquan_Shenxiu" title="Yuquan Shenxiu">Shenxiu</a> teach nianfo meditation.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> The Ch’uan fa-pao chi (Taisho no. 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories, shows the practice of nianfo was widespread in the early Chan generation of <a href="/wiki/Daman_Hongren" title="Daman Hongren">Hung-jen</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faru_(monk)" title="Faru (monk)">Fa-ju</a> and Ta-tung.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> The practice is also mentioned in the early Chan monastic code titled <a href="/wiki/Chanyuan_Qinggui" title="Chanyuan Qinggui">The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a> Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chan figures like <a href="/wiki/Yongming_Yanshou" title="Yongming Yanshou">Yongming Yanshou</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhongfeng_Mingben" title="Zhongfeng Mingben">Zhongfen Mingben</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Hanshan_Deqing" title="Hanshan Deqing">Hanshan Deqing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:04-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-41">[41]</a> A later development in the dual Pure Land-Chan nianfo cultivation was the so called "nianfo <a href="/wiki/K%C5%8Dan" class="mw-redirect" title="Kōan">kōan</a>" which consisted of orally reciting nianfo as normal while pausing from time to time to ask oneself "Who is performing nianfo?".<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2021h3-42">[42]</a> This practice first appears during the time of Zhiche (?-1310) who is said to have attained an awakening by this method.<a href="#cite_note-:28-41">[41]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Four_Eminent_Monks_of_the_Wanli_Era" title="Four Eminent Monks of the Wanli Era">Eminent monks</a> of the Ming, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhibo_Zhenke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhibo Zhenke (page does not exist)">Zhibo Zhenke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Yunqi Zhuhong</a> (1535–1615), also taught on the unity of Chan and Pure land nianfo, as well as drawing on Huayan and Tiantai thought.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg/220px-Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg/330px-Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg/440px-Musee_Carcassonne_-_Expo_2018_-_Amida_Nyorai_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4272" /></a><figcaption>Amida Nyorai with esoteric <a href="/wiki/B%C4%ABjamantra" title="Bījamantra">seed syllable mantra</a>.</figcaption></figure> Nianfo and related practices for rebirth in the Pure Land of Amitabha was also practiced in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese esoteric Buddhism</a>, though this tradition focused on the use of <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantras</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a> associated with Amitabha instead of the classic non-esoteric nianfo phrase "Namo Amitabha".<a href="#cite_note-:22-45">[45]</a> Chinese translators of esoteric materials translated and composed various texts on Amitabha practice which made use of mantras and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharanis</a> to achieve similar results as Mahayana nianfo practice (such as rebirth in the Pure Land). They include figures like <a href="/wiki/Zhi_Qian" title="Zhi Qian">Zhi Qian</a> (c. 222–252, translated <a href="/wiki/Taish%C5%8D_Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Taishō Tripiṭaka">Taisho Tripitaka</a> no. 1011, and T. 1356), <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%E1%B9%A3ema" title="Dharmakṣema">Dharmakṣema</a> (397–439, translated T. 157), <a href="/w/index.php?title=K%C4%81laya%C5%9Bas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kālayaśas (page does not exist)">Kālayaśas</a> (c. 420–479, translated T. 1161), Śrīmitra (T. 1331), <a href="/wiki/Vajrabodhi" title="Vajrabodhi">Vajrabodhi</a> (671–741, T. 932), and <a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a> (705–774).<a href="#cite_note-:22-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Amoghavajra" title="Amoghavajra">Amoghavajra</a> translated various related texts including The Method of Contemplating and Making Offerings to Amitāyus Tathāgata Vidhi (T. 930), among others (T. 930, 933, 950, 1056, 1064, 1069, 1155).<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-45">[45]</a> <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing era</a> <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> school authors like Baiting Xufa (1641–1728) and the lay literatus <a href="/wiki/Peng_Shaosheng" title="Peng Shaosheng">Peng Shaosheng</a> (1740–1796) wrote on nianfo from a Huayan perspective, seeing Amitabha and Vairocana as the same Buddha, and as identical with the “one true mind” taught in Huayan. This teaching became known as the "Huayan-nianfo".<a href="#cite_note-:29-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-:30-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Chinese_Buddhism">Modern Chinese Buddhism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Modern Chinese Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yinguang2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Yinguang2.jpg/250px-Yinguang2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Yinguang2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="490" /></a><figcaption>Photo of Yinguang</figcaption></figure> Nianfo remains a central practice of Chinese Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> Master <a href="/wiki/Shi_Yinguang" title="Shi Yinguang">Yinguang</a> (1861-1941) was particularly influential in the modern revival of Pure Land nianfo practice, drawing tens of thousands of students and leading a new Pure Land movement.<a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> Some modern figures like Venerable <a href="/wiki/Chin_Kung" title="Chin Kung">Jìngkōng</a> (1927–2022) have focused on promoting an exclusive focus on nianfo practice, but others teach it as general part of Chinese Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> In contemporary Chinese Buddhism, nianfo retreats are a common part of the regular repertoire offered by Buddhist temples, alongside Chan meditation retreats and sutra classes.<a href="#cite_note-:9-49">[49]</a> Other important modern Chinese teachers of nianfo practice include Venerable Guangqin (1892-1986), <a href="/wiki/Hsuan_Hua" title="Hsuan Hua">Master Xuānhuà</a> (1918–1995), Dharma Master Huijing (1950-) and Dharma Master Jingzong (1966-, Abbot of Hongyuan Monastery). Aside from being a popular chant and meditation, the nianfo is also seen as <a href="/wiki/Auspiciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspiciousness">auspicious</a> and is written and reproduced in many ways including <a href="/wiki/Hanging_scroll" title="Hanging scroll">calligraphy scrolls</a>, public <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">inscriptions</a>, charms, <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a>, and altarpieces. One particularly modern piece of Buddhist material culture is the nianfo-ji (nianfo machine, 念佛機). These are small electronic devices which contain various digital recordings of nianfo chants which have become quite popular in Chinese Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Modern Chan figures like <a href="/wiki/Nan_Huai-Chin" title="Nan Huai-Chin">Nan Huai-Chin</a> also made use of the nianfo as a meditation tool and as a way to attain <a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Yuan,_Margaret_1986._p._55-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Luk-1964-51">[51]</a> Modern Chan masters like <a href="/wiki/Xuyun" title="Xuyun">Xūyún</a> (1840?–1959) also taught nianfo it as a kind of Chan <a href="/wiki/Hua_Tou" title="Hua Tou">huàtóu</a> practice.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Korea">In Korea</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: In Korea">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korean Buddhism</a> traditionally sees the practice of nianfo as part of “Three Gates” (K.: sammun) doctrine. This teaching places nianfo alongside <a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Seon</a> (Zen) meditation and doctrinal study as necessary parts of a holistic Buddhist practice. The three are considered to be mutually reinforcing elements of Buddhist cultivation, like three legs on a tripod.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> The practice of yeombul (nianfo) was adopted from Chinese Buddhist sources during the <a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">Unified Silla</a> (668–935). <a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wŏnhyo</a> (617–686) was the most influential figure in promoting this practice among the wider populace.<a href="#cite_note-:43-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[55]</a> Wŏnhyo's nianfo method draws on numerous sources including <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tan-luan" title="Tan-luan">Tanluan</a>. Later Pure Land authors who write on nianfo practice all rely on Wŏnhyo's teachings.<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[55]</a> According to Wŏnhyo's Muryangsu-gyŏng chongyo (無量壽經宗要, Doctrinal Essentials of the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Sūtra on the Visualization of Immeasurable Life</a>), the most important element of the practice of nianfo is to recite the name with <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a> and with a sincere repentant mind (K: chisim 至心).<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[55]</a> Another important Korean exponent of nianfo practice is <a href="/wiki/Uisang" title="Uisang">Uisang</a> (625–702), who wrote a commentary on the Amitabha sutra, the Amit’a-gyŏng ŭigi (阿彌陀經義記 The meaning of the Amituo jing).<a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nembutsu_in_Japan">Nembutsu in Japan</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Nembutsu in Japan">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_A_Nenbutsu_Gathering_at_Ichiya,_Kyoto,_from_the_Illustrated_Biography_of_the_Monk_Ippen_and_His_Disciple_Ta%27a_(Yugy%C5%8D_Sh%C5%8Dnin_engi-e)_-_1975.268.35_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Anonymous_-_A_Nenbutsu_Gathering_at_Ichiya%2C_Kyoto%2C_from_the_Illustrated_Biography_of_the_Monk_Ippen_and_His_Disciple_Ta%27a_%28Yugy%C5%8D_Sh%C5%8Dnin_engi-e%29_-_1975.268.35_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Anonymous_-_A_Nenbutsu_Gathering_at_Ichiya%2C_Kyoto%2C_from_the_Illustrated_Biography_of_the_Monk_Ippen_and_His_Disciple_Ta%27a_%28Yugy%C5%8D_Sh%C5%8Dnin_engi-e%29_-_1975.268.35_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Anonymous_-_A_Nenbutsu_Gathering_at_Ichiya%2C_Kyoto%2C_from_the_Illustrated_Biography_of_the_Monk_Ippen_and_His_Disciple_Ta%27a_%28Yugy%C5%8D_Sh%C5%8Dnin_engi-e%29_-_1975.268.35_-_Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3646" data-file-height="2721" /></a><figcaption>A Nenbutsu Gathering in <a href="/wiki/Kyoto" title="Kyoto">Kyoto</a>, from the Illustrated Biography of the Monk <a href="/wiki/Ippen" title="Ippen">Ippen</a> and His Disciple Ta'a (Yugyō Shōnin engi-e)</figcaption></figure> Chinese teachings on the practice of nianfo (in Japanese: nembutsu) were adopted into <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japanese Buddhism</a>. One of the earliest accounts of Japanese nembutsu practice is found in the works of Chikō (709–770 or 781), a monk of the Sanron (<a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">East Asian Madhyamaka</a>) school.<a href="#cite_note-:10-56">[56]</a> Chikō's commentary on Vasubandhu's Pure Land Treatise divides nembutsu into two main categories: meditative and vocal. The meditative nembutsu involved either visualizing the form of Amitabha, including imagining all his physical marks one by one, or one could merely contemplate the wisdom and compassion of Amitabha. The vocal nembutsu was considered an easier practice for those who lacked concentration. Both practices were considered to be able to lead to absorption (samādhi).<a href="#cite_note-:10-56">[56]</a> The nembutsu was also important in the <a href="/wiki/Tendai" title="Tendai">Tendai</a> school, the Japanese branch of Tiantai which relied on meditation practices taught in <a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mohe_Zhiguan" title="Mohe Zhiguan">Mohe Zhiguan</a>. The Tendai monk <a href="/wiki/Genshin" title="Genshin">Genshin</a> (942–1017) popularized the nembutsu in his <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cj%C5%8Dy%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB" title="Ōjōyōshū">Ōjōyōshū</a> (Essential Anthology on Attaining Rebirth), which argues that the nembutsu is the most efficacious practice in this time of Dharma decline (<a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">mappō</a>). For Genshin, meditative nembutsu as a visualization was most important. This meant contemplating the physical form of Amitābha, though if that is too difficult for someone, they could just visualize one of his physical features, like the curled tuft of white hair between his eyes.<a href="#cite_note-:10-56">[56]</a> Genshin also taught that one could not practice this, oral recitation was just as effective in leading to birth in the Pure Land.<a href="#cite_note-:10-56">[56]</a> Furthermore, during the Later <a href="/wiki/Heian_period" title="Heian period">Heian</a> (950–1185), various itinerant ascetics and preachers traveled the country promoting the simple recitation of the nembutsu. These holy people (hiriji) who were also called shōnin, were mostly independent of major Buddhist institutions.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> The most well known of these figures was <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABya" title="Kūya">Kūya</a> (903–972), who wandered throughout the provinces preaching on nembutsu practice.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Pure_Land_sects">The Pure Land sects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: The Pure Land sects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg/220px-%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg/330px-%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg/440px-%E8%9E%8D%E9%80%9A%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F%E7%B8%81%E8%B5%B7%E7%B5%B5%E5%B7%BB_%E4%B8%8A%E5%B7%BB%E7%AC%AC2%E6%AE%B5_%E9%98%BF%E5%BC%A5%E9%99%80%E5%A6%82%E6%9D%A5%E7%A4%BA%E8%AA%A8%E3%81%AE%E6%AE%B5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>An illustration from the Yūzū Nembutsu Engi Emaki which depicts a vision of Amitabha Buddha to a nembutsu reciter of the <a href="/wiki/Yuzu_Nembutsu" title="Yuzu Nembutsu">Yūzū Nembutsu</a> school</figcaption></figure> By the end of the 12th century, distinctive sects focused exclusively on the practice of nembutsu as a verbal recitation for the purposes of being reborn in the Pure Land arose. These new Pure Land (jodo) schools were part of the New Kamakura Buddhism. They include <a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Honen's</a> (1133–1212) <a href="/wiki/Jodo_Shu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodo Shu">Jōdo-shū</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran's</a> (1173–1263) <a href="/wiki/Jodo_Shinshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodo Shinshu">Jodo Shinshu</a> and smaller sects like <a href="/wiki/Ry%C5%8Dnin" title="Ryōnin">Ryōnin's</a> (1072–1132) <a href="/wiki/Yuzu_Nembutsu" title="Yuzu Nembutsu">Yūzū Nembutsu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ippen" title="Ippen">Ippen's</a> <a href="/wiki/Ji-shu" title="Ji-shu">Ji-shu</a>. The new Pure Land schools often held that the world had entered the era of the decline of the Dharma (<a href="/wiki/Three_Ages_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Ages of Buddhism">mappō</a>) and that only the Pure land practice of reciting the nembutsu was useful for attaining liberation (after rebirth in the Pure Land).<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Ryōnin's Yūzū Nembutsu sect was the first Japanese Pure Land sect which focused on nembutsu practice.<a href="#cite_note-:11-60">[60]</a> Ryōnin's understanding of the nembutsu was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a> concept of perfect interfusion and the interconnectness of all phenomena. He held that the chanting of the nembutsu influenced all people and all things. He began a register where people would sign up and commit to a certain number of nembutsu recitations per day, the idea being that all people in the register would receive the collective benefit of these combined recitations. This practice became popular, and even the Japanese emperor entered the register.<a href="#cite_note-:11-60">[60]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg/250px-Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg/330px-Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg/500px-Statue_of_Honen_in_Bukkyo_University_2017_b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Statue of Hōnen in <a href="/wiki/Bukkyo_University" title="Bukkyo University">Bukkyo University</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a> (1133–1212) is perhaps the most important figure in the history of Japanese nembutsu practice. His study of Pure land literature, especially Shandao, convinced him that Pure Land practice was the only effective practice for the degenerate age.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> This view led to various reactions among other Buddhist schools at the time and Hōnen's sect was fiercely attacked at times. The Tendai school argued that this teaching disparaged other Buddhist practices and managed to have the exclusive practice of nembutsu banned by the government for a period of time (c. 1207).<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The ban was lifted in 1211. In spite of these setbacks, Hōnen's new Jōdo (Pure Land) school thrived.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> Hōnen was widely criticized for teaching that only nembutsu was an efficacious Buddhist practice, an idea that became known as the senju nembutsu (専修念仏, "exclusive nembutsu"). However, his view is more nuanced than simple exclusivity. Even though Hōnen saw the nembutsu as the supreme practice, he did not actually teach that only the oral recitation of the nembutsu was useful. He merely taught that this was the simplest, most accessible and effective practice taught by the Buddha. It was the only one that always works. As Jones writes, for Hōnen "to become a buddha, one first needed to be reborn in the Pure Land, and for this the oral nenbutsu was the only reliable expedient. One thus had to begin with it. After one had established oneself in this practice with firm faith, one could then reintroduce the other [auxiliary] practices that aimed at rebirth there as a way of enriching the practice of oral recitation."<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> Dr. Mark Blum similarly explains that Honen's view is not "exclusive nembutsu" but "prioritized nembutsu" in which the nembutsu becomes a "chosen practice" with a specially sacred status.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> As such, while <a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a> emphasized the oral nembutsu, he did still promote the practice of other forms of nembutsu (like visualization) as well as Shandao's auxiliary Pure land practices (including precepts, dedicating merit to birth, recitation of sutras, etc).<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> After his death, Hōnen's disciples spread his teachings on the nembutsu throughout Japan. There was another <a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">religious persecution</a> of his followers following the posthumous publication of Hōnen's secret <a href="/wiki/Senchaku_Hongan_Nembutsush%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Senchaku Hongan Nembutsushū">Passages on the Selection of the Nembutsu in the Original Vow</a> and many of Hōnen's writings (as well as his tomb) were destroyed by Tendai monks. While the imperial government exiled many of Hōnen's disciples to far off provinces with the intention of suppressing it, this just served to spread Hōnen's nembutsu teachings throughout Japan.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> There also were various views and debates on the nature of the nembutsu among Hōnen's followers, perhaps the most well known of which is the debate between once-calling (Jpn.: ichinengi, one only needs to say nembutsu once to be saved) and many-calling (Jpn.: tanengi, many times are needed).<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> The most influential of Hōnen's students was <a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a> (1173–1263), founder of the <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo Shinshū">Jōdo Shinshū</a> sect.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> Shinran's view of the nembutsu centered on the concept of true faith or total entrusting (Jpn.: <a href="/wiki/Shinjin" title="Shinjin">shinjin</a>), which was seen as a deep and transformative experience that arises spontaneously (jinen). With this state of mind, it didn't matter how many times one recited the nembutsu. One was assured of birth if one had complete trust in Amitabha.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> Furthermore, all other practices were futile in attaining rebirth in the Pure land, only the nembutsu was efficacious in this.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> Shinran saw the nembutsu is itself nothing but the natural expression of shinjin. For those who do not yet have the settlement heart-mind of shinjin, one is to recite the nembutsu without any calculation or contrivance, and with a sense of gratitute to Amitabha.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> During his exile, Shinran married and remained a layperson. Many of his followers were laypeople. They formed congregations (montos) who chose their own leaders, and met in practice centers (dōjōs) instead of temples to recite the nembutsu.<a href="#cite_note-:12-61">[61]</a> One more influential Kamakura period teacher of the nembutsu was <a href="/wiki/Ippen" title="Ippen">Ippen</a> (1239–1289). Ippen argued that concerning oneself with faith was pointless, since one's own faith was just a kind of self-power. As such, Ippen argued that the nembutsu worked with or without faith on the side of the reciter.<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a> Like Tanluan, Ippen held that the Buddha was present in the very name of Amitabha, as his Dharmakaya was all pervasive. Reciting the name thus allowed one to realize the non-duality between oneself and Amitabha.<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a> Ippen went as far as to say that the recitation of the nembutsu brought one to the Pure Land here and now, that is, one moment of the nembutsu was a moment of the Pure Land.<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a> Ippen's teaching was quite popular, and his <a href="/wiki/Ji-shu" title="Ji-shu">Ji-shu</a> sect became the largest Pure Land sect in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. It then went into decline, but still survives as a minor sect.<a href="#cite_note-:13-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Esoteric_nembutsu">Esoteric nembutsu</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Esoteric nembutsu">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg/250px-Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg/330px-Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg/500px-Descent_of_Amitabha_over_the_Mountain.jpg 2x" data-file-width="805" data-file-height="950" /></a><figcaption>Descent of Amitabha over the Mountain or Yamagoe no Amida (山越えの阿弥陀), a cultural treasure from Eikando Temple. Note the <a href="/wiki/Seed_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Seed syllable">seed syllable</a> "a" for Amida on the upper-left.</figcaption></figure> Esoteric lineages of Japanese Buddhism, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a> tradition, also developed their own teachings on the nembutsu.<a href="#cite_note-Stone,_Jacqueline_I._2004_pp._77-119-65">[65]</a> Perhaps the earliest monk to call himself a "Nenbutsu-shū (Nianfo school)" monk, was the Shingon monk Eikan of <a href="/wiki/Eikan-d%C5%8D_Zenrin-ji" title="Eikan-dō Zenrin-ji">Zenrinji</a>, who emphasized nembutsu practice as a way to attain rebirth in Sukhavati. He even argued that nembutsu was the highest practice, even on the level of all other esoteric practices.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Another important Shingon author on nembutsu was Chingai, who writes of the “essence of the pure [land] teachings,” in his Ketsujō ōjō shū 決定往生集 (T. 2684). He promoted the nembutsu along with the mantra of Amitabha and the <a href="/wiki/Mantra_of_Light" title="Mantra of Light">Mantra of Light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Later, the Shingon monk <a href="/wiki/Kakuban" title="Kakuban">Kakuban</a> (1095–1143) popularized an esoteric nembutsu teaching influenced by Pure Land and Shingon esotericism.<a href="#cite_note-Stone,_Jacqueline_I._2004_pp._77-119-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-:4-68">[68]</a> His Mitsugon-in temple was a major site for the practice of nembutsu which became popular among hijiri (itinerant ascetics).<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Kakuban's Amida Hishaku (Esoteric Meaning of Amida) is an important exposition of esoteric Pure Land thought on nembutsu practice.<a href="#cite_note-:26-70">[70]</a> For Kakuban, Amitabha is a manifestation of the all-pervasive <a href="/wiki/Dharmak%C4%81ya" title="Dharmakāya">Dharmakaya</a> <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Mahavairocana</a>. As such, the nembutsu is a powerful mantra that turns one's heart-mind towards an awareness of one's own innate buddha-nature, which is none other than the Dharmakaya itself, the fundamental empty consciousness at the ground of all things.<a href="#cite_note-:26-70">[70]</a> Another influential figure which developed the philosophy of esoteric nembutsu practice was <a href="/w/index.php?title=D%C5%8Dhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dōhan (page does not exist)">Dōhan</a> (1179–1252), the author of Himitsu nenbutsu shō (The Secret Meaning of Nembutsu).<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Dōhan's four layered esoteric understanding of the nembutsu as follows:<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <ol><li>At level one, the literal level of meaning, there is the conventional truth of Amitabha as a being that created the Pure land as a place of refuge for all beings who say his name.</li> <li>At this level of meaning, Amitabha is but one aspect of the cosmic Mahāvairocana Buddha, the Dharmakaya..</li> <li>At the third level, Amitabha is the compassionate activity of ultimate reality itself and the universal doorwat to liberation for all beings.</li> <li>At the deepest most secret level, Amitabha is the true nature which is active within the body-mind of all living beings.</li></ol> Dōhan goes as far as equating the nembutsu with one's heart-mind (shin), one's life, and breath. As such, whether one is awake or asleep, one is already engaged in the secret nembutsu through merely breathing. Thus, the esoteric nembutsu is not limited to actively chanting the name.<a href="#cite_note-:31-73">[73]</a> Indeed, since he sees the nembutsu as all pervasive, Dōhan rejects the concept of "exclusive" recitation practice, and promotes a more diverse regime of Buddhist practices.<a href="#cite_note-:31-73">[73]</a> Secret nenbutsu (himitsu nenbutsu) teachings were influential outside of the Shingon school as well. They impacted the thought and practice of itinerant monks (hijiri) like Ippen. Esoteric nenbutsu ideas also influenced the rise of secretive movements (hiji bomon, secret dharmas) within Jodo Shinshu, such as kakushi nenbutsu (hidden nenbutsu) and <a href="/wiki/Kakure_nenbutsu" title="Kakure nenbutsu">kakure nenbutsu</a> (hiding nenbutsu).<a href="#cite_note-:26-70">[70]</a> Esoteric nembutsu teachings also influenced <a href="/wiki/Seizan" title="Seizan">Seizan</a> branch of Jodo-shu, founded by Johen (1166-1224) and Shōkū 證空 (1177-1247).<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Johen was originally a Shingon priest at <a href="/wiki/Eikan-d%C5%8D_Zenrin-ji" title="Eikan-dō Zenrin-ji">Eikan-dō</a> who had affinities with Pure Land practice. Later he converted to <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo-shū">Jōdo-shū</a> after reading Honen's works.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> This branch of Jodo-shu has been seen by modern scholars as being the source of the Pure Land tract Attaining the Settled Mind (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Anjin_ketsujo_sho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anjin ketsujo sho (page does not exist)">Anjin ketsujō shō</a>). This text has been influential in the Jodo Shinshu tradition.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_developments">Later developments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Later developments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG/220px-%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG/330px-%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG/440px-%E7%99%BD%E5%B3%B6%E5%A4%AA%E9%BC%93%E5%BF%B5%E4%BB%8F.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>"Taiko Nembutsu" (nembutsu accompanied by drumming) practiced in Hakushima, Japan</figcaption></figure> The new <a href="/wiki/Kamakura_period" title="Kamakura period">Kamakura period</a> Pure Land schools were extremely popular and influential. Other schools responded with various critiques of their nembutsu practice and with their own similar devotional teachings. One critic was the <a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Kegon</a> monk <a href="/wiki/My%C5%8De" title="Myōe">Myōe</a>, who wrote two critical treatises against Honen's views. His central critique was that exclusive nembutsu practice lacked central Mahayana foundations, like <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">bodhicitta</a> (the mind aimed at awakening for the sake of all beings).<a href="#cite_note-:02-77">[77]</a>: 85  Nevertheless, Myōe was also a promoter of simply reciting the <a href="/wiki/Mantra_of_Light" title="Mantra of Light">Mantra of Light</a> as a way to attain rebirth in Sukhavati.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Similarly, the Yogacara figure <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Dkei_(monk)" title="Jōkei (monk)">Jōkei</a> (1155–1213) responded to the widespread popularity of the nembutsu practice by promoting a similar series of simple devotional practices which relied on the other power of a Buddha, though he preferred to focus on <a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Maitreya</a> or <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Shakyamuni</a> Buddha instead of Amitabha as the main object of devotion.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Later in Japanese history, the nembutsu would also become popular in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a>, influenced by the rise of the <a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cbaku" title="Ōbaku">Ōbaku</a> lineage, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Ingen" title="Ingen">Ingen</a> (1592-1673), who followed a Chinese Linji tradition which promoted Chan-Pure Land dual cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Nenbutsu practice was also taught in the other schools of Japanese Zen at certain times in its history, though this was not without controversy. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Rinzai_school" title="Rinzai school">Rinzai</a> master <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ungo_Kiy%C5%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ungo Kiyō (page does not exist)">Ungo Kiyō</a> (1582-1659), was famous for having taught nembutsu. He wrote a work on the practice, called the Ōjōyōka. This caused a controversy among his Rinzai peers, who even threatened him with expulsion.<a href="#cite_note-:27-81">[81]</a> Since nembutsu practice had been condemned by the great Rinzai systematizer <a href="/wiki/Hakuin_Ekaku" title="Hakuin Ekaku">Hakuin Ekaku</a> (1686-1769), this controversy cut to the core the Rinzai tradition's identity.<a href="#cite_note-:27-81">[81]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_era" title="Meiji era">Meiji period</a>, <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dt%C5%8D" title="Sōtō">Sōtō school</a> priests also taught both Shaka nembutsu (Namu <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Shakamuni</a> Butsu) and Amida nembutsu to the laity, seeking to promote an easy practice for regular people.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Vietnamese_Buddhism">In Vietnamese Buddhism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: In Vietnamese Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg/220px-K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg/330px-K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg/440px-K%E1%BB%87_ni%E1%BB%87m_Ph%E1%BA%ADt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3392" data-file-height="4522" /></a><figcaption>Verses for reciting the Buddha's name by Venerable Thích Trí Tịnh engraved on stone and erected in the grounds of Vạn Đức Pagoda in <a href="/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A7_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thủ Đức">Thủ Đức</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ho_Chi_Minh_City" title="Ho Chi Minh City">Ho Chi Minh City</a>, Vietnam.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnamese Buddhism</a> is an eclectic tradition which draws from all strains of Chinese Buddhism, including Chan and Pure Land. As such, the practice of "Niệm Phật" (the Vietnamese term for nianfo) is a common feature of modern Vietnamese Buddhist practice. The phrase "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" or "Nam mô A Mi Đà" is often chanted in Vietnamese temples by monks and laypeople alike. The nianfo method is often combined with <a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a> meditation (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">zazen</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[83]</a> Indeed, according to <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Thi%C3%AAn-%C3%82n" title="Thích Thiên-Ân">Thích Thiên-Ân</a>, "at present the popular method of practice is meditation during recitation and recitation during meditation - meditation and recitation being one and the same for Vietnamese Buddhists".<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[83]</a> This Chan Nianfo dual practice is known as "union of Zen and Pure-Land recitation".<a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[83]</a> One popular teacher of Vietnamese Pure Land nienfo practice was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thich_Thien_Tam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thich Thien Tam (page does not exist)">Thich Thien Tam</a>. Some of his teachings have been translated into English, including the book Buddhism of Wisdom & Faith (1991). <a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Qu%E1%BA%A3ng_%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Thích Quảng Đức">Thích Quảng Đức</a>, a <a href="/wiki/South_Vietnam" title="South Vietnam">South Vietnamese</a> Mahāyāna monk who famously <a href="/wiki/Self-immolation" title="Self-immolation">burned himself to death</a> in an act of protest against the <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">anti-Buddhist policies</a> of the Catholic President <a href="/wiki/Ng%C3%B4_%C4%90%C3%ACnh_Di%E1%BB%87m" class="mw-redirect" title="Ngô Đình Diệm">Ngô Đình Diệm</a>, said the nianfo as his last words immediately before death. He sat in the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_position" title="Lotus position">lotus position</a>, rotated a string of wooden prayer beads, and recited the words "Nam mô A-di-đà Phật" before striking the match and dropping it on himself, continuing to recite Amitabha's name as he burned. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ways_of_practicing_nianfo">Ways of practicing nianfo</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ways of practicing nianfo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Buddha_Recitation_Hall,_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg/250px-Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg/330px-Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg/500px-Buddha_Recitation_Hall%2C_Baoning_Temple_in_Changsha_2022022501.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Nianfo hall, <a href="/wiki/Baoning_Temple_(Changsha)" title="Baoning Temple (Changsha)">Baoning Temple</a></figcaption></figure> There are numerous ways of practicing nianfo in East Asian Buddhism. The most popular method in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism remains the simple oral recitation of the phrase Namo Amituo-fo (Jp: Namo Amida Bu, Namo Amitabha Buddha) or just the name itself "Amitofo" (Amitabha Buddha).<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> The Japanese Pure Land sects of <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo-sh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo-shū">Jōdo-shū</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddo_Shinsh%C5%AB" title="Jōdo Shinshū">Jōdo Shinshū</a> tend to exclusively focus on the oral recitation of the nianfo.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Another widespread method is the mentally “holding the name” (Ch.: chi ming), in which one mentally contemplates the Buddha by repeating the name with one's inner voice.<a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a> Yet another important form of nianfo in the Pure Land tradition are based on visualization (guānxiǎng 觀想). These include maintaining a mental image of Amitabha Buddha, looking at a physical Buddha statue or painting, and even meditating using the numerous visualization exercises taught in the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Amitayus Contemplation Sutra</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jones_2019,_p._1302-87">[87]</a> One Chinese master who taught nianfo along with visualization was <a href="/wiki/Shi_Yinguang" title="Shi Yinguang">Yìnguāng</a> (1861–1940).<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> According to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Th%C3%ADch_Thi%E1%BB%87n_T%C3%A2m&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thích Thiện Tâm (page does not exist)">Thích Thiện Tâm</a>, there are four major "types" of nianfo practice: (1) the practice of Pure Land nianfo alongside Chan/Zen practice; (2) practicing nianfo alongside the recitation of <a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a>; (3) practicing nianfo alongside <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">esoteric practices</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">mantra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dharani" title="Dharani">dharani</a>; (4) the exclusive practice of nianfo (either with visualization, or as oral recitation only).<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Furthermore, Charles Jones discusses two main approaches to the various ways of practicing nianfo, the "medicine cabinet" approach and the "graded path" or "<a href="/wiki/Buddhist_paths_to_liberation" title="Buddhist paths to liberation">mārga</a>" approach. The first approach sees the various nianfo methods as different <a href="/wiki/Skillful_means" class="mw-redirect" title="Skillful means">skillful means</a>, each of which can be useful for different individuals with different needs. It is the job of a Pure Land teacher to help a student select the method best suited to them.<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> The medicine cabinet approach is exemplified by the following passage from Elder Suddhisukha's Taming the Monkey Mind: "The cultivator is not expected to follow all the methods presented in this volume, but rather to pick and choose according to his situation, level and circumstances. If a given method does not bring results quickly or is not suitable, the reader can switch to another."<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The second approach organizes various nianfo methods into a graded curriculum, beginning with the easiest method.<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Many_nianfo_methods">Many nianfo methods</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Many nianfo methods">edit</a>]</div> East Asian Buddhism contains many methods and techniques for the practice of nianfo. They are taught by monastics and lay teachers and are found in classic text and popular publications like Zhèng Wéiān's Forty-Eight Ways to Nianfo (Ch.: Niànfó sìshíbā fǎ, which has been translated into English under the title Taming the Monkey Mind).<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> As early as <a href="/wiki/Kuiji" title="Kuiji">Kuiji's</a> (632–682) Commentary on the Amitāyus Sūtra (阿彌陀經通贊疏; T.1758), three types of recitation were taught: mental recitation of nianfo, light verbal nianfo only heard by oneself, and loud verbal nianfo.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ti%C4%81nr%C3%BA_W%C3%A9iz%C3%A9&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tiānrú Wéizé (page does not exist)">Tiānrú Wéizé</a>'s (1286?–1354) Questions about Pure Land (T.1972) meanwhile provides two main categories: visualization (guānxiǎng 觀想), and recollection and <a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">invocation</a> (yìniàn 意念).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Nianfo variations and techniques include the following:<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> <ul><li>Using a <a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">mala</a> or rosary and moving one bead for each chant of "Amitabha".<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> One can decide ahead of time to commit to a certain number of recitations per day and track these with the mala. This can help in eliminating laziness. Patriarchs like Ouyi aimed at 30 to 100 thousand repetitions a day.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> An alternative method is to move one bead for a certain number of recitations, such as five or ten rapid recitations.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a></li> <li>Chanting with a loud voice, to overcome sleepiness or <a href="/wiki/Torpor" title="Torpor">torpor</a>.</li> <li>Quiet recitation for when one is tired or anxious.</li> <li>"Reflecting the name" in which one carefully listens to the sounds as one recites the nianfo. This is influenced by the Shurangama sutra's teaching for meditating on the hearing faculty.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a></li> <li>“Vajra recitation” (Ch.: jin’gang chifa) "in which one moves the lips without emitting any sound", useful for practicing in public.</li> <li>Silent recitation without moving the lips at all.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li>Linked with the breath, one mentally recites nianfo with each in breath and out breath. One may also visualize the breath as light going in and out of one's nose.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li>"Continuously linked recitation" in which one "recites softly, each word following the one immediately before, each phrase closely following the previous phrase".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a></li> <li>Reciting nianfo in various postures, such as while walking, while circumambulating a Buddha statue, or while standing or lying down.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a></li> <li>Practicing nianfo while looking at a <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Buddha image.</a></li> <li>Bowing recitation, in which one bows to the Buddha and recites, either one recitation per vow, or constant recitation as we bow again and again. According to Thích Thiện Tâm "its benefits are very great, because the practitioner engages in recitation with his body, speech and mind."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a></li> <li>Reciting nianfo while in the middle of daily activities.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></li> <li>The Chan influenced “Pure Land kōan” method in which one recites nianfo and pauses to ask “Who is it that performs nianfo?”.<a href="#cite_note-:8-37">[37]</a></li> <li>“Holding the name in the midst of light” (Ch.: guangzhong chiming) in which "one hears the sound of one's own recitation and visualizes the sound revolving in the space of the heart. The sound turns into light, and one places oneself in the light and abides in it for a time."<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> A similar method is taught by Thích Thiện Tâm who writes that one may recite nianfo while imagining oneself "seated in the midst of a huge, brilliant zone of light".<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Similarly, the first visualization of the Amitayus Contemplation Sutra is to visualize a golden shining setting sun.</li> <li>"Lotus blossom method" in which one visualizes a shining lotus blossom while reciting the name.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a></li> <li>Patriarch Fazhao's "five stage nianfo" (五會念佛) method in which one chants nianfo melodically in five different tempos, beginning at a slow tempo and ending in a rapid tempo.<a href="#cite_note-:17-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Utau nembutsu (singing nenbutsu) and odori nembutsu (dancing nembutsu), two popular methods from Japan.<a href="#cite_note-:27-81">[81]</a></li> <li>Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Shi_Yinguang" title="Shi Yinguang">Yinguang's</a> "ten recitation method" in which one recites the name of Amitabha ten times and then start over again at one. One should not count the recitations, but merely remain aware and focused so one knows when number ten has been reached.<a href="#cite_note-:14-90">[90]</a> This practice is also taught as something that can be applied throughout the day. One program mentioned by Shi Wuling is to chant one ten count round of this method "upon waking up, before and after breakfast, before work, before and after lunch, before and after dinner, and before retiring."<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a></li> <li>Enlightened recitation, in which one "<a href="/wiki/Turning_the_light_around" title="Turning the light around">turns the light around</a>" towards our <a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">true nature</a> as one recites the nianfo. This is considered to be for those of highest capacity.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Group_nianfo">Group nianfo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Group nianfo">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures,by_Li_Mei-shu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/220px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/330px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg/440px-Chanting_The_Buddhist_Scriptures%2Cby_Li_Mei-shu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2183" /></a><figcaption>A painting by <a href="/wiki/Li_Mei-shu" title="Li Mei-shu">Li Mei-shu</a> depicting a chanting session</figcaption></figure> Nianfo practice can be done alone or in a group. Individuals may track their recitations using a <a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">mala</a>, sometimes seeking to achieve a specific number of recitations per day. Group chanting sessions may be accompanied by a <a href="/wiki/Wooden_fish" title="Wooden fish">wooden fish</a> or other percussion instruments. Special halls are often set aside for chanting, called nianfo halls. Chinese temples and nianfo halls will often hold nianfo retreats attended by monastic and lay. They may last for several days and may include chanting, walking nianfo, and quiet sitting nianfo meditation.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graded_nianfo_paths">Graded nianfo paths</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Graded nianfo paths">edit</a>]</div> One of the earliest of these graded path models is found in <a href="/wiki/Qingliang_Chengguan" title="Qingliang Chengguan">Chengguan's</a> commentary on the <a href="/wiki/Gandavyuha" title="Gandavyuha">Gandavyuha Sutra</a>'s passage on twenty one kinds of nianfo. This commentary contains the following schema of nianfo practice (or ascending levels of spiritual growth in relation to nianfo):<a href="#cite_note-:23-109">[109]</a> <ol><li>Nianfo focused on an external Buddha and an external Pure land</li> <li>Mind-only nianfo in which one is aware that mind is Buddha</li> <li>The cessation of both the mind and the object of visualization in emptiness</li> <li>The non-obstruction of mind and its object based on mutual interpenetration and the interfusion of principle (li) and phenomena (shih)</li> <li>The inexhaustible identity of oneself with all things</li></ol> This method was further modified by <a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Guīfēng Zōngmì</a> (圭峰宗密, 780–841), a Huayan and Chan master who also wrote on nianfo practice.<a href="#cite_note-:23-109">[109]</a> He taught a path schema of four types of nianfo which was adopted by later Pure Land authors like <a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Yúnqī Zhūhóng</a> (1535–1615) and Zhìyù (1924–2000). Zōngmì's four types of nianfo are:<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <ul><li>"Contemplation of the name" (chēngmíng niàn 稱名念), which is based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra preached by Mañjuśrī (T.232) and involves selecting a Buddha, facing their direction, and focusing on their name until one has a vision of all buddhas (past, present, and future). As noted by Jones, while later Chinese Pure Land thinkers interpreted this practice as oral recitation, it seems that for Zongmi this entailed mentally "holding" (chēngmíng 稱名) the sound of the name. Yúnqī Zhūhóng taught "holding the name" in various ways including: audible recitation of the name (míngchí 明持), silent contemplation of the name (mòchí 默持), or contemplation accompanied by barely audible whispering of the name (bànmíng bànmò chí 半明半默持).<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2019,_p._137-111">[111]</a></li> <li>"Contemplating an image" (guānxiàng niàn 觀像念), which is based on the Dà bǎojī jīng (大寶積經 Great Jewel Collection Sutra, T.310) which according to Jones "says that in contemplating an image of a buddha, one realizes the non-duality of the image with the buddha."<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li>"Contemplating the visualization" (guānxiǎng niàn 觀想念), "means to contemplate the major and minor marks of a buddha's body without the aid of a physical image. One may select one feature upon which to focus or contemplate them all simultaneously."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019i-113">[113]</a> The sources for this nianfo practice are the Sutra on the samadhi-ocean of the contemplation of the Buddha (T.643) and Sutra on the samadhi of seated meditation (T.614).</li> <li>"Contemplating the true mark" (shíxiàng niàn 實相念), "one contemplates the buddha's dharma body, which is also the contemplation of one's own true self and the true nature of all phenomena. This is also based on The Perfection of Wisdom Sutra Preached by Mañjuśrī, which describes the true nature of the buddha as "unproduced and unextinguished, neither going nor coming, without name and without feature. That alone is called 'buddha'."<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019i-113">[113]</a></li></ul> This schema may have been presented as a progressive path of practice, from easiest to most difficult and profound.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2019i-113">[113]</a> While Zōngmì held that the fourth method of nianfo was the most profound, the later Pure Land patriarch <a href="/wiki/Yunqi_Zhuhong" title="Yunqi Zhuhong">Yúnqī Zhūhóng</a> reversed this progression in his Commentary and Notes on the Amitābha Sūtra (Ch.: Āmítuó jīng shūchǎo 阿彌陀經疏鈔 CBETA X.424), arguing that "contemplation of the name" was actually the highest practice since it consists of the unity of principle and phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2021h-114">[114]</a> Modern Chinese Pure Land masters like Zhiyu (c. 1924–2000, cf. Lotuses at the Pond's Edge, Ch: Chipan lian chao) have continued to make use of Zhūhóng's schema.<a href="#cite_note-Jones-2021h-114">[114]</a> Zhūhóng also taught that there were two main mental attitudes that can be applied to practicing nianfo:<a href="#cite_note-Jones_2019,_p._137-111">[111]</a> <ul><li>"Phenomenal holding of the name" (shì chí 事持), which entails concentrating on the individual syllables of the name. This leads to a calm and focused mind, and thus to samadhi and so it is mainly a "calming" (zhǐ 止, samatha) practice.</li> <li>"Noumenal holding of the name" (lǐ chí 理持), which shifts the attention to the mind that is holding the name and eventually realizes that the non-duality of oneself and Amitabha. This is a contemplation (guān 觀) practice aimed at wisdom.</li></ul> Zongmi's classic schema is also taught by the modern Vietnamese Pure Land master Thích Thiện Tâm in his Buddhism of Wisdom & Faith (1994, pp. 116-119). Like Zhūhóng, Thiện Tâm emphasizes the superiority of oral recitation, writing that only oral recitation "embraces people of all capacities, leads to swift results and is easy enough for anyone to practice."<a href="#cite_note-:18-115">[115]</a> Furthermore, when practiced well, Thích Thiện Tâm states this practice will lead us to see Amitabha and the Pure land in this life and even awaken us to the <a href="/wiki/Awakening_of_Faith_in_the_Mahayana#Content" title="Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana">Original Mind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:18-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genshin's_schema_of_practices">Genshin's schema of practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Genshin's schema of practices">edit</a>]</div> The Japanese Tendai monk <a href="/wiki/Genshin" title="Genshin">Genshin</a> devotes a chapter on nianfo practice in his influential Ōjōyōshū (Essentials for Birth in the Pure Land). Genshin outlines three main categories of nienfo (Jp: nenbutsu) practice:<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <ol><li>Contemplation of the individual marks - This involves visualizing all <a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">32 marks of a great man</a> (mahāpuruṣa lakṣaṇa) along with some extra secondary marks, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Ushnisha" title="Ushnisha">ushnisha</a> at the top of the Buddha's head. This is repeated in forward and reverse order sixteen times until one is able to visualize Amitabha's form perfectly.</li> <li>Contemplation of the comprehensive mark - this involves visualizing Amitabha as a gigantic shining gold being sitting on a huge lotus <a href="/wiki/Dais" title="Dais">dais</a>, or visualizing him as encompassing all three buddha-bodies (<a href="/wiki/Trikaya" title="Trikaya">trikaya</a>). Genshin considered this the most profound method.</li> <li>Mixed and abbreviated contemplations - these are easier and simpler methods for those who cannot do the others. They include visualizing the curled white tuft of hair between Amitabha's eyebrows radiating salvific light, as well as simple recitation of the nenbutsu while imagining oneself taking refuge in Amitabha and being taken to the Pure Land.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mental_attitude">Mental attitude</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mental attitude">edit</a>]</div> An important element of nianfo practice in East Asian Buddhism is the question of what kind of mental attitude is needed (if any) when reciting the name of the Buddha (or meditating on him).<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> The Pure land sutras seem to indicate that <a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">faith</a> (śraddhā) is needed for birth in the Pure land. The sūtras also mention a place outside the Pure Land called the “City of Doubt” (Ch.: yicheng), where those who lack faith but still recite the name are reborn.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> In its discussion of mindfulness of the Buddha and the 18th vow of Amitabha, the <a href="/wiki/The_Amit%C4%81yus_Sutra" title="The Amitāyus Sutra">Amitayus sutra</a> mentions three aspects of mind: “a sincere mind” (至心), “serene faith” (信楽), and “the desire to be reborn” (欲生).<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> As such, the Pure Land masters like <a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a> argued that reciting the nianfo with a faithful mind was important. Shandao writes that the ideal attitude is the Three Minds (三心), which are also outlined in the <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81yus_Contemplation_S%C5%ABtra" title="Amitāyus Contemplation Sūtra">Amitayus Contemplation Sutra</a> as follows: "first, a sincere mind; second, a deep mind; and third, a mind that seeks birth there [the Pure Land] by transferring one's merit."<a href="#cite_note-:44-118">[118]</a> Shandao comments on this passage by saying that the "sincere mind" is based on worshiping, praising, glorifying and contemplating the Buddha, while the "deep mind" is true faith in Amitabha and his pure land without any doubt. Finally, the third mind is the intention to transfer all of one's meritorious roots towards birth in the pure land.<a href="#cite_note-:32-119">[119]</a> True faith was also emphasized by Japanese authors like <a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a>, who saw complete entrustment (Jp: <a href="/wiki/Shinjin" title="Shinjin">shinjin</a>) as the one central and essential element of nianfo practice. Nianfo will not work without it. Furthermore, for Shinran, true faith is a gift of grace by Amitabha, it cannot be generated by oneself.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> Japanese authors like Shinran also argued that nianfo works only due to the "other-power" of Amitabha, and one's own "self-power" is futile and useless. As such, making effort on our part is counterproductive, one merely has to entrust oneself in Amitabha completely. The Chinese tradition on the other hand holds that self-power and other-power work together through a "sympathetic resonance" (gǎnyìng). As such, one should make skillful effort to practice diligently.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a> (the mind which aims at awakening for the benefit of all beings) is also another important attitude which is mentioned by Indian and Asian sources on nianfo.<a href="#cite_note-:32-119">[119]</a> Bodhicitta is mentioned in Pure land scriptures like the Amitayus Sutra.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> Figures like <a href="/wiki/Tan-luan" title="Tan-luan">Tanluan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jixing_Chewu" title="Jixing Chewu">Jìxǐng Chèwù</a> also stress the importance of bodhicitta for the successful practice of nianfo.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-:03-55">[55]</a> Jìxǐng Chèwù goes as far as saying that without the bodhicitta motivation, the "sympathetic resonance" (gǎnyìng) which tunes one's mind to the Buddha's power will not be activated.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> Similarly, Vietnamese master Thích Thiện Tâm writes that developing bodhicitta is a "crucial step" for those who practice nianfo. He also quotes the Avatamsaka sutra which states: "to neglect bodhicitta when practicing good deeds is the action of demons".<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> A related element is the taking of vows, particularly the vow to be reborn in the Pure Land. Figures like <a href="/wiki/Ouyi_Zhixu" title="Ouyi Zhixu">Ouyi Zhixu</a> and Thích Thiện Tâm argue that vows is one of the essential elements of nianfo practice, along with faith and practice itself.<a href="#cite_note-:16-125">[125]</a> According to Ouyi Zhixu, faith and vows are necessary for birth in the Pure Land (without them one might fail to attain rebirth there). Meanwhile, the depth of one's practice will determine the stage of rebirth (i.e. which of the nine lotus grades one will attain) in the Pure Land.<a href="#cite_note-:16-125">[125]</a> Some figures like <a href="/wiki/Ippen" title="Ippen">Ippen</a> disagreed with the view that any specific mental attitude was needed for rebirth in the Pure Land however. They argued that the power of the Buddha worked no matter what one's mental attitude was since the presence of Amitabha's name in one's mind purified the mind by itself, like the mythical wish fulfilling <a href="/wiki/Mani_Jewel" title="Mani Jewel">mani jewel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:15-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phrases_used_in_recitation">Phrases used in recitation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Phrases used in recitation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sanskrit">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png/250px-Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png/330px-Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png/500px-Namo_Amit%C4%81bh%C4%81ya_Buddh%C4%81ya_in_Siddham_script.png 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="270" /></a><figcaption>Namo Amitābhāya Buddhāya in the <a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ script</a></figcaption></figure> The Sanskrit phrase used in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> is not mentioned originally in the main bodies of the two main Pure Land sutras. The following phrase appears in the opening of the extant <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> <a href="/wiki/Longer_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Infinite Life Sutra</a>, as well as the later composition, the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Contemplation Sutra</a> (only extant in Chinese): <dl><dd>namo'mitābhāya buddhāya <a href="#cite_note-Buddhist_Churches_of_America-126">[126]</a> (<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a>: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit" title="Help:IPA/Sanskrit">[n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːbʱɑːjɐbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ]</a> )</dd></dl> The apostrophe and omission of the first "A" in "Amitābha" comes from normal Sanskrit <a href="/wiki/Sandhi" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> sound change rule, and implies that the initial A in Amitabha is omitted due to the previous vowel o. A rendering without sandhi might be: <dl><dd>Namo Amitābhāya Buddhāya</dd></dl> A literal English translation would be "Bow to Amitābha Buddha" or "Homage to Amitābha Buddha". Several scholars have also argued that the Pure Land sutras might have originally been written in <a href="/wiki/Gandhari_language" title="Gandhari language">Gandhari</a>. Jan Nattier gives the possible Gandhari name for Amitābha as Amidā’a.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Thus, a possible Gandhari <a href="/wiki/Prakrit" title="Prakrit">Prakrit</a> reconstruction of the phrase is:<blockquote>Namo Amidā’a Budha</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nianfo_in_East_Asia">Nianfo in East Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nianfo in East Asia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kuya_Portrait.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Kuya_Portrait.JPG/220px-Kuya_Portrait.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="459" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Kuya_Portrait.JPG/330px-Kuya_Portrait.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Kuya_Portrait.JPG/440px-Kuya_Portrait.JPG 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Japanese itinerant monk <a href="/wiki/K%C5%ABya" title="Kūya">Kūya</a> reciting the nembutsu, each of the Chinese characters represented by a small figure of <a href="/wiki/Amida_Nyorai" class="mw-redirect" title="Amida Nyorai">Amida</a> emerging from his mouth</figcaption></figure> As the practice of nianfo spread from India to various other regions, the original pronunciation changed to fit various local languages. <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Language </th> <th>As written </th> <th>Romanization </th> <th>IPA </th></tr> <tr> <td>Sanskrit </td> <td>नमोऽमिताभाय बुद्धाय नमोऽमितयुसे बुद्धाय </td> <td>Namo'mitābhāya Buddhāya </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit" title="Help:IPA/Sanskrit">[n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːbʱɑːjɐbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ]</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit" title="Help:IPA/Sanskrit">[n̪ɐmoːɐmɪt̪ɑːjʊʂeːbud̪̚.d̪ʱɑːjɐ]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chinese </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Traditional_chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditional chinese">Traditional</a>: 南無阿彌陀佛 <a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a>: 南无阿弥陀佛 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a>: Nāmó āmítuófó<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a>: naa1 mo4 o1 mei4 to4 fat6 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[nä˥˥ mu̯ɔ˧˥ ˀɤ˥˥ mi˧˥ tʰu̯ɔ˧˥ fu̯ɔ˧˥]</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[naː˥˥ mɔː˨˩ ɔː˥˥ mei̯˨˩ tʰɔː˨˩ fɐt̚˨]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Japanese </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a>: 南無阿弥陀仏 <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a>: なむあみだぶつ </td> <td>Namu Amida Butsu </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[na̠mɯ̟ᵝ a̠mʲida̠bɯ̟ᵝt͡sɨᵝ]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Korean </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>: 南無阿彌陀佛 <a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a>: 나무아미타불 </td> <td>Namu Amita Bul </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[na̠mua̠mitʰa̠buɭ]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Vietnamese </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a>: 南無阿彌陀佛 <a href="/wiki/Qu%E1%BB%91c_ng%E1%BB%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="Quốc ngữ">Quốc ngữ</a>: Nam mô A-di-đà Phật </td> <td>Nam mô A-di-đà Phật </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Vietnamese" title="Help:IPA/Vietnamese">[naːm˧˧ mo˧˧ ʔaː˧˧ zi˧˧ ʔɗaː˨˩ fət̚˧˨ʔ]</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> In China, the practice of nianfo was codified with the establishment of the separate Pure Land school of Buddhism. The most common form of this is the six syllable nianfo; some shorten it into Ēmítuófó/Āmítuófó.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> In the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Jodo_Shinshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodo Shinshu">Jodo Shinshu</a> sect, it is often shortened to na man da bu. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations_and_alternate_names">Variations and alternate names</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Variations and alternate names">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alternate_Sanskrit_phrases">Alternate Sanskrit phrases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Alternate Sanskrit phrases">edit</a>]</div> While almost unknown, and unused outside of the original Sanskrit, the texts provide a recitation of Amitābha's alternate aspect of Amitāyus as: <dl><dd>namo'mitāyuṣe buddhāya (Namo Amitāyuṣe Buddhāya) <a href="#cite_note-Buddhist_Churches_of_America-126">[126]</a></dd></dl> A literal translation of this version would be "Namo Buddha of Infinite Life". Other translations may also be: "I pay homage to the Enlightened One immeasurable" or "I turn to rely on the Enlightened One immeasurable". There are also other names, such as Aparimitāyus (Unlimited Life), Aparimitāyurjñāna (Unlimited Life and Wisdom), Vajra-āyuṣa (Vajra Life), Dundubhisvararāja, Amṛtadundubhisvararāja (King of the Drum of Immortality) and Aparimitāyurjñānasuviniścitatejorāja (The Blazing King Who Is Completely Certain of Immeasurable Longevity and Wisdom) which are often equated or identified with Amitābha - Amitāyus and which are connected with rebirth in Sukhavati in their respective sutras.<a href="#cite_note-:20-130">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-:21-132">[132]</a> Furthermore, the <a href="/wiki/Longer_Sukh%C4%81vat%C4%ABvy%C5%ABha_S%C5%ABtra" class="mw-redirect" title="Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra">Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra</a> contains twelve or more epithets of Amitābha Buddha.<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[133]</a> Vasubandhu's Treatise on Birth in the Pure Land (Wang-sheng-lun) references these "lights of Amitābha".<a href="#cite_note-:0-133">[133]</a> Their recitation was also taught by Chinese Pure Land figures like <a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> There are various sets of these names. The names in the Sanskrit edition of the Amitayus sutra are:<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <ol><li>Tathāgato 'mitābha - The <a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a> Immeasurable Light</li> <li>Amitaprabha - Immeasurable Radiance</li> <li>Amitaprabhāso - Unbounded Radiance</li> <li>Asamāptaprabha - Unending Radiance</li> <li>Asaṃgataprabha - Inconceivable Radiance</li> <li>Prabhāśikhotsṛṣṭaprabha - [The one with a] splendorous crest which emits radiance</li> <li>Sādivyamaṇiprabha - [The one with] Divine Jewel Splendor</li> <li>Apratihataraśmirāgaprabha - [The one with] light rays that are unobstructed and radiant</li> <li>Rājanīyaprabha - King Radiance</li> <li>Premaṇīyaprabha - Lovable Radiance</li> <li>Pramodanīyaprabha - Joyful Radiance</li> <li>Saṃgamanīyaprabha - Harmonious Radiance</li> <li>Upoṣaṇīyaprabha - Worshipful Radiance</li> <li>Nibandhanīyaprabha - Unbreakable Radiance</li> <li>Ativīryaprabha - Supremely vigorous radiance</li> <li>Atulyaprabha - Incomparable Radiance</li> <li>Abhibhūyanarendrāmūnnayendraprabha - Surpassing the splendor kings and gods</li> <li>Śrāntasaṃcayendusūryajihmīkaraṇaprabha - Surpassing the splendor of the moon and stars</li></ol> In an East Asian Buddhist context the term nianfo or nembutsu generally refers to the recitation of <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a> Buddha's name. Technically speaking however, the term literally means "Buddha Recollection" and hence can apply to the recitation of any Buddha's name, such as reciting "Namo <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Shakyamuni</a> Buddha" or "Namo <a href="/wiki/Vairocana" title="Vairocana">Mahavairocana</a> Buddha" etc. In these cases, the term nianfo is often prefigured by the name of that Buddha. For example, the Japanese term Shaka Nembutsu refers to the recitation of Namo <a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Shakyamuni</a> Buddha. Some Mahayana sutras, like the <a href="/wiki/Ajitasena_Sutra" title="Ajitasena Sutra">Ajitasena sutra</a> and the Medicine Guru Sutra, indicate that "hearing" and "preserving" the name of other Buddhas like Shakyamuni and <a href="/wiki/Bhaisajyaguru" title="Bhaisajyaguru">Medicine Guru</a>, will also have the same effect as nianfo on the name of Amitabha (i.e. rebirth in Sukhavati).<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Esoteric_phrases">Esoteric phrases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Esoteric phrases">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Amitabha_Mantra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/220px-Amitabha_Mantra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/330px-Amitabha_Mantra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Amitabha_Mantra.png/440px-Amitabha_Mantra.png 2x" data-file-width="719" data-file-height="568" /></a><figcaption>Image of an engraving of the <a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani" title="Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani">Pure Land Rebirth Dharani</a> discovered at the <a href="/wiki/Mogao_Caves" title="Mogao Caves">Mogao Caves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dunhuang" title="Dunhuang">Dunhuang</a>.</figcaption></figure> In Esoteric Buddhist traditions, there are various mantras associated with Amitabha and their recitation would be considered a type of Buddha mindfulness or nianfo. Indian esoteric sources, including Buddhist tantras and dharani collections like Atikūṭa's (阿地瞿多 mid-seventh century) <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dh%C4%81ra%E1%B9%87%C4%ABsa%E1%B9%83graha&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha (page does not exist)">Dhāraṇīsaṃgraha</a> (T. 901) contain numerous esoteric phrases, dhāraṇīs, spells, and mudras focused on Amitabha and his Pure Land.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> <a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon Buddhism</a> makes use of the following mantra of Amitabha which is found in The Nine Grades of Rebirth Amita Samādhi Dhāraṇī Sūtra (九品往生阿彌陀三摩地集陀羅尼經, Taisho no. 933):<blockquote>oṃ amṛta teje hara hūṃ</blockquote>This mantra was promoted by Shingon writers on the nembutsu, like Kakuban.<a href="#cite_note-:25-138">[138]</a> In Tibetan Buddhism, the most popular mantra is: <blockquote>oṃ amideva hrīḥ</blockquote>Another mantra which is found in various Indian sources including the Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatantra is:<a href="#cite_note-:21-132">[132]</a> <blockquote>oṁ puṇye puṇye mahāpuṇye aparimitāyuḥ-puṇya-jñāna-saṃbharopacite svāhā</blockquote>There are various dharanis which are associated with Amitabha and nianfo practice. The <a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani" title="Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani">Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani</a> (往生淨土神咒) is perhaps the most popular Amitabha dharani. It is seen as having similar benefits to nianfo, including rebirth in Sukhavati, purification of karma and visions of Amitabha.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> One version of this dharani is:<blockquote>namo amitābhāya tathāgatāya tadyathā amṛtadbhave amṛtasaṃbhave amṛtavikrānte amṛtavikrānta gāmine gagana kīrtakare svāhā</blockquote>Another popular dharani associated with Amitabha is the Aparamitāyus Dhāraṇī (无量寿经 (無量壽經) Wú Liàng Shòu Jīng; T. 370, with alternate versions at T. 936, and T. 937). This dharani was widely translated and used in Mahayana esoteric circles as well as in Pure Land Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> It is also found in the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Canon</a> in multiple versions (Tohoku no. 674, 673, 675) under various names like Āryāparimitāyurjñānanāmamahāyānasūtra.<a href="#cite_note-:20-130">[130]</a> These two dharanis are part of the <a href="/wiki/Ten_Small_Mantras" title="Ten Small Mantras">Ten Small Mantras</a>, an important set of mantras and dharanis in Chinese Buddhism which is often part of morning services at temples.<a href="#cite_note-:05-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="East_Asian_Nianfo_variants">East Asian Nianfo variants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: East Asian Nianfo variants">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Jodo_Shinshu" class="mw-redirect" title="Jodo Shinshu">Jodo Shinshu</a> tradition in Japan, variant forms of the nianfo have been used since its inception. The founder, <a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a>, used a nine-character Kujimyōgō (九字名号) in the <a href="/wiki/Shoshinge" title="Shoshinge">Shoshinge</a> and the Sanamidabutsuge (讃阿弥陀佛偈) hymns: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote">南無不可思議光如来 Na mu fu ka shi gi kō nyo rai "I take refuge in Inconceivable Light Tathagata!" Namo Acintya-prabha Tathagata</blockquote> Further, the "restorer" of Jodo Shinshu, <a href="/wiki/Rennyo" title="Rennyo">Rennyo</a>, frequently inscribed the nianfo for followers using a 10-character Jūjimyōgō (十字名号): <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"> 帰命尽十方無碍光如来 Ki myō jin jip-pō mu ge kō nyo rai "I take refuge in the <a href="/wiki/Tathagata" class="mw-redirect" title="Tathagata">Tathagata</a> of Unobstructed Light Suffusing the Ten Directions".</blockquote> The latter was originally popularized by Shinran's descendant (and Rennyo's ancestor), Kakunyo, but its use was greatly expanded by Rennyo. In the Shingon school, another alternative way of saying the nembutsu was to use just the simple name of A-MI-TA, often written in the Siddham script. This three syllable invokation was subjected to extensive esoteric interpretation by various Shingon Pure Land masters like Dōhan and Kakuban.<a href="#cite_note-:24-142">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-:25-138">[138]</a> Dōhan also relies on the longer NAMO-A-MI-TA-BU recitation.<a href="#cite_note-:24-142">[142]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amitabha_Pure_Land_Rebirth_Dharani" title="Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani">Amitabha Pure Land Rebirth Dharani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namu_My%C5%8Dh%C5%8D_Renge_Ky%C5%8D" title="Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō">Namu Myōhō Renge Kyō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra_of_Light" title="Mantra of Light">Mantra of Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBuswellLopez2013">Buswell & Lopez 2013</a>, p. 580 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Harrison, Paul M. Buddhanusmrti in the pratyutpanna-Buddha-sammukhavasthita-samadhi-sutra. Journal of Indian Philosophy 6 (1):35-57 (1978). </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Skilton, Andrew. A Concise History of Buddhism. 2004. p. 162 </li> <li id="cite_note-nakamura-4"><a href="#cite_ref-nakamura_4-0">^</a> Nakamura, Hajime. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w0A7y4TCeVQC">Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes.</a> 1999. p. 205 </li> <li id="cite_note-jones-5"><a href="#cite_ref-jones_5-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFJones2021" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice (Buddhist Foundations). Shambhala. pp. 33, 48, 150. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1611808902" title="Special:BookSources/978-1611808902"><bdi>978-1611808902</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pure+Land%3A+History%2C+Tradition%2C+and+Practice+%28Buddhist+Foundations%29&rft.pages=33%2C+48%2C+150&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1611808902&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Charles+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANianfo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Paul Harrison, John McRae, trans. (1998). 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The Land of Bliss, The Paradise of the Buddha of Measureless Light: Sanskrit and Chinese Versions of the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sutras, p. 19. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1996. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780824850012 </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de/gretil/1_sanskr/4_rellit/buddh/bsu033_u.htm">"Sukhavativyuha, Vistaramatrika [longer version]"</a>. gretil.sub.uni-goettingen.de. 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(2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100707073855/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-3/10JS3.pdf">Toward a Typology of Nien-fo: A Study in Methods of Buddha-Invocation in Chinese Pure Land Buddhism</a>, Pacific World, Third Series, 3, 219–239.</li> <li>Jones, Charles B. (2019). Chinese Pure Land Buddhism, Understanding a Tradition of Practice. University of Hawai‘i Press / Honolulu.</li> <li>Jones, Charles B. (2021). Pure Land: History, Tradition, and Practice. Shambhala Publications.</li> <li>Keenan, John P. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj-new/new5/05Keenan.pdf">Nien-Fo (Buddha-Anusmrti): The Shifting Structure of Remembrance</a>, Pacific World, New Series 5, 40–52</li> <li>Li-Ying, Kuo (1995), La récitation des noms de "buddha" en Chine et au Japon. T'oung Pao, Second Series 81 (4/5), 230–268</li> <li>Payne, Richard K. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100706225945/http://www.shin-ibs.edu/documents/pwj3-7/07Payne37.pdf">"Seeing Buddhas, Hearing Buddhas: Cognitive Significance of Nenbutsu as Visualization and as Recitation"</a>, Pacific World, Third Series, 7, 110-141</li> <li>Thích Thiện Tâm (1994). Buddhism of Wisdom & Faith: Pure Land Principles and Practice. Sutra Translation Committee of the United States.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Nianfo&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jodo.org/teachings/nembutsu.html">The Nian Fo according to the Jodo Shu tradition</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130328060551/http://www.livingdharma.org/Tannisho/TannishoContents.html">The Tannisho</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jsri.jp/English/Pureland/SUTRAS/mu.html">The Larger Sutra of Immeasurable Life</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/38px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Flag_of_Buddhism.svg/50px-Flag_of_Buddhism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #FFD068;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/20px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/40px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Buddhism" title="Outline of Buddhism">Foundations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Noble_Truths" title="Four Noble Truths">Four Noble Truths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Three Jewels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sangha" title="Sangha">Sangha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noble_Eightfold_Path" title="Noble Eightfold Path">Noble Eightfold Path</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Way" title="Middle Way">Middle Way</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81gata" title="Tathāgata">Tathāgata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha%27s_Birthday" title="Buddha's Birthday">Birthday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_sights" title="Four sights">Four sights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Eight_Great_Events_in_the_Life_of_Buddha" title="The Eight Great Events in the Life of Buddha">Eight Great Events</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Renunciation" title="Great Renunciation">Great Renunciation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_characteristics_of_the_Buddha" title="Physical characteristics of the Buddha">Physical characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Buddha_in_art" title="Life of Buddha in art">Life of Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_footprint" title="Buddha footprint">Footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relics_associated_with_Buddha" title="Relics associated with Buddha">Relics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iconography_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_Laos_and_Thailand" title="Iconography of Gautama Buddha in Laos and Thailand">Iconography in Laos and Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depictions_of_Gautama_Buddha_in_film" title="Depictions of Gautama Buddha in film">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Miracles of Gautama Buddha">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Family of Gautama Buddha">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Auddhodana" title="Śuddhodana">Suddhodāna (father)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_(mother_of_the_Buddha)" title="Maya (mother of the Buddha)">Māyā (mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C4%81pat%C4%AB_Gautam%C4%AB" title="Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī">Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%C5%9Bodhar%C4%81" title="Yaśodharā">Yaśodharā (wife)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C4%81hula" title="Rāhula">Rāhula (son)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda (cousin)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devadatta" title="Devadatta">Devadatta (cousin)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhi_tree" title="Bodhi tree">Bodhi tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_places_where_Gautama_Buddha_stayed" title="List of places where Gautama Buddha stayed">Places where the Buddha stayed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gautama_Buddha_in_world_religions" title="Gautama Buddha in world religions">Buddha in world religions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattvas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalokite%C5%9Bvara" title="Avalokiteśvara">Avalokiteśvara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manjushri" title="Manjushri">Mañjuśrī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahasthamaprapta" title="Mahasthamaprapta">Mahāsthāmaprāpta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80k%C4%81%C5%9Bagarbha" title="Ākāśagarbha">Ākāśagarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%E1%B9%A3itigarbha" title="Kṣitigarbha">Kṣitigarbha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samantabhadra_(Bodhisattva)" title="Samantabhadra (Bodhisattva)">Samantabhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrapani" title="Vajrapani">Vajrapāṇi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skanda_(Buddhism)" title="Skanda (Buddhism)">Skanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_(Buddhism)" title="Tara (Buddhism)">Tārā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maitreya" title="Maitreya">Metteyya/Maitreya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Disciples_of_Gautama_Buddha" title="Category:Disciples of Gautama Buddha">Disciples</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaundinya" title="Kaundinya">Kaundinya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaji" class="mw-redirect" title="Assaji">Assaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C4%81riputra" title="Śāriputra">Sāriputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maudgalyayana" title="Maudgalyayana">Mahamoggallāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80nanda" title="Ānanda">Ānanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81k%C4%81%C5%9Byapa" title="Mahākāśyapa">Mahākassapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%E1%B9%85gulim%C4%81la" title="Aṅgulimāla">Aṅgulimāla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anuruddha" class="mw-redirect" title="Anuruddha">Anuruddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katyayana_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Katyayana (Buddhist)">Mahākaccana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_(half-brother_of_Buddha)" title="Nanda (half-brother of Buddha)">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subh%C5%ABti" title="Subhūti">Subhūti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu%E1%B9%87%E1%B9%87a_Mant%C4%81n%C4%ABputta" title="Puṇṇa Mantānīputta">Puṇṇa Mantānīputta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81li" title="Upāli">Upāli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81praj%C4%81pat%C4%AB_Gautam%C4%AB" title="Mahāprajāpatī Gautamī">Mahapajapati Gotamī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema" title="Khema">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppalavanna" title="Uppalavanna">Uppalavanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asita" title="Asita">Asita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channa_(Buddhist)" title="Channa (Buddhist)">Channa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasa" title="Yasa">Yasa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Buddhism" title="Glossary of Buddhism">Key concepts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avidy%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Avidyā (Buddhism)">Avidyā (Ignorance)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bardo" title="Bardo">Bardo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhicitta" title="Bodhicitta">Bodhicitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha-nature" title="Buddha-nature">Buddha-nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhamma theory">Dhamma theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_hindrances" title="Five hindrances">Five hindrances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriya" title="Indriya">Indriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karma_in_Buddhism" title="Karma in Buddhism">Karma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleshas_(Buddhism)" title="Kleshas (Buddhism)">Kleshas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_factors_(Buddhism)" title="Mental factors (Buddhism)">Mental factors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindstream" title="Mindstream">Mindstream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinirvana" title="Parinirvana">Parinirvana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prat%C4%ABtyasamutp%C4%81da" title="Pratītyasamutpāda">Pratītyasamutpāda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebirth_(Buddhism)" title="Rebirth (Buddhism)">Rebirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra_(Buddhism)" title="Saṃsāra (Buddhism)">Saṃsāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%85kh%C4%81ra" title="Saṅkhāra">Saṅkhāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandha" title="Skandha">Skandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ta%E1%B9%87h%C4%81" title="Taṇhā">Taṇhā (Craving)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tath%C4%81t%C4%81" title="Tathātā">Tathātā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetter_(Buddhism)" title="Fetter (Buddhism)">Ten Fetters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_marks_of_existence" title="Three marks of existence">Three marks of existence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Impermanence_(Buddhism)" title="Impermanence (Buddhism)">Anicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">Dukkha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatt%C4%81" title="Anattā">Anattā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two_truths_doctrine" title="Two truths doctrine">Two truths doctrine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Cosmology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_realms" title="Ten realms">Ten spiritual realms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six_Paths" title="Six Paths">Six Paths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">Deva realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_beings_in_Buddhism" title="Human beings in Buddhism">Human realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asura_(Buddhism)" title="Asura (Buddhism)">Asura realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preta" title="Preta">Hungry Ghost realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Buddhism" title="Animals in Buddhism">Animal realm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naraka_(Buddhism)" title="Naraka (Buddhism)">Naraka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trailokya" title="Trailokya">Three planes of existence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chinese Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Zen" title="Japanese Zen">Japanese Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Seon" title="Korean Seon">Korean Seon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Vietnamese Thiền</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Pure Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rissh%C5%AB_(Buddhism)" title="Risshū (Buddhism)">Risshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogachara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Esoteric_Buddhism" title="Chinese Esoteric Buddhism">Chinese Esoteric Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingon_Buddhism" title="Shingon Buddhism">Shingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzogchen" title="Dzogchen">Dzogchen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navayana" title="Navayana">Navayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_schools" title="Early Buddhist schools">Early Buddhist schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-sectarian_Buddhism" title="Pre-sectarian Buddhism">Pre-sectarian Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_points_unifying_Therav%C4%81da_and_Mah%C4%81y%C4%81na" title="Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna">Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern,_Eastern_and_Northern_Buddhism" title="Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism">Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Buddhist_practices" title="Category:Buddhist practices">Practices</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhavana" title="Bhavana">Bhavana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhipakkhiy%C4%81dhamm%C4%81" title="Bodhipakkhiyādhammā">Bodhipakkhiyādhammā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavihara" title="Brahmavihara">Brahmavihara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maitr%C4%AB" title="Maitrī">Mettā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karu%E1%B9%87%C4%81" title="Karuṇā">Karuṇā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudita" title="Mudita">Mudita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upek%E1%B9%A3%C4%81" title="Upekṣā">Upekkha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddh%C4%81bhi%E1%B9%A3eka" title="Buddhābhiṣeka">Buddhābhiṣeka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%81na" title="Dāna">Dāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Devotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity_yoga" title="Deity yoga">Deity yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhyana_in_Buddhism" title="Dhyana in Buddhism">Dhyāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_in_Buddhism" title="Faith in Buddhism">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Strengths" title="Five Strengths">Five Strengths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhipada" title="Iddhipada">Iddhipada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Meditation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mantra#Buddhism" title="Mantra">Mantras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamma%E1%B9%AD%E1%B9%ADh%C4%81na" title="Kammaṭṭhāna">Kammaṭṭhāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anussati" title="Anussati">Recollection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simran" title="Simran">Smarana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anapanasati" title="Anapanasati">Anapanasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samatha-vipassan%C4%81" title="Samatha-vipassanā">Samatha-vipassanā</a> (<a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikantaza" title="Shikantaza">Shikantaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zazen" title="Zazen">Zazen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tukdam" title="Tukdam">Tukdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koan" title="Koan">Koan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganana" title="Ganana">Ganana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala" title="Mandala">Mandala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonglen" title="Tonglen">Tonglen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tert%C3%B6n" title="Tertön">Tertön</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terma_(religion)" title="Terma (religion)">Terma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_(Buddhism)" title="Merit (Buddhism)">Merit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindfulness" title="Mindfulness">Mindfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mindful_Yoga" title="Mindful Yoga">Mindful Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satipatthana" title="Satipatthana">Satipatthana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekkhamma" title="Nekkhamma">Nekkhamma</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Nianfo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%81ramit%C4%81" title="Pāramitā">Pāramitā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paritta" title="Paritta">Paritta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_devotion" title="Buddhist devotion">Puja</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offering_(Buddhism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Offering (Buddhism)">Offerings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostration_(Buddhism)" title="Prostration (Buddhism)">Prostration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refuge_in_Buddhism" title="Refuge in Buddhism">Refuge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C4%81dhu_(Pali_word)" title="Sādhu (Pali word)">Sādhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satya" title="Satya">Satya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacca" title="Sacca">Sacca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Factors_of_Awakening" title="Seven Factors of Awakening">Seven Factors of Enlightenment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(Buddhism)" title="Sati (Buddhism)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhamma_vicaya" title="Dhamma vicaya">Dhamma vicaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P%C4%ABti" title="Pīti">Pīti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passaddhi" title="Passaddhi">Passaddhi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">Five precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_precepts" title="Eight precepts">Eight precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva_vow" title="Bodhisattva vow">Bodhisattva vow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratimok%E1%B9%A3a" title="Pratimokṣa">Pratimokṣa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Threefold_Training" title="Threefold Training">Threefold Training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Śīla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">Samadhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">Prajñā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C4%ABrya" title="Vīrya">Vīrya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Right_Exertions" title="Four Right Exertions">Four Right Exertions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-two_vows_of_Ambedkar" title="Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar">Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlightenment_in_Buddhism" title="Enlightenment in Buddhism">Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhisattva" title="Bodhisattva">Bodhisattva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhahood" title="Buddhahood">Buddhahood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pratyekabuddhay%C4%81na" title="Pratyekabuddhayāna">Pratyekabuddhayāna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_stages_of_awakening" class="mw-redirect" title="Four stages of awakening">Four stages of awakening</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sot%C4%81panna" title="Sotāpanna">Sotāpanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakadagami" title="Sakadagami">Sakadagami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An%C4%81g%C4%81mi" title="Anāgāmi">Anāgāmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arhat" title="Arhat">Arhat</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Monasticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhu" title="Bhikkhu">Bhikkhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhikkhun%C4%AB" title="Bhikkhunī">Bhikkhunī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanera" title="Samanera">Śrāmaṇerī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anag%C4%81rika" title="Anagārika">Anagārika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn" title="Ajahn">Ajahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayadaw" title="Sayadaw">Sayadaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen_master" title="Zen master">Zen master</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dshi" title="Rōshi">Rōshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lama" title="Lama">Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinpoche" title="Rinpoche">Rinpoche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geshe" title="Geshe">Geshe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulku" title="Tulku">Tulku</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_tulku" title="Western tulku">Western tulku</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kappiya" title="Kappiya">Kappiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donchee" title="Donchee">Donchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Householder_(Buddhism)" title="Householder (Buddhism)">Householder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Up%C4%81saka_and_Up%C4%81sik%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Upāsaka and Upāsikā">Upāsaka and Upāsikā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achar_(Buddhism)" title="Achar (Buddhism)">Achar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Ar%C4%81vaka" title="Śrāvaka">Śrāvaka</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_principal_disciples" title="Ten principal disciples">Ten principal disciples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaolin_Monastery" title="Shaolin Monastery">Shaolin Monastery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhists" title="List of Buddhists">Major figures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Buddha" title="The Buddha">The Buddha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasena" title="Nagasena">Nagasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C5%9Bvagho%E1%B9%A3a" title="Aśvaghoṣa">Aśvaghoṣa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagarjuna" title="Nagarjuna">Nagarjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asanga" title="Asanga">Asanga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kum%C4%81raj%C4%ABva" title="Kumārajīva">Kumārajīva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhaghosa" title="Buddhaghosa">Buddhaghosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhap%C4%81lita" title="Buddhapālita">Buddhapālita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dign%C4%81ga" title="Dignāga">Dignāga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodhidharma" title="Bodhidharma">Bodhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhiyi" title="Zhiyi">Zhiyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Wen_of_Sui" title="Emperor Wen of Sui">Emperor Wen of Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songtsen_Gampo" title="Songtsen Gampo">Songtsen Gampo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanzang" title="Xuanzang">Xuanzang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shandao" title="Shandao">Shandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmasambhava" title="Padmasambhava">Padmasambhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraha" title="Saraha">Saraha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ati%C5%9Ba" title="Atiśa">Atiśa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naropa" title="Naropa">Naropa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmapa" title="Karmapa">Karmapa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnen" title="Hōnen">Hōnen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinran" title="Shinran">Shinran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C5%8Dgen" title="Dōgen">Dōgen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren" title="Nichiren">Nichiren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamarpa" title="Shamarpa">Shamarpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalai_Lama" title="Dalai Lama">Dalai Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panchen_Lama" title="Panchen Lama">Panchen Lama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Mun" title="Ajahn Mun">Ajahn Mun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._R._Ambedkar" title="B. R. Ambedkar">B. R. Ambedkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ajahn_Chah" title="Ajahn Chah">Ajahn Chah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Th%C3%ADch_Nh%E1%BA%A5t_H%E1%BA%A1nh" title="Thích Nhất Hạnh">Thích Nhất Hạnh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Buddhist_texts" title="Early Buddhist texts">Early Buddhist texts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" class="mw-redirect" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana_sutras" title="Mahayana sutras">Mahayana sutras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pali_Canon" title="Pali Canon">Pali Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhist_canon" title="Chinese Buddhist canon">Chinese Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_canon" title="Tibetan Buddhist canon">Tibetan Buddhist canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhammapada" title="Dhammapada">Dhammapada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">Sutra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinaya" title="Vinaya">Vinaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamak%C4%81la%E1%B9%83k%C4%81ra" title="Madhyamakālaṃkāra">Madhyamakālaṃkāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharmad%C4%ABpa" title="Abhidharmadīpa">Abhidharmadīpa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_by_country" title="Buddhism by country">Countries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bangladesh" title="Buddhism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Bhutan" title="Buddhism in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Cambodia" title="Buddhism in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Indonesia" title="Buddhism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Japan" title="Buddhism in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Laos" title="Buddhism in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Malaysia" title="Buddhism in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Maldives" title="Buddhism in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mongolia" title="Buddhism in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Myanmar" title="Buddhism in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Nepal" title="Buddhism in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Pakistan" title="Buddhism in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Philippines" title="Buddhism in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Russia" title="Buddhism in Russia">Russia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Buryatia" title="Buddhism in Buryatia">Buryatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Kalmykia" title="Buddhism in Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Tuva&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Tuva (page does not exist)">Tuva</a> (<a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC_%D0%B2_%D0%A2%D1%8B%D0%B2%D0%B5" class="extiw" title="ru:Буддизм в Тыве">ru</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Singapore" title="Buddhism in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Buddhism in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Taiwan" title="Buddhism in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Thailand" title="Buddhism in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Vietnam" title="Buddhism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Africa" title="Buddhism in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Senegal" title="Buddhism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_South_Africa" title="Buddhism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Central_Asia" title="Buddhism in Central Asia">Central Asia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Uzbekistan" title="Buddhism in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Buddhism in the Middle East">Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Iran" title="Buddhism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Buddhism in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Western countries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Argentina" title="Buddhism in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Australia" title="Buddhism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Brazil" title="Buddhism in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Canada" title="Buddhism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Costa_Rica" title="Buddhism in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Buddhism in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_France" title="Buddhism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Germany" title="Buddhism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Italy" title="Buddhism in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Mexico" title="Buddhism in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_New_Zealand" title="Buddhism in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Norway" title="Buddhism in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Poland" title="Buddhism in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Sweden" title="Buddhism in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Switzerland" title="Buddhism in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Ukraine" title="Buddhism in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Buddhism in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_United_States" title="Buddhism in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Venezuela" title="Buddhism in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Buddhism" title="Timeline of Buddhism">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashoka" title="Ashoka">Ashoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanishka" title="Kanishka">Kanishka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_councils" title="Buddhist councils">Buddhist councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_India" title="History of Buddhism in India">History of Buddhism in India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Buddhism_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" title="Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent">Decline of Buddhism in India</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_persecution_of_Buddhism" title="Huichang persecution of Buddhism">Huichang persecution of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism" title="Gandharan Buddhism">Gandharan Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gandh%C4%81ran_Buddhist_texts" title="Gandhāran Buddhist texts">Texts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menander_I" title="Menander I">Menander I</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_the_Roman_world" title="Buddhism and the Roman world">Buddhism and the Roman world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_the_West" title="Buddhism in the West">Buddhism in the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silk_Road_transmission_of_Buddhism" title="Silk Road transmission of Buddhism">Silk Road transmission of Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Persecution of Buddhists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Afghanistan" title="Buddhism in Afghanistan">In Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_crisis" title="Buddhist crisis">In Vietnam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rim%C3%A9_movement" title="Rimé movement">Rimé movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banishment_of_Buddhist_monks_from_Nepal" title="Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal">Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalit_Buddhist_movement" title="Dalit Buddhist movement">Dalit Buddhist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annexation_of_Tibet_by_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China">Chinese invasion of Tibet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1959_Tibetan_uprising" title="1959 Tibetan uprising">1959 Tibetan uprising</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Buddhist modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vipassana_movement" title="Vipassana movement">Vipassana movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/969_Movement" title="969 Movement">969 Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Buddhism" title="Women in Buddhism">Women in Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_atomism" title="Buddhist atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_studies" title="Buddhist studies">Buddhology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creator_in_Buddhism" title="Creator in Buddhism">Creator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_democracy" title="Buddhism and democracy">Buddhism and democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_economics" title="Buddhist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Consciousnesses" title="Eight Consciousnesses">Eight Consciousnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engaged_Buddhism" title="Engaged Buddhism">Engaged Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_eschatology" title="Buddhist eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_ethics" title="Buddhist ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhism and evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Buddhism" title="Humanistic Buddhism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_logico-epistemology" title="Buddhist logico-epistemology">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_in_Buddhism" title="Reality in Buddhism">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_Buddhism" title="Secular Buddhism">Secular Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_socialism" title="Buddhist socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_unanswerable_questions" title="The unanswerable questions">The unanswerable questions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Buddhism" title="Culture of Buddhism">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_architecture" title="Buddhist architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temple" title="Buddhist temple">Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vih%C4%81ra" title="Vihāra">Vihāra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyaung" title="Kyaung">Kyaung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wat" title="Wat">Wat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_hall" title="Ordination hall">Ordination hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stupa" title="Stupa">Stupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pagoda" title="Pagoda">Pagoda</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_pagoda" title="Burmese pagoda">Burmese pagoda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candi_of_Indonesia" title="Candi of Indonesia">Candi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzong_architecture" title="Dzong architecture">Dzong architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Buddhist_architecture_in_China" title="List of Buddhist architecture in China">List of Buddhist architecture in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Buddhist_architecture" title="Japanese Buddhist architecture">Japanese Buddhist architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_temples_in_Korea" title="Buddhist temples in Korea">Buddhist temples in Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_temple_art_and_architecture" title="Thai temple art and architecture">Thai temple art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhist_architecture" title="Tibetan Buddhist architecture">Tibetan Buddhist architecture</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_art" title="Buddhist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art" title="Greco-Buddhist art">Greco-Buddhist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budai" title="Budai">Budai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddha_in_art" title="Buddha in art">Buddha in art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_calendar" title="Buddhist calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cuisine" title="Buddhist cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_funeral" title="Buddhist funeral">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_holidays" title="Buddhist holidays">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vesak" title="Vesak">Vesak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uposatha" title="Uposatha">Uposatha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81gha_P%C5%ABj%C4%81" title="Māgha Pūjā">Māgha Pūjā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asalha_Puja" title="Asalha Puja">Asalha Puja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vassa" title="Vassa">Vassa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaya_Sri_Maha_Bodhi" title="Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi">Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kasaya_(clothing)" title="Kasaya (clothing)">Kasaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahabodhi_Temple" title="Mahabodhi Temple">Mahabodhi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantra" title="Mantra">Mantra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Om_mani_padme_hum" title="Om mani padme hum">Om mani padme hum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudra" title="Mudra">Mudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_music" title="Buddhist music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_pilgrimage_sites" title="Buddhist pilgrimage sites">Pilgrimage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lumbini" title="Lumbini">Lumbini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Devi_Temple,_Lumbini" title="Maya Devi Temple, Lumbini">Maya Devi Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodh_Gaya" title="Bodh Gaya">Bodh Gaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnath" title="Sarnath">Sarnath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushinagar" title="Kushinagar">Kushinagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_poetry" title="Buddhist poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japamala" title="Japamala">Prayer beads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama_yumi" title="Hama yumi">Hama yumi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_wheel" title="Prayer wheel">Prayer wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_symbolism" title="Buddhist symbolism">Symbolism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dharmachakra" title="Dharmachakra">Dharmachakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_flag" title="Buddhist flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhavacakra" title="Bhavacakra">Bhavacakra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swastika" title="Swastika">Swastika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thangka" title="Thangka">Thangka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_the_Tooth" title="Temple of the Tooth">Temple of the Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_vegetarianism" title="Buddhist vegetarianism">Vegetarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Buddhism-related_articles" title="Index of Buddhism-related articles">Miscellaneous</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhij%C3%B1%C4%81" title="Abhijñā">Abhijñā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitābha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahm%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Brahmā (Buddhism)">Brahmā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma_talk" title="Dharma talk">Dharma talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinayana" title="Hinayana">Hinayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iddhi" title="Iddhi">Iddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalpa_(time)" title="Kalpa (time)">Kalpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koliya" title="Koliya">Koliya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lineage_(Buddhism)" title="Lineage (Buddhism)">Lineage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mara_(demon)" title="Mara (demon)">Māra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhi" title="Siddhi">Siddhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_language" title="Sacred language">Sacred languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pali" title="Pali">Pāḷi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Comparative_Buddhism" title="Category:Comparative Buddhism">Comparison</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_Buddhism" title="Baháʼí Faith and Buddhism">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Buddhism and Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_influences_on_Christianity" title="Buddhist influences on Christianity">Influences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_Buddhism_and_Christianity" title="Comparison of Buddhism and Christianity">Comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Eastern_religions" title="Buddhism and Eastern religions">East Asian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Gnosticism" title="Buddhism and Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Hinduism" title="Buddhism and Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Jainism" title="Buddhism and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Buddhist" title="Jewish Buddhist">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_psychology" title="Buddhism and psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_science" title="Buddhism and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Theosophy" title="Buddhism and Theosophy">Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_violence" title="Buddhism and violence">Violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_and_Western_philosophy" title="Buddhism and Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #FFD068;;width:1%"><a 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