Tiamat - World History Encyclopedia

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function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script>  <main class="left_3_column" id="main_content"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contents</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Marduk+Mesopotamian_Religion+Tiamat" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </p> </div> </nav> <div id="tag_definition_wrapper"> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ async_load_js('https://assets.pinterest.com/js/pinit.js') }); </script> <div class="pinterest_button"> <a href="https://www.pinterest.com/pin/create/button/" data-pin-do="buttonPin" data-pin-id="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/" data-pin-media="https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12163.jpg" data-pin-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/" data-pin-description="Tiamat is the Mesopotamian goddess associated with primordial chaos and the salt sea best known from the Babylonian epic Enuma Elish. In all versions of the myth, following the original, Tiamat always symbolizes the forces of chaos, which threaten the order established by the gods, and Marduk (or..." data-pin-count="beside" > </a> </div> <h2>Definition</h2> <div id="tag_definition_text"> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"> <img loading="lazy" alt="Joshua J. Mark" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> <br/> published on 04 May 2020 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title">Available in other languages: <a href="/trans/fr/1-18904/tiamat/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">French</a>, <a href="/trans/it/1-18904/tiamat/" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">Italian</a></div> </div> <style> .audio-player-wrapper * { font-size: 14px !important; } .audio-player-wrapper .summary-wrapper { display: none; } .audio_player #play-btn-wrap svg { color: #222; margin-left: -18px; } #amplift-outer-wrapper { height: 60px; overflow: hidden; position: relative; background-image: url("/template/images/loading-audio-3.png"); background-size: contain; background-repeat: no-repeat; top: -4px; left: -9px; margin-bottom: 0px; } .audio-player-wrapper .audio_player { visibility: hidden; } </style> <div id="amplift-outer-wrapper"></div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ window.setTimeout(()=>{ async_load_js("https://c.ampliftglobal.com/player/ampliftplayer.js",function() { AHE.ampliftPlayer = new AmpliftPlayer({target: '#amplift-outer-wrapper'}); AHE.ampliftPlayer.init(); window.setTimeout(()=>{ $('.audio-player-wrapper .audio_player').css('visibility','visible'); },1500); }); },1000); }); </script> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Marduk+Mesopotamian_Religion+Tiamat" class="topic_subscribe outline_button">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="outline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to author</a> <span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Print Article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <div class="body"> <article> <figure class="definition_image"> <a href="/image/12163/neo-assyrian-cylinder-seal-possibly-depicting-tiam/" title="Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seal Possibly Depicting Tiamat as a Serpent"> <picture>  <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12163.jpg.webp?v=1726794665 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12163.jpg.webp?v=1726794665 600w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12163.jpg?v=1726794665 300w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/12163.jpg?v=1726794665 600w" type="image/jpeg"> <img src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12163.jpg?v=1726794665" width="300" height="203" alt="Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seal Possibly Depicting Tiamat as a Serpent (by The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA)" title="Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seal Possibly Depicting Tiamat as a Serpent (by The Trustees of the British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA)" class="tag_definition_image" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seal Possibly Depicting Tiamat as a Serpent</div><div class="figauthor">The Trustees of the British Museum (CC BY-NC-SA)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12163/neo-assyrian-cylinder-seal-possibly-depicting-tiam/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12163/neo-assyrian-cylinder-seal-possibly-depicting-tiam/","caption":"The seal may illustrate a scene from the epic of creation in which the forces of chaos, led by Tiamat, are defeated by a god representing cosmic order, probably Ninurta. \r\n900 BCE - 750 BCE","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12163.jpg","copyrightNotice":"The Trustees of the British Museum - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"The Trustees of the British Museum"},"creditText":"The Trustees of the British Museum / British Museum","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:34:17+0000","datePublished":"2020-05-04T12:02:15+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seal Possibly Depicting Tiamat as a Serpent","height":586,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/W_1896-0619-1"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12163/neo-assyrian-cylinder-seal-possibly-depicting-tiam/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12163/neo-assyrian-cylinder-seal-possibly-depicting-tiam/","width":865} </script> <p><dfn>Tiamat</dfn> is the Mesopotamian goddess associated with primordial chaos and the salt sea best known from the Babylonian epic <em>Enuma Elish</em>. In all versions of the myth, following the original, Tiamat always symbolizes the forces of chaos, which threaten the order established by the gods, and <a href="/Marduk/">Marduk</a> (or <a href="/ashur/">Ashur</a> in Assyrian versions) is the hero who preserves it.</p> <p>She is depicted, in later periods, as a female serpent or dragon based on vague descriptions of her in <em>Enuma Elish</em>, but no iconography exists from ancient <a href="/Mesopotamia/">Mesopotamia</a>. Her name, according to scholar Jeremy Black, comes from the word <em>tiamtum</em> meaning “sea” (<em>Gods, Demons, and Symbols</em>, 177). Although her name is referenced in a much earlier <a href="/disambiguation/akkadian/">Akkadian</a> inscription, she does not figure in extant Mesopotamian mythological <a href="/literature/">literature</a> until <em>Enuma Elish</em>, written under the reign of the Babylonian king <a href="/hammurabi/">Hammurabi</a> (1792-1750 BCE) and usually dated to c. 1750 BCE but no doubt written earlier. Later mentions of the goddess are simply copies and variations of this work.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>It has been suggested that Tiamat is the Babylonian version of the <a href="/Sumerians/">Sumerian</a> Mother Goddess Nammu (also given as Namma) but there are significant differences between the two deities, notably that Nammu is consistently a nurturing, caring figure while Tiamat is vengeful and tempestuous. In <em>Enuma</em> <em>Elish</em>, she is defeated by the hero-<a href="/God/">god</a> Marduk and some scholars, such as <a href="/disambiguation/Paul/">Paul</a> Kriwaczek, interpret the poem as a “codified” history of the rise of the male chieftain (known as the <em>Lugal</em> = Big Man) in Mesopotamian society.</p><div id="primis_intext"> <div id="3e3744ed-0893-4ec9-8757-582bfa65ad5c"></div> <div id="6b0cd791-ab2c-4669-b35a-8252ddaa7467"></div> <a href="https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube_intext" target="_blank" class="youtube_notice"> <svg role="img" viewBox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><title>YouTube</title><path d="M23.498 6.186a3.016 3.016 0 0 0-2.122-2.136C19.505 3.545 12 3.545 12 3.545s-7.505 0-9.377.505A3.017 3.017 0 0 0 .502 6.186C0 8.07 0 12 0 12s0 3.93.502 5.814a3.016 3.016 0 0 0 2.122 2.136c1.871.505 9.376.505 9.376.505s7.505 0 9.377-.505a3.015 3.015 0 0 0 2.122-2.136C24 15.93 24 12 24 12s0-3.93-.502-5.814zM9.545 15.568V8.432L15.818 12l-6.273 3.568z"></path></svg> Follow us on YouTube!</a> </div> <script> </script> <div class="big_quote">The author of <em>Enuma Elish</em> draws on the earlier Sumerian goddesses, Nammu & <a href="/Inanna/">Inanna</a>, to create the goddess of chaos.</div> <p>Other scholars (such as Robert Graves) have seen the work as a poetic response to the loss in status of female deities during Hammurabi's reign when male gods – notably Marduk – superseded them, arguing that the poem is an artistic representation of the rise of a patriarchal religious paradigm over an earlier matriarchal model.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>It is more likely, however, that neither of these interpretations is correct or, at least, they do not fully address Tiamat's character or the central focus of <em>Enuma Elish</em>. Both interpretations ignore the history of the time the poem was written and fail to fully address the character of Tiamat and how the author of <em>Enuma Elish</em> draws on the earlier Sumerian goddesses, Nammu and Inanna, to create the goddess of chaos.</p> <h3>Nammu, Inanna, & Tiamat</h3> <p>Nammu is first attested during the <a href="/disambiguation/Early_Dynastic/">Early Dynastic</a> Period in Mesopotamia (2900-2334 BCE), specifically the period known as Dynastic III (2600-2334 BCE), although she most likely existed in oral form before that. Nammu is described as the “original mother who gave birth to the gods” in the Sumerian poem <em><a href="/Enki/">Enki</a> and Ninmah,</em> but this work has not been definitively dated. Jeremy Black comments:</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <blockquote> <p>Lack of anything but a fairly general historical framework for Sumerian compositions means that any chronological approach to literary questions, such as the development of genres or correlation with historical processes or events, must be largely abandoned. (<em>Reading Sumerian Poetry</em>, 23)</p> </blockquote> <p>In <em>Enki and Ninmah</em>, the goddess Ninmah (better known as <a href="/Ninhursag/">Ninhursag</a>) and god of wisdom Enki create human beings as helpers for the younger gods who are tired of manual labor and the maintenance of order against the forces of chaos. When the poem begins, the younger gods have been crying out to Enki to help them but he continues to sleep and does not hear until he is awakened by his mother Nammu who carries the gods' tears to him and influences him to help.</p> <p>Unlike Nammu, Inanna was never a Mother Goddess. Inanna was the Sumerian goddess of fertility, love, procreation, and sensuality but was also associated with <a href="/war/">war</a>, violence, and capriciousness. She was originally a minor vegetative deity who grew so popular that she came to be worshipped throughout Mesopotamia as the Queen of Heaven and is featured in a number of well-known Mesopotamian myths as well as in <em>The Epic of <a href="/gilgamesh/">Gilgamesh</a></em> (written c. 2150-1400 BCE) under her later incarnation as <a href="/ishtar/">Ishtar</a>.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="10591"> <a href="/image/10591/offering-to-inanna-warka-vase-top-register/" title="Offering to Inanna, Warka Vase [Top Register]" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/10591.jpg.webp?v=1724658839-1724658887 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/10591.jpg.webp?v=1724658839-1724658887 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/10591.jpg?v=1724658839-1724658887 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/10591.jpg?v=1724658839-1724658887 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/10591.jpg?v=1724658839-1724658887" alt="Offering to Inanna, Warka Vase [Top Register]" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="466" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Offering to Inanna, Warka Vase [Top Register]</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10591/offering-to-inanna-warka-vase-top-register/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10591/offering-to-inanna-warka-vase-top-register/","caption":"The votive or sacred Warka Vase is decorated with three horizontal registers and shows signs of repair in antiquity. The top register depicts a complete scene. Here, a naked man offers a bowl of fruits and grains to a Mesopotamian female deity, Inanna (Ishtar in Akkadian); there are two bundles of reed behind here, reflecting that this is the temple of Inanna.\r\n\r\nThe Vase of Warka, is one of the priceless objects in the Iraq Museum and represents one of the earliest examples of surviving narrative art. It was excavated (in fragments) by a German excavation team in a temple complex dedicated to the goddess Inanna at the city of Uruk (in southern Iraq) in 1933-1934. It is about 1 meter tall. From Warka (ancient Uruk), Iraq. Jemdet Nasr Period, 3000-2900 BCE.\r\n\r\nIraq Museum, Baghdad.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/10591.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-08-26T07:54:47+0000","datePublished":"2019-05-10T19:24:09+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Offering to Inanna, Warka Vase [Top Register]","height":3726,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10591/offering-to-inanna-warka-vase-top-register/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/10591/offering-to-inanna-warka-vase-top-register/","width":4000} </script> In a number of works (<em>Inanna and the Huluppu Tree</em>, <em>Inanna and the God of Wisdom</em>, among others) she is seen as manipulative and devious, primarily interested in getting her own way. She was popularized quite early in Mesopotamian history by the poetess <a href="/Enheduanna/">Enheduanna</a> (l. 2285-2250 BCE), daughter of <a href="/Sargon_of_Akkad/">Sargon of Akkad</a> (r. 2334-2279 BCE), founder of the <a href="/akkad/">Akkadian Empire</a>, and, by the time of Hammurabi, was the most popular deity in Mesopotamia and patron goddess of the <a href="/city/">city</a> of <a href="/babylon/">Babylon</a>.</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Tiamat has been claimed to be the Babylonian version of Nammu but there is hardly any scholarly consensus on this claim. The only similarity between the two is that both are female, associated with the sea, and feature in stories concerning the creation of the world and humanity. Some scholars have noted that neither goddess had a cult following or <a href="/temple/">temple</a> dedicated to them but this claim has been challenged by the mention of a shrine to Nammu in Babylon.</p> <p>The most significant difference between the two is their intrinsic nature: Nammu is a nurturer while Tiamat's initial impulse toward caring for others is blunted by her seeming betrayal by her children and, afterwards, she becomes vengeful and destructive. This latter aspect of Tiamat associates her closely with Inanna who, especially in <em>The Epic of Gilgamesh</em> as Ishtar, does not take rejection well and is prone to a violent response.</p> <h3><em>Enuma Elish</em> Summary</h3> <p>The <em>Enuma Elish</em> begins with the creation of the universe, originally an undifferentiated mass of water swirling in chaos. The waters divided into fresh and salt and the freshwater formed the god Apsu while the saltwater the goddess Tiamat; from their union were born the younger gods. At first, all was well, but the younger gods became increasingly loud and boisterous, upsetting their parents:</p><div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id='div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5' class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <blockquote> <p>The divine brothers came together</p> <p>Their clamor got loud, throwing Tiamat into a turmoil.</p> <p>They jarred the nerves of Tiamat</p> <p>And by their dancing they spread alarm… (lines 21-24)</p> </blockquote> <p>Tiamat is upset with them but feels powerless to influence their behavior:</p> <blockquote> <p>Tiamat was silent when confronted with them.</p> <p>Their conduct was displeasing to her,</p> <p>Yet though their behavior was not good, she wished to spare them. (lines 26-28)</p> </blockquote> <p>Apsu is also irritated by his children's actions and confers with his vizier Mummu about the problem. They agree nothing can be done until they have spoken with Tiamat and so they go to her chamber where Apsu opens the discussion, saying:</p> <blockquote> <p>“Their behavior has become displeasing to me</p> <p>And I cannot rest in the day-time or sleep at night.</p> <p>I will destroy and break up their way of life</p> <p>That silence may reign and we may sleep.”</p> <p>When Tiamat heard this</p> <p>She raged and cried out to her spouse,</p> <p>She cried in distress, fuming within herself,</p> <p>She grieved over the plotted evil [saying]</p> <p>“How can we destroy what we have given birth to?</p> <p>Though their behavior causes distress, let us tighten discipline graciously.”</p> <p>(lines 37-46)</p> </blockquote> <p>Mummu interjects at this point, encouraging Apsu to destroy his children, and Tiamat's plea is ignored. Apsu and Mummu agree to kill the younger gods and Tiamat, not knowing what else to do, feels she must warn her children. She goes to the god of wisdom Ea (also known as Enki) and tells him about the plot.</p> <p>Ea, in addition to his great wisdom and intellect, was also god of magic. He puts Apsu to sleep through an incantation and kills him and then imprisons Mummu. Apsu becomes the freshwater of Ea's home (associated with the Sumerian city of <a href="/eridu/">Eridu</a> elsewhere) and, once everything is settled and Ea has established order, he and his wife Damkina live happily and she gives birth to their son Marduk.</p><div class="intext_6"></div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4918"> <a href="/image/4918/mesopotamian-tablet-on-marduk/" title="Mesopotamian Tablet on Marduk" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4918.jpg.webp?v=1724655924-1724655942 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4918.jpg.webp?v=1724655924-1724655942 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4918.jpg?v=1724655924-1724655942 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4918.jpg?v=1724655924-1724655942 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4918.jpg?v=1724655924-1724655942" alt="Mesopotamian Tablet on Marduk" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="374" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Mesopotamian Tablet on Marduk</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4918/mesopotamian-tablet-on-marduk/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4918/mesopotamian-tablet-on-marduk/","caption":"Babylonian tablet, a scholar speculating on how powerful, independent Mesopotamian gods can be seen as aspects of the god Marduk. From Babylon, Southern Mesopotamia, Iraq. Neo-Babylonian Period, reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, 605-562 BCE.\r\n\r\nThe British Museum, London.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4918.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-08-26T07:05:42+0000","datePublished":"2016-04-13T14:57:15+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Mesopotamian Tablet on Marduk","height":2738,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4918/mesopotamian-tablet-on-marduk/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4918/mesopotamian-tablet-on-marduk/","width":3667} </script> </p> <p>Marduk is more powerful than any of the other gods, described as “dazzling” and “mighty” with “the aura of the Ten Gods, so exalted was his strength” (line 103). The <em>Enuma Elish</em> lavishes the greatest praise on the young god before stating how he became an even bigger nuisance to Tiamat than her children were before:</p> <blockquote> <p>He formed dust and set a hurricane to drive it.</p> <p>He made a wave to bring consternation on Tiamat.</p> <p>Tiamat was confounded; day and night she was frantic. (lines 107-109)</p> </blockquote> <p>The elder gods, also her children, confront her about the <a href="/disambiguation/Death/">death</a> of their father, reminding her that, when Apsu was killed she did nothing and when Mummu was imprisoned she did not make any complaint. Now, they tell her, Marduk and the other younger gods make all their lives miserable by doing as they please without any consideration for their elders.</p> <p>They scold her that she does not love them and beg her to make war on the younger gods, avenge Apsu, and put an end to the constant noise and aggravation. Tiamat listens to their counsel and agrees to go to war, saying, “Let us make demons, as you have advised” (line 126). She then gives birth to the eleven monsters, known as Tiamat's Creatures, who will help her fight against the younger gods:</p><div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline">Love History?</div> <p>Sign up for our free weekly email newsletter!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=ac74a77c22" method="post" id="mailchimp-mobile-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <input type="email" placeholder="Email address..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Sign Up" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;"><input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_ac74a77c22" tabindex="-1" value=""></div> </form> </div> <ul> <li>Musmahhu, Usumgallu, Basmu – three horned snakes, Furious, Exalted, and Venomous</li> <li>Umu-dabrutu – a raging storm</li> <li>Mushussu – a snake-dragon</li> <li>Lahamu – a hairy beast-man</li> <li>Ugallu – a lion-demon</li> <li>Uridimmu – a lion-human hybrid</li> <li>Girtablullu – a scorpion-man</li> <li>Kulullu – a fish-man (merman)</li> <li>Kusarikku – a bull-man</li> </ul> <p>She then chooses the god Quingu, her lover, to lead her forces as champion and gives him the Tablets of Destiny, which legitimize a god's rule and control the <a href="/Fates/">fates</a>; whoever holds the Tablets of Destiny has supreme power over the heavens, earth, and underworld. With her formidable army, Tiamat goes to war against her younger children and defeats – but does not kill – them. The younger gods struggle against overwhelming power but cannot stand against Quingu and the Tablets of Destiny or the eleven creatures of Tiamat, who lead the other gods against them.</p> <p>The younger gods fall into despair but Marduk volunteers to go and fight Tiamat and her legions alone on the condition that, afterwards, he is to be made supreme ruler:</p> <blockquote> <p>“If I should become your avenger,</p> <p>If I should bind Tiamat and preserve you,</p> <p>Convene an assembly and proclaim for me an exalted destiny.<br /> Sit, all of you…in gladness,</p> <p>And let me, with my utterance, decree destinies instead of you.</p> <p>Whatever I instigate must not be changed.</p> <p>Nor may my command be nullified or altered.” (lines 156-162)</p> </blockquote> <p>The younger gods gladly agree and give him a magical mace and club while he fashions a mighty bow himself and calls down lighting to assist him. He then meets Tiamat in <a href="/disambiguation/battle/">battle</a>, swiftly defeats Quingu, and takes the Tablets of Destiny. He kills Tiamat by smashing her skull with his mace and then splitting her in two with one of his arrows. He then kills Tiamat's creatures and has the other gods bind them to his feet as trophies. From Tiamat's corpse, he creates the heavens and the earth and from her weeping eyes flow the Tigris and Euphrates rivers; her tail becomes the Milky Way.</p><div class="intext_7"></div> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="11199"> <a href="/image/11199/babylonian-statue-of-enki/" title="Babylonian Statue of Enki" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11199.jpg.webp?v=1711954384 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11199.jpg.webp?v=1711954384 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11199.jpg?v=1711954384 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/11199.jpg?v=1711954384 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/11199.jpg?v=1711954384" alt="Babylonian Statue of Enki" class="in_text_image" width="347" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Babylonian Statue of Enki</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11199/babylonian-statue-of-enki/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11199/babylonian-statue-of-enki/","caption":"A statue of Ea, the Akkadian god of water (related to the Sumerian god Enki). Ea is enthroned and holds a cup in his left hand, the right hand has been lost to time. He is accompanied by two creatures (half human and half fish) reclining at the throne base. Confiscated in the 1990s; illegally excavated by plunderers. Probably from Nasiriyah, Southern Iraq. Old-Babylonian period, 2004-1595 BCE. On display at the Iraq Museum in Baghdad.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/11199.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-23T23:34:17+0000","datePublished":"2019-09-18T04:03:18+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Babylonian Statue of Enki","height":4000,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11199/babylonian-statue-of-enki/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/11199/babylonian-statue-of-enki/","width":2776} </script> Marduk then consults with Ea and they decide the gods will need helpers to assist them in maintaining the newly established order. Marduk decrees that human beings will be created from the remains of the elder gods who instigated the conflict and encouraged Tiamat to make war. Quingu is killed and, from his blood, Ea creates Lullu, the first man. Marduk then organizes the operation of the world and the underworld and the poem ends with praise for Marduk as king of the gods.</p> <h3>Commentary & Interpretation</h3> <p>Tiamat, as a literary/mythological character, is routinely interpreted as symbolizing the chaos which existed before the establishment of order in the universe, yet the poem itself does not exactly support this claim. Tiamat is against the use of violence at the beginning of the poem and begs her husband to try less drastic measures. It is only after Apsu is murdered by Ea, and she accepts the counsel of her older children, that she – feeling betrayed and rejected by the younger gods – instigates the war against them. She is certainly a chaotic force afterwards but cannot be seen as such at the beginning of the poem.</p> <div class="big_quote">Tiamat's change from protective mother to vengeful warrior-queen has been claimed to be due to a paradigm shift during which female deities lost their status.</div> <p>Her change from protective, nurturing mother to vengeful warrior-queen has been claimed to be due to a shift in the theological paradigm in Mesopotamia during the reign of Hammurabi during which female deities (and <a href="/disambiguation/women/">women</a> in general) lost their status. This interpretation was first suggested by the British scholar Robert Graves and later popularized by historians such as <a href="/Merlin/">Merlin</a> Stone in the bestselling book <em>When God Was a Woman</em>.</p> <p>The argument claims that Tiamat combines the earlier qualities of Nammu as a Mother Goddess with the later association of female deities as troublesome and vindictive, as in the case of Inanna who becomes the erratic and violent Ishtar by the time of <em>The Epic of Gilgamesh</em>, flies into a fury when Gilgamesh rejects her advances and causes the death of the Bull of Heaven and Gilgamesh's friend Enkidu. Graves, and others, claim that the shift from a matriarchal to a patriarchal theological vision is poetically addressed in the figure of Tiamat in <em>Enuma Elish</em> because it could not be overtly stated in any other form.</p> <p>There is no doubt that the worship of female deities declined during Hammurabi's reign and formerly powerful goddesses were replaced by gods. The problem with Graves' interpretation is that there is no evidence of there ever having been a “matriarchal theological paradigm” in Mesopotamia. The earliest Sumerian inscriptions concerning the gods, while they do mention many feminine deities, always have a dominant male presiding over the <a href="/article/221/the-mesopotamian-pantheon/">Mesopotamian pantheon</a>.</p> <p><figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="4013"> <a href="/image/4013/seated-mesopotamian-goddess/" title="Seated Mesopotamian Goddess" /> <picture> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4013.jpg.webp?v=1724657228-1724657243 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4013.jpg.webp?v=1724657228-1724657243 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4013.jpg?v=1724657228-1724657243 500w, https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1000x1200/4013.jpg?v=1724657228-1724657243 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/4013.jpg?v=1724657228-1724657243" alt="Seated Mesopotamian Goddess" class="in_text_image" width="364" height="500" /> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"><div class="figtitle">Seated Mesopotamian Goddess</div><div class="figauthor">Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin (Copyright)</div></figcaption> </a> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4013/seated-mesopotamian-goddess/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4013/seated-mesopotamian-goddess/","caption":"Mesopotamian female deity wearing a horned headdress and sitting on a chair or a throne, probably goddess Ishtar or goddess Bau. The lunar symbol of the moon god Sin appears at the upper part, flanking the headdress. Elaborate dress and braided hair strands. Fired clay plaque from Ur, Southern Mesopotamia, modern-day Iraq, Old-Babylonian period, 2003-1595 BCE.\r\n\r\nThe Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/4013.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin - Copyright - You cannot use, copy, distribute, or modify this item without explicit permission from the author.","creator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/#person","name":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/OsamaSMAmin/","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-OsamaSMAmin.jpg","description":"Associate Professor of Neurology and lover of the Cradle of Civilization, Mesopotamia. I'm very interested in Mesopotamian history and always try to take photos of archaeological sites and artifacts in museums, both in Iraq and around the world.","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"creditText":"Osama Shukir Muhammed Amin / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-08-26T07:27:23+0000","datePublished":"2015-08-12T04:30:07+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Seated Mesopotamian Goddess","height":3983,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4013/seated-mesopotamian-goddess/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/4013/seated-mesopotamian-goddess/","width":2894} </script> Scholar Paul Kriwaczek suggests an alternative reading of <em>Enuma Elish</em> and the figure of Tiamat, claiming they should be understood in light of the development of the concept of a chieftain who protected the people. Citing the development of the <a href="/Polis/">city-state</a> in Mesopotamia, Kriwaczek describes how the role of chieftain most probably evolved:</p> <blockquote> <p>When news came that brigands were on their way, spotted perhaps by herdsmen tending their animals out in the wild far from the city walls, the call would go out for men to mount resistance. Farmers turned themselves into a citizen militia, dropping their spades and hoes, and picking up clubs and spears. Yet while this may have been an adequate defensive response to small bands, it was insufficient to repulse a battalion-sized incursion. For that, a trained body of semi-professional fighters was needed and, eventually, a fully professional army. The older power-centers of Sumerian society, the temple priesthood and assemblies of elders, would have been able neither to muster the appropriate number of men nor to lead them into battle. That task would have fallen by default to the new economic elite…the “big men” …with their great estates and retinues of followers. (87)</p> </blockquote> <p>The elevation of the “Big Man” – the chieftain – according to Kriwaczek, is at the heart of the <em>Enuma Elish</em> as Marduk becomes the undisputed king of the gods after demanding that as a condition of defeating the forces of chaos. In this same way, a chieftain would protect a community from threats in return for their loyalty and service. Tiamat, in this interpretation, serves simply as a threat to established order and Marduk stands as the heroic champion who not only preserves order but improves upon it; just as a local chieftain, and later a king, was expected to do.</p> <h3>Conclusion</h3> <p>Kriwaczek's interpretation, however, ignores the careful construction of Tiamat's character at the beginning of the poem and her close association with Nammu. It also fails to address why <em>Enuma Elish</em> was so popular, why it was read annually at Marduk's festival on the New Year, and why it came to be integral to that festival even after Hammurabi's death. One could claim that Tiamat's characterization is due to the lingering concept of the Mother Goddess, specifically Nammu, and, like Graves, argue that the author is purposefully highlighting the old paradigm in order to later twist and subvert it and, in keeping with this, that the popularity of the piece, and its importance to Marduk's festival, was a celebration of the <a href="/Roman_Triumph/">triumph</a> of the patriarchy. Again, this interpretation can only hold if one can establish that there was an earlier matriarchal paradigm to subvert.</p> <p>It could be, however, that the author of <em>Enuma Elish</em> was not attempting to subvert any paradigm nor write an allegory of the rise of tribal chiefs and kings but was only creating the work he had been commissioned to write by Hammurabi. Marduk was a minor agricultural god in the region before Hammurabi came to power but was the deity the king chose as his own patron god. Prior to Hammurabi's reign, as noted, Inanna was the patron goddess of Babylon and, though she continued to be venerated afterwards, her status was greatly diminished after the king elevated Marduk to Babylon's patron deity.</p> <p>In the figure of Tiamat, the author combines the characteristics of Nammu the Mother Goddess with Inanna - two well-known goddesses in Mesopotamian <a href="/mythology/">mythology</a> - to show how their earlier authority has given way to that of Marduk, son of Enki/Ea but under no one's influence. The work, then, and the figures of Tiamat and Marduk, would not be a subversion of any widely-held paradigm nor an allegory of the rise of the ruling class, but simply the announcement of a new powerful god, the end of the need for any others, and the glorification of the king this great god so clearly favored.</p> </article> <div id="ci_rating_wrapper"> <div class="rating_label filter_label">Did you like this definition?</div> <div id="ci_rating_buttons_wrapper"> <div class="rating_button up base" data-rating="1"></div> <div class="rating_button down base" data-rating="-1"></div> </div> </div> <div id="sections_below_links"> <p> <a href="/interestemails/?tags=Marduk+Mesopotamian_Religion+Tiamat" class="topic_subscribe outline_button below_article">Subscribe to topic</a> <a href="#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" class="outline_button">Related Content</a> <a href="#books_preview" class="outline_button">Books</a> <a href="#citation_info" class="outline_button">Cite This Work</a> <a href="#ci_author_and_copyright" class="outline_button">License</a> </p> </div> <div class="editorial_review_notice"> <span class="editorial_review_header">Editorial Review</span> This article has been reviewed by our editorial team before publication to ensure accuracy, reliability and adherence to academic standards in accordance with our <a href="/static/editorial-policy/">editorial policy</a>. </div> </div> </div></div> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"> <a href="/membership/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_en&utm_campaign=membership" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Remove Ads</a> <div class="ad_header">Advertisement</div>  <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <style> .map_container.il { border: none; } .map_container h3 { text-align: center; } </style> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliography</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__96a57cb611ccbbef5cdb4fa16e7bacf5"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0195183649/" rel="sponsored">Bertman, S. <i>Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia.</i> Oxford University Press, 2005.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__0c780c3b8d411776ab8c8a49c7b4c0b6"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0292707940/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. &Green, A. <i>Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia.</i> University of Texas Press, 1992.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e96aa34bbe2c9343e9e6ab1117f2542a"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0801435986/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. , et. al. <i>Reading Sumerian Poetry.</i> Cornell University Press, 1998.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__840ced5805ae9870a8ec22416a38b75d"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0199296332/" rel="sponsored">Black, J. , et. al. <i>The Literature of Ancient Sumer.</i> Oxford University Press, U.S.A., 2006.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__7ca3f87606030c15dae758496700f144"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0199538360/" rel="sponsored">Dalley, S. <i>Myths from Mesopotamia.</i> Oxford University Press, 2009.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__347da8c8dcfcee0f84db63d664ebeb1a"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0140449191/" rel="sponsored">George, A., Translator. <i>The Epic of Gilgamesh.</i> Penguin Classics, 2003.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__76fe4dbfee5efe908227eb43d63469b1"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0300022913/" rel="sponsored">Jacobsen, T. <i>The Treasures of Darkness.</i> Yale University Press, 1978.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__e025c817b8dca0efd2897db4813f7212"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0226452387/" rel="sponsored">Kramer, S. N. <i>The Sumerians: Their History, Culture, and Character.</i> University of Chicago Press, 1971.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__271db858bda5a362a15ac00f95dd5096"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/1250054168/" rel="sponsored">Kriwaczek, P. <i>Babylon: Mesopotamia and the Birth of Civilization.</i> St. Martin's Griffin, 2012.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__fe201c41bd297c4db9bb14a102ea7b5d"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0810875772/" rel="sponsored">Leick, G. <i>The A to Z of Mesopotamia.</i> Scarecrow Press, 2010.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__ebbba3fb2730a614aabbbbd92d7ba7ac"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/015696158X/" rel="sponsored">Stone, M. <i>When God Was a Woman.</i> Mariner Books, 1978.</a></cite> </li> <li id="bibID__277a09d17f6445370d1b0ab4f73a9082"> <cite class="bib_text"><a href="/books/0060908548/" rel="sponsored">Wolkstein, D. & Kramer, S. N. <i>Inanna, Queen of Heaven and Earth.</i> Harper Perennial, 1983.</a></cite> </li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div> <span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia is an Amazon Associate and earns a commission on qualifying book purchases.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <a href="/interestemails/?author=JPryst" class="headline_button" rel="nofollow">Subscribe to this author</a> <h2>About the Author</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="nofollow" title="Joshua J. Mark"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-JPryst.JPG?v=1459726565" width="100" height="100" alt="Joshua J. Mark" class="avatar_image" /></a> <div class="user_name"> <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Joshua J. 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J. (2020, May 04). <a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/" class="no_external">Tiamat</a>. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Retrieved from https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/ </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Chicago Style</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/" class="no_external">Tiamat</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Last modified May 04, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/. </p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>MLA Style</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p> Mark, Joshua J.. "<a href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Tiamat/" class="no_external">Tiamat</a>." <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 04 May 2020. Web. 23 Nov 2024. </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>License & Copyright</h2> <p> Submitted by <a href="/user/JPryst/" rel="author" title="User Page: Joshua J. Mark">Joshua J. Mark</a>, published on 04 May 2020. The copyright holder has published this content under the following license: <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.en" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. 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