China - Junggar Basin, Xinjiang, Gobi Desert

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<div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">China</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/place/China">Introduction & Quick Facts</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref70957"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China#ref70957">Land</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relief">Relief</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70959" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region">The eastern region</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70960">The Northeast Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70961">The Changbai Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70962">The North China Plain</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70963"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70963">The Loess Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70964"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70964">The Shandong Hills</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70965"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-eastern-region#ref70965">The Qin Mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70966"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin">The Sichuan Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70967"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70967">The southeastern mountains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70968"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70968">Plains of the middle and lower Yangtze</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70969"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70969">The Nan Mountains</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70970" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70970">The southwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70971"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70971">The Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70972"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70972">The Plateau of Tibet</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70973" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70973">The northwest</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70974"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sichuan-Basin#ref70974">The Tarim Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70975"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin">The Junggar Basin</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref70976"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70976">The Tien Shan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70977"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Junggar-Basin#ref70977">Drainage</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70978"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils">Soils</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70979"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70979">Climate</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Soils#ref70980">The air masses</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70981"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Temperature">Temperature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70982"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70983"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70983">Plant and animal life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70984"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Precipitation#ref70984">Flora</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70985"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life">Animal life</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70989"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70989">People</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70990"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref70990">Ethnic groups</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258957"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Animal-life#ref258957">Languages</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258958"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Sino-Tibetan">Sino-Tibetan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258959"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic">Altaic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258960"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258960">Other languages</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258961"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref258961">Religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70986"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70986">Settlement patterns</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70987"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Altaic#ref70987">Rural areas</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70988"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas">Urban areas</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258962"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref258962">Demographic trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70991"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Urban-areas#ref70991">Population growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70992"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution">Population distribution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70993"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70993">Internal migration</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref70994"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref70994">Economy</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71004"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-distribution#ref71004">General considerations</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71005"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-role-of-the-government">The role of the government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71007"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policies">Economic policies</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70998"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing">Agriculture, forestry, and fishing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70999"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70999">Farming and livestock</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71000"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref71000">Forestry and fishing</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref70995"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Agriculture-forestry-and-fishing#ref70995">Resources and power</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70996"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals">Minerals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref70997"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref70997">Hydroelectric potential</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258949"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Minerals#ref258949">Energy production</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71001"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71002"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Manufacturing#ref71002">Finance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71003"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade">Trade</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258950"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258950">Services</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258951"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref258951">Labor and taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71008"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trade#ref71008">Transportation and telecommunications</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71009"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways">Railways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71010"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Railways#ref71010">Road networks</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71011"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways">Waterways</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71012"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71012">Port facilities and shipping</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71013"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Waterways#ref71013">Aviation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71014"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications">Posts and telecommunications</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71015"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref71015">Government and society</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258952"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Posts-and-telecommunications#ref258952">Parallel structure</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258953"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework">Constitutional framework</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71016"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref71016">Political process</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258954"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Constitutional-framework#ref258954">Role of the CCP</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71017"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration">Administration</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71019"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71019">Justice</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71018"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration#ref71018">Security</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71020"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Health-and-welfare">Health and welfare</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71021"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education">Education</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref71022"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Education#ref71022">Cultural life</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258941"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu">Cultural milieu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258942"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258942">The arts</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258943"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-milieu#ref258943">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258944"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref258945"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Visual-arts#ref258945">Performing arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258946"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions">Cultural institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258947"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258947">Daily life, sports, and recreation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref258948"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-institutions#ref258948">Media and publishing</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref214398"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History">History</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71610"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71610">Prehistory in China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71611"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71611">Archaeology in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71612"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71612">Early humans</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71613" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71613">Neolithic Period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71614"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71614">Climate and environment</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71615"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/History#ref71615">Food production</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71616"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites">Major cultures and sites</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71617"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71617">Incipient Neolithic</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71618"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71618">6th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71619"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Major-cultures-and-sites#ref71619">5th millennium <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71620"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce">4th and 3rd millennia <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span></a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71621"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/4th-and-3rd-millennia-bce#ref71621">Regional cultures of the Late Neolithic</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71622"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization">Religious beliefs and social organization</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71623"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71623">The first historical dynasty: the Shang</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71624"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Religious-beliefs-and-social-organization#ref71624">The advent of bronze casting</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71625" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty">The Shang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71626"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71626">Royal burials</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71627"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71627">The chariot</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71628"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shang-dynasty#ref71628">Art</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71629"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion">Late Shang divination and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71630"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71630">State and society</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71631"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71631">The Zhou and Qin dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71632" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Late-Shang-divination-and-religion#ref71632">The history of the Zhou (1046–256 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71633"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Zhou-and-Shang">Zhou and Shang</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71634"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Zhou-feudal-system">The Zhou feudal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71635" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes">Social, political, and cultural changes</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71636"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71636">The decline of feudalism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71637"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-political-and-cultural-changes#ref71637">Urbanization and assimilation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71638"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy">The rise of monarchy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71639"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71639">Economic development</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71640"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-monarchy#ref71640">Cultural change</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71641" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce">The Qin empire (221–207 <span class="text-smallcaps">bce</span>)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71642"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71642">The Qin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71643"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71643">Struggle for power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71644"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qin-empire-221-207-bce#ref71644">The empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71645"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty">The Han dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71646" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71646">Dynastic authority and the succession of emperors</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71647"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Han-dynasty#ref71647">Xi (Western) Han</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71648"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han">Prelude to the Han</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71649"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prelude-to-the-Han#ref71649">The imperial succession</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71650"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi">From Wudi to Yuandi</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71651"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/From-Wudi-to-Yuandi#ref71651">From Chengdi to Wang Mang</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71652"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han">Dong (Eastern) Han</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71653" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71653">The administration of the Han empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71654"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71654">The structure of government</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71655"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Dong-Eastern-Han#ref71655">The civil service</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71656"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government">Provincial government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71657"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-government#ref71657">The armed forces</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71658"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-practice-of-government">The practice of government</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71659"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-other-peoples">Relations with other peoples</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71660"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Cultural-developments">Cultural developments</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71661"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties">The Six Dynasties</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71662" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71662">Political developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71663"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71663">The division of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71664"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71664">Sanguo (Three Kingdoms; 220–280 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71665"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71665">The Xi (Western) Jin (265–316/317 <span class="text-smallcaps">ce</span>)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71666"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71666">The era of foreign invasions and rule</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71667"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Six-Dynasties#ref71667">The Dong (Eastern) Jin (317–420) and later dynasties in the south (420–589)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71668"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439">The Shiliuguo (Sixteen Kingdoms) in the north (303–439)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71669" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71669">Intellectual and religious trends</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71670"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Shiliuguo-Sixteen-Kingdoms-in-the-north-303-439#ref71670">Confucianism and philosophical Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71671"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71672"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Daoism#ref71672">Buddhism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71673"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty">The Sui dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71674"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71674">Wendi’s institutional reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71675"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Sui-dynasty#ref71675">Integration of the south</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71676"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi">Foreign affairs under Yangdi</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71677"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71677">The Tang dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71678" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-affairs-under-Yangdi#ref71678">Early Tang (618–626)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71679"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state">Administration of the state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71680"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71680">Fiscal and legal system</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71681" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Administration-of-the-state#ref71681">The period of Tang power (626–755)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71682"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-era-of-good-government">The “era of good government”</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71683"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Rise-of-the-empress-Wuhou">Rise of the empress Wuhou</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71684"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress">Prosperity and progress</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71685"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71685">Military reorganization</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71686" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Prosperity-and-progress#ref71686">Late Tang (755–907)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71687"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Provincial-separatism">Provincial separatism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71688"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority">The struggle for central authority</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71689" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71689">Cultural developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71690"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-struggle-for-central-authority#ref71690">The influence of Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71691"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts">Trends in the arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71692" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71692">Social change</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71693"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Trends-in-the-arts#ref71693">Decline of the aristocracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71694"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements">Population movements</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71695"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Population-movements#ref71695">Growth of the economy</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71696"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms">The Five Dynasties and the Ten Kingdoms</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71697"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71697">The Wudai (Five Dynasties)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71698"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Five-Dynasties-and-the-Ten-Kingdoms#ref71698">The Shiguo (Ten Kingdoms)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71699"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen">The “barbarians”: Tangut, Khitan, and Juchen</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71700"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71700">The Tangut</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71701"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71701">The Khitan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71702"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-barbarians-Tangut-Khitan-and-Juchen#ref71702">The Juchen</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71703"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty">The Song dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71704" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71704">Bei (Northern) Song (960–1127)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71705"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Song-dynasty#ref71705">Unification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71706"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation">Consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71707"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consolidation#ref71707">Reforms</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71708"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall">Decline and fall</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71709" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Decline-and-fall#ref71709">Nan (Southern) Song (1127–1279)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71710"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Survival-and-consolidation">Survival and consolidation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71711"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen">Relations with the Juchen</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71712"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Relations-with-the-Juchen#ref71712">The court’s relations with the bureaucracy</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71713"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-chief-councillors">The chief councillors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71714"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style">The bureaucratic style</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71715"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-bureaucratic-style#ref71715">The clerical staff</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71716"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism">The rise of neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71717"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-rise-of-neo-Confucianism#ref71717">Internal solidarity during the decline of the Nan Song</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71718"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Song-culture">Song culture</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71719"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty">The Yuan, or Mongol, dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71720" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71720">The Mongol conquest of China</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71721"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Yuan-or-Mongol-dynasty#ref71721">Invasion of the Jin state</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71722"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state">Invasion of the Song state</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71723" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71723">China under the Mongols</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71724"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71724">Mongol government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71725"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Invasion-of-the-Song-state#ref71725">Early Mongol rule</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71726"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Changes-under-Kublai-Khan-and-his-successors">Changes under Kublai Khan and his successors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71727"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy">Economy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71728"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71728">Religious and intellectual life</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71729"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economy#ref71729">Daoism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71730"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71731"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71731">Foreign religions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71732"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Buddhism#ref71732">Confucianism</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71733"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature">Literature</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71734"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature#ref71734">The arts</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71735"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Yuan-China-and-the-West">Yuan China and the West</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71736"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule">The end of Mongol rule</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71737"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71737">The Ming dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71738" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71738">Political history</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71739"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-end-of-Mongol-rule#ref71739">The dynasty’s founder</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71740"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-dynastic-succession">The dynastic succession</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71741" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration">Government and administration</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71742"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71742">Local government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71743"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Government-and-administration#ref71743">Central government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71744"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Later-innovations">Later innovations</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71745"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71746" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments">Economic policy and developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71747"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71747">Population</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71748"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71748">Agriculture</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71749"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-and-developments#ref71749">Taxation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71750"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71751" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71751">Culture</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71752"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71752">Philosophy and religion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71753"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Coinage#ref71753">Fine arts</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71754"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship">Literature and scholarship</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71755"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71755">The early Qing dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71757"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Literature-and-scholarship#ref71757">The rise of the Manchu</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71758" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire">The Qing empire</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71759"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71759">Political institutions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71760"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Qing-empire#ref71760">Foreign relations</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71761"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-development">Economic development</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71762" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society">Qing society</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71763"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Qing-society#ref71763">Social organization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71764"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society">State and society</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71765"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71765">Trends in the early Qing</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71766"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71766">Late Qing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71767" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/State-and-society#ref71767">Western challenge, 1839–60</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71768"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath">The first Opium War and its aftermath</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71769"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-first-Opium-War-and-its-aftermath#ref71769">The anti-foreign movement and the second Opium War (Arrow War)</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71770" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising">Popular uprising</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71771"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71771">The Taiping Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71772"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Popular-uprising#ref71772">The Nian Rebellion</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71773"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions">Muslim rebellions</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71774"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71774">Effects of the rebellions</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71775" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Muslim-rebellions#ref71775">The Self-Strengthening Movement</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s">Foreign relations in the 1860s</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71777">Industrialization for “self-strengthening”</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71778" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71778">Changes in outlying areas</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Foreign-relations-in-the-1860s#ref71779">East Turkistan</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal">Tibet and Nepal</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71781">Myanmar (Burma)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Tibet-and-Nepal#ref71782">Vietnam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71783"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands">Japan and the Ryukyu Islands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71784"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71784">Korea and the Sino-Japanese War</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71785" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Japan-and-the-Ryukyu-Islands#ref71785">Reform and upheaval</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71786"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898">The Hundred Days of Reform of 1898</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71787"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Hundred-Days-of-Reform-of-1898#ref71787">The Boxer Rebellion</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71788" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty">Reformist and revolutionist movements at the end of the dynasty</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71789"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71789">Sun Yat-sen and the United League</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71790"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reformist-and-revolutionist-movements-at-the-end-of-the-dynasty#ref71790">Constitutional movements after 1905</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71791"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12">The Chinese Revolution (1911–12)</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71792"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71792">The early republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71793" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71793">The development of the republic (1912–20)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71794"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Chinese-Revolution-1911-12#ref71794">Early power struggles</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71795"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I">China in World War I</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71796"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71796">Japanese gains</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71797"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71797">Yuan’s attempts to become emperor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71798"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/China-in-World-War-I#ref71798">Conflict over entry into the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71799"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government">Formation of a rival southern government</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71800"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71800">Wartime changes</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71801"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71801">Intellectual movements</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71802"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Formation-of-a-rival-southern-government#ref71802">An intellectual revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71803"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests">Riots and protests</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71804" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71804">The interwar years (1920–37)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71805"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71805">Beginnings of a national revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71806"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71806">The Nationalist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71807"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Riots-and-protests#ref71807">The Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71808"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation">Communist-Nationalist cooperation</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71809"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71809">Reactions to warlords and foreigners</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71810"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71810">Militarism in China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71811"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Communist-Nationalist-cooperation#ref71811">The foreign presence</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71812"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT">Reorganization of the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71813"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71813">Struggles within the two-party coalition</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71814"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71814">Clashes with foreigners</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71815"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reorganization-of-the-KMT#ref71815">KMT opposition to radicals</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71816"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition">The Northern Expedition</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71817"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Northern-Expedition#ref71817">Expulsion of communists from the KMT</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71818"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937">The Nationalist government from 1928 to 1937</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71819"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Nationalist-government-from-1928-to-1937#ref71819">Japanese aggression</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71820"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists">War between Nationalists and communists</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71821"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71821">The United Front against Japan</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref214399"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref214399">The late republican period</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71822" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71822">The war against Japan (1937–45)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71823"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71823">The Sino-Japanese War</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71824"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/War-between-Nationalists-and-communists#ref71824">Phase one</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71825"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation">Phase two: stalemate and stagnation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71826"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71826">Renewed communist-Nationalist conflict</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71827"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Phase-two-stalemate-and-stagnation#ref71827">The international alliance against Japan</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71828"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China">U.S. aid to China</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71829"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71829">Conflicts within the international alliance</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71830"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/U-S-aid-to-China#ref71830">Phase three: approaching crisis (1944–45)</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71831"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration">Nationalist deterioration</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71832"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71832">Communist growth</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71833"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Nationalist-deterioration#ref71833">Efforts to prevent civil war</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71834" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49">Civil war (1945–49)</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71835"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71835">A race for territory</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71836"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Civil-war-1945-49#ref71836">Attempts to end the war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71837"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting">Resumption of fighting</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71838"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Resumption-of-fighting#ref71838">The tide begins to shift</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71839"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution">A land revolution</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h5"><li data-target="#ref71840"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71840">The decisive year, 1948</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71841"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/A-land-revolution#ref71841">Communist victory</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71842"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Establishment-of-the-Peoples-Republic">Establishment of the People’s Republic</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71844"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Reconstruction-and-consolidation-1949-52">Reconstruction and consolidation, 1949–52</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71845" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57">The transition to socialism, 1953–57</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71846"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71846">Rural collectivization</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71847"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-transition-to-socialism-1953-57#ref71847">Urban socialist changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71848"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71849"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Political-developments#ref71849">Foreign policy</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71850"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/New-directions-in-national-policy-1958-61">New directions in national policy, 1958–61</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71851"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Readjustment-and-reaction-1961-65">Readjustment and reaction, 1961–65</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71852"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76">The Cultural Revolution, 1966–76</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71853"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/The-Cultural-Revolution-1966-76#ref71853">Attacks on cultural figures</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71854"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members">Attacks on party members</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71855"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71855">Seizure of power</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71856"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Attacks-on-party-members#ref71856">The end of the radical period</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71857"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Social-changes">Social changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71858"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Struggle-for-the-premiership">Struggle for the premiership</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71859"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution">Consequences of the Cultural Revolution</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref71860"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71860">China after the death of Mao</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref71861" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref71861">Domestic developments</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref258955"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Consequences-of-the-Cultural-Revolution#ref258955">Readjustment and recovery</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71862"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes">Economic policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71863"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Economic-policy-changes#ref71863">Political developments</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref71864"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/place/China/Educational-and-cultural-policy-changes">Educational and cultural policy changes</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref353938"><a 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Martin, Elman, Benjamin, Rawski, Evelyn S., Chen, Cheng-Siang, Twitchett, Denis C., Young, Ernest P., Dull, Jack L., Feuerwerker, Albert, White, Lynn, Chan, Hoklam, Liu, James T.C., Franke, Herbert" data-authors-initial="Hucker, C.O., McKnight, B.E., Hsu, C., Suzuki, C., DeWoskin, K.J., Silbergeld, J., Lewis, J.W., Lieberthal, K.G., Keightley, D.N., Zürcher, E., Wilbur, C.M., Elman, B., Rawski, E.S., Chen, C., Twitchett, D.C., Young, E.P., Dull, J.L., Feuerwerker, A., White, L., Chan, H., Liu, J.T., Franke, H." data-title="China" data-published-date="15 Feb. 2025" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <div class="citation-text"></div> </div> <button class="js-copy-citation-button mt-20 btn btn-xs btn-outline-blue border shadow-sm pr-10" > <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 my-n5 mr-5" data-icon="file_copy"></em> <span class="js-citation-status-text">Copy Citation</span> </button> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-share-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-share-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="share"></em> Share </button> <div class="md-share-modal size-lg d-none qa-share-modal"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif d-flex align-items-center pb-15 border-bottom"> <em class="material-icons text-blue mr-10" data-icon="share"></em> Share </div> <div class="label my-20">Share to social media</div> <div class="md-social-toolbar-circle d-flex align-items-start inverted" data-value="share" title="China" data-url="https://www.britannica.com/place/China" > <a class="social-icon facebook justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="facebook" href="https://www.facebook.com/BRITANNICA/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>Facebook</span></a> <a class="social-icon x justify-content-center d-flex align-items-center align-self-center" data-provider="x" href="https://x.com/britannica" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><span>X</span></a> </div> <div class="label pt-20 mt-20 mb-5 border-top">URL</div> <a class="font-serif text-truncate d-inline-block" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China">https://www.britannica.com/place/China</a> </div> </div> </div> <div> <button class="js-feedback-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal=".md-feedback-modal"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="message"></em> Feedback </button> </div> <div> <button class="qa-external-website-modal-button js-modal btn btn-sm btn-link gtm-topic-tool font-weight-bold btn-link" data-modal="[data-topic-id=111803] .md-websites-modal"> <em class="material-icons md-icon ml-n10 mr-5" data-icon="link"></em> External Websites </button> </div> </div> <div class="md-feedback-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom"> Feedback </div> <form method="post" action="/submission/feedback/111803"> <div class="my-20"> Corrections? 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.natgeokids.com/uk/discover/geography/countries/30-cool-facts-about-china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">National Geographic Kids - 30 cool facts about China!</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/china/" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Central Intelligence Agency - The World Factbook - China</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/China/345666" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/China/272682" target="_blank" rel="noopener">China - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: Chung-hua, Chung-hua Jen-min Kung-ho-kuo, Chung-kuo, People’s Republic of China, Zhongguo, Zhonghua, Zhonghua Renmin Gongheguo</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Charles-O-Hucker/1399" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Charles O. Hucker</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Former Professor of Chinese and of History, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Author of <i>The Traditional Chinese State in Ming Times </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Charles O. Hucker</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Brian-E-McKnight/1855" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Brian E. McKnight</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor and Former Head, Department of East Asian Studies, University of Arizona, Tucson. Author of <i>Village and Bureaucracy in Southern Sung China</i> and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Brian E. McKnight</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 qa-editor-popup font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2025-02-15T00:00:00CST" >Feb 15, 2025</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/7f895ec83f3f82aa9f0481e89715541e" rel="nofollow">TikTok returns to Apple and Google app stores in the US</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 3:08 PM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/53a08a284799497a6eaf79e95a047b0e" rel="nofollow">US retail sales plunged along with temperatures in January after a bustling holiday season</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 11:09 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/5359649681476af9c6f386769f99bdc8" rel="nofollow">Stock market today: Asian stocks mostly up, as Chinese technology firms see stock rally</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 5:50 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/e71a3057b04288527719582b04ca3feb" rel="nofollow">Hong Kong plans to ban substandard tiny apartments. Low-income families fear higher rents</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 5:48 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/111803/bbc1c75920297f1e5ba5556d084da4de" rel="nofollow">Trump wants denuclearization talks with Russia and China, hopes for defense spending cuts</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Feb. 14, 2025, 3:53 AM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="3"><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="4" id="ref70975">  <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">North of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tarim-Basin" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tarim Basin</a> is another large depression, the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Junggar-Basin" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Junggar (Dzungarian) Basin</a>. It is enclosed by the Tien Shan on the south, while to the northeast it is cut off from <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mongolia" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Mongolia</a> by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Altai-Mountains" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Altai Mountains</a>. The surface of the <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="basin" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/basin" data-type="EB">basin</a> is flat, with a gentle slope to the southwest. The larger portion of the land lies at elevations between about 1,000 and 1,500 feet (300 and 450 meters), and in the lowest part the elevation drops to just below 650 feet (200 meters). In general the main part of the basin is covered by a broad desert with barchans (crescent-shaped sand dunes that move); only in certain parts are dunes retained by vegetation.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> </section> <section data-level="4" id="ref70976"> <h2 class="h4">The <span id="ref589531"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tien-Shan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tien Shan</a></h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="1017" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/58843-050-36B57B79/Tian-Lake-Bogda-Mountains-Tien-Shan-China.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/111803/1017"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/58843-050-36B57B79/Tian-Lake-Bogda-Mountains-Tien-Shan-China.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/58843-050-36B57B79/Tian-Lake-Bogda-Mountains-Tien-Shan-China.jpg?w=300" alt="Bogda Mountains: Tian Lake" data-width="1073" data-height="1257" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/43/58843-050-36B57B79/Tian-Lake-Bogda-Mountains-Tien-Shan-China.jpg" data-href="/media/1/111803/1017">Bogda Mountains: Tian Lake</a><span>Tian Lake in the Bogda Mountains in the eastern Tien Shan, Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang, China.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The Chinese (eastern) part of the Tien Shan consists of a complex system of ranges and depressions divided into two major groups of ranges: the northern and the southern. The groups are separated by a strip of intermontane depressions that itself is broken up by the interior ranges. Ancient <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/metamorphic-rock" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">metamorphic rock</a> <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitutes" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitutes" data-type="MW">constitutes</a> the larger portion of the ranges in the interior zone; Paleozoic (i.e., about 250 to 540 million years old) sedimentary and igneous sedimentary beds form its northern and southern chains, while Mesozoic (about 65 to 250 million years old) sandstones and conglomerates fill the intermontane depressions in the interior zone and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitute" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitute" data-type="MW">constitute</a> the foothill ridges. The height of the main Chinese chains of the Tien Shan is between 13,000 and 15,000 feet (4,000 and 4,600 meters), with individual peaks exceeding 16,000 feet (4,900 meters); the interior chains reach 14,500 feet (4,400 meters). In the western part, where precipitation is adequate, large glaciers are formed, reaching a length of more than 20 miles (32 km). Large rivers with heavy flows, such as the Ili (Yili) River and its tributaries, begin their courses there, and the predominantly alpine meadow steppe is one of the best <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="grazing" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/grazing" data-type="EB">grazing</a> lands of China.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> </section> </section> </section> <section data-level="2" id="ref70977"> <h2 class="h2">Drainage</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="584" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media" data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/5957-050-1F777E47/Junks-Zhengzhou-Huang-He-China-Henan.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/111803/584"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/5957-050-1F777E47/Junks-Zhengzhou-Huang-He-China-Henan.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/5957-050-1F777E47/Junks-Zhengzhou-Huang-He-China-Henan.jpg?w=300" alt="Yellow River (Huang He): junks" data-width="1066" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/57/5957-050-1F777E47/Junks-Zhengzhou-Huang-He-China-Henan.jpg" data-href="/media/1/111803/584">Yellow River (Huang He): junks</a><span>Junks on the silt-laden Yellow River (Huang He) near Zhengzhou, Henan province, China.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">China has more than 50,000 rivers with individual drainage areas exceeding 40 square miles (100 square km). Of the total annual runoff, about 95 percent drains directly into the sea (more than 80 percent into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pacific Ocean</a>, 12 percent into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Indian-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Indian Ocean</a>, and less than 1 percent into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arctic-Ocean" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arctic Ocean</a>) and 5 percent disappears inland.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The three principal rivers of China, all of which flow generally from west to east, draining into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/China-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">China Sea</a>, are the Huang He, the Yangtze, and the Xi. The <span id="ref589532"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yellow-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Huang He</a>, which rises in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Kunlun-Mountains" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Kunlun Mountains</a>, is the northernmost of the three; it drains into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Bohai-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Bo Hai</a> (Gulf of Chihli), north of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shandong-Peninsula" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shandong Peninsula</a>. The <span id="ref589533"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yangtze-River" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Yangtze</a>, the longest river in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/nation-state" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">country</a>, rises in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Plateau-of-Tibet" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Tibetan Highlands</a> and flows across central China, draining into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/East-China-Sea" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">East China Sea</a> north of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Shanghai" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Shanghai</a>. The <span id="ref589534"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Xi-River-system" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Xi River</a>, the southernmost of the three, rises in the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Yunnan-Guizhou-Plateau" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau</a> and empties into the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-China-Sea" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South China Sea</a> via the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Pearl-River-Delta" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Pearl River Delta</a> at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Guangzhou" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Guangzhou (Canton)</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The distribution of surface water in China is extremely uneven. Only a small part of the country has <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="sufficient" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sufficient" data-type="EB">sufficient</a> quantities year-round. Much of the country has abundant runoff but only during the rainy summer, when enormous surpluses of water are received. From the southeast to the northwest, the surface water decreases as the relief becomes more mountainous. A vast area of the northwest lacks water throughout the year. North China (north of the Qin Mountains–Huai River line), with its flat relief and long <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/history" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">history</a> of agriculture, contains almost two-thirds of China’s <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="cultivated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cultivated" data-type="MW">cultivated</a> land; paradoxically, because of scanty and erratic precipitation, the average annual runoff in the North accounts for only about one-sixth of the total for the country as a whole.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The mountains of the southeast and the mountainous <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Hainan" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Hainan</a> Island have the most abundant surface water. Over the year they receive more than 60 inches (1,500 mm) of precipitation (in some places even more than 80 inches [2,000 mm]), of which almost two-thirds constitutes the runoff, so that a dense drainage network has developed. The amount of runoff is highest in the southeast, exceeding 40 inches (1,000 mm). It gradually <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="diminishes" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/diminishes" data-type="EB">diminishes</a> toward the west and north, so that in the true deserts of the northwest it is usually less than 0.4 of an inch (10 mm). The arid climate of the northwest is reflected in the landscape of the dry steppes, which is characterized by richer grasses in the east, while in the west the landscape gradually changes to bare deserts.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">In the lower reaches of the Yangtze, the Pearl River Delta, and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Chengdu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Chengdu</a> Plain a dense network of waterways has been developed. In the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-China-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">North China Plain</a> and the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Northeast-Plain" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Northeast Plain</a> most of the rivers have a linear flow, and tributaries are few and unconnected. In the inland drainage area there are very few rivers because of scanty precipitation. <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="Extensive" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/Extensive" data-type="EB">Extensive</a> areas such as the Tarim Basin and northeastern <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Gansu" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">Gansu</a> province are often completely devoid of runoff. In those regions the rivers depend on melted snow and ice; in consequence, they are mostly small and are found only in mountains and mountain foothills. As they drain increasingly farther away from the mountains, most of them eventually disappear in the desert, while some form inland lakes. Because the northern part of the Plateau of Tibet is a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/cold-desert" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">cold desert</a>, the rate of evaporation is slow, so that a denser network of rivers has developed; most of these, however, run into glaciated depressions, forming numerous lakes.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> </section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":5,"pagesTotal":128,"pageId":111803,"pageLength":961,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.133.9"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-133/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.133.9' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"C","adLeg":"C","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"COUNTRY_PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":5,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":true} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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