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<p><b>Neofunctionalism</b> is the perspective that all <a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">integration</a> is the result of past integration. The term may also be used to literally describe a <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a> that is "post" traditional <a href="/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism">structural functionalism</a>. Whereas theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Alexander" title="Jeffrey C. Alexander">Jeffrey C. Alexander</a> openly appropriated the term,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> others, such as the <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralist" class="mw-redirect" title="Post-structuralist">post-structuralist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>, have been categorized as contemporary functionalists by their critics.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Functionalism in international relations theory was developed by David Mitrany. International relations neofunctionalism was developed by <a href="/wiki/Ernst_B._Haas" title="Ernst B. Haas">Ernst Haas</a> in the 1960s to give a formal explanation to the work of <a href="/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a> (1888–1979). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Parsonian_thinking">Parsonian thinking</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Parsonian thinking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, neofunctionalism represents a revival of the thought of <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a> by <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_C._Alexander" title="Jeffrey C. Alexander">Jeffrey C. Alexander</a>, who sees neofunctionalism as having five central tendencies: </p> <ul><li>to create a form of structural functionalism that is multidimensional and includes micro as well as macro levels of analysis</li> <li>to push functionalism to the left and reject Parsons's optimism about <a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a></li> <li>to argue for an implicit democratic thrust in functional analysis</li> <li>to incorporate a conflict orientation, and</li> <li>to emphasize uncertainty and interactional creativity.</li></ul> <p>While Parsons consistently viewed actors as analytical concepts, Alexander defines action as the movement of concrete, living, breathing persons as they make their way through time and space. In addition he argues that every action contains a dimension of <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, by which he is expanding functionalism to include some of the concerns of <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neil_J._Smelser" class="mw-redirect" title="Neil J. Smelser">Neil J. Smelser</a> sets out to establish the concept of ambivalence as an essential element of understanding individual behaviour and social institutions. His approach, based on <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s theory, takes intrapsychic processes rather than roles at the starting point. He sees ambivalence (to hold opposing affective orientations toward the same person object or symbol) as most applicable in situations where persons are dependent on one another. The common element of dependency is in his opinion that freedom to leave is restricted because it is costly either politically, ideologically or emotionally. Thus dependence entails <a href="/wiki/Entrapment" title="Entrapment">entrapment</a>. Following his views on ambivalence, Smelser argues that attitude surveys should be seen as distorted structures of reality that minimize and delegitimizes ambiguity and ambivalence. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Niklas_Luhmann's_objection"><span id="Niklas_Luhmann.27s_objection"></span>Niklas Luhmann's objection</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Niklas Luhmann's objection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a> sees Parsons' theory as missing the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Self-reference" title="Self-reference">self-reference</a> and complexity. Self-reference is a condition for the efficient functioning of systems. It means that a system is able to observe itself, can reflect on itself and can make decisions as a result of this reflection. In Luhmann's theory, the chief task performed by social systems is to reduce complexity, which brings more choices and more possibilities; it takes more noes to reach a "yes". <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a> or functional equivalents in modern society can provide actors with shared standards of action accepted on <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>, which allow complex sets of interactions to proceed in a world that would otherwise be chaotic and incomprehensible. </p><p>Furthermore Luhmann makes the distinction between risk, a potential harm threatening an individual that is based on a decision made by the individual, and danger, a potential harm to which an individual is passively exposed. The critical difference between the decision maker and the people affected by the decision is that what is a risk for one is a danger for the other. Whereas people in primitive societies were threatened primarily by dangers, people in modern society are threatened primarily by risks caused by our dependency on the decision makers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structure_and_agency" title="Structure and agency">Structure and agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Ruth Wallace & Alison Wolf, <i>Contemporary Sociological Theory </i>, New Jersey, Pearson Education, 2006 (6th ed.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Habermas, Jürgen, <i>The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity: Modernity's Consciousness of Time</i>, Polity Press (1985), paperback, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7456-0830-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7456-0830-2">0-7456-0830-2</a>, p268</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Ruth Wallace & Alison Wolf, <i>Contemporary Sociological Theory</i>, New Jersey, Pearson Education, 2006 (6th ed.), p. 59.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&oldid=1028374132">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neofunctionalism_(sociology)&oldid=1028374132</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">Anthropology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_philosophy" title="Category:Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_theories" title="Category:Sociological theories">Sociological theories</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Functionalism_(social_theory)" title="Category:Functionalism (social theory)">Functionalism (social theory)</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_Oxford_spelling_from_May_2019" title="Category:Use Oxford spelling from May 2019">Use Oxford spelling from May 2019</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 June 2021, at 16:03<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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