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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Prominent theorists</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prominent_theorists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prominent theorists subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prominent_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Auguste_Comte" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Auguste_Comte"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Auguste Comte</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Auguste_Comte-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Herbert_Spencer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Herbert_Spencer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Herbert Spencer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Herbert_Spencer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Talcott_Parsons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Talcott_Parsons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Talcott Parsons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Talcott_Parsons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Davis_and_Moore" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Davis_and_Moore"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Davis and Moore</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Davis_and_Moore-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Robert_Merton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Robert_Merton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Robert Merton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Robert_Merton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almond_and_Powell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almond_and_Powell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Almond and Powell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almond_and_Powell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unilineal_descent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unilineal_descent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Unilineal descent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unilineal_descent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Biological</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biological-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biological subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Everyday_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Everyday_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Everyday application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Everyday_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influential_theorists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influential_theorists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Influential theorists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influential_theorists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" 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Available in 27 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-27" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">27 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%82_%D8%A7%D8%AC%D8%AA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="نسق اجتماعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نسق اجتماعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struktur_funksionalizm" title="Struktur funksionalizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Struktur funksionalizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funcionalisme_estructural" title="Funcionalisme estructural – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Funcionalisme estructural" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Struktur%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_funkcionalismus" title="Strukturální funkcionalismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Strukturální funkcionalismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturfunktionalisme" title="Strukturfunktionalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Strukturfunktionalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturfunktionalismus" title="Strukturfunktionalismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Strukturfunktionalismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funcionalismo_estructuralista" title="Funcionalismo estructuralista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Funcionalismo estructuralista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کارکردگرایی ساختاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کارکردگرایی ساختاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AC%EC%A1%B0%EA%B8%B0%EB%8A%A5%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="구조기능주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="구조기능주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="संरचनात्मक प्रकार्यवाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="संरचनात्मक प्रकार्यवाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungsionalisme_struktural" title="Fungsionalisme struktural – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Fungsionalisme struktural" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virknihyggja" title="Virknihyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Virknihyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%A7%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D_%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%9C%D7%99" title="פונקציונליזם סטרוקטורלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פונקציונליזם סטרוקטורלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A4%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A5%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="სტრუქტურული ფუნქციონალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სტრუქტურული ფუნქციონალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukt%C5%ABrinis_funkcionalizmas" title="Struktūrinis funkcionalizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Struktūrinis funkcionalizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structureel_functionalisme" title="Structureel functionalisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Structureel functionalisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A7%8B%E9%80%A0%E6%A9%9F%E8%83%BD%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="構造機能主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="構造機能主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturfunksjonalisme" title="Strukturfunksjonalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Strukturfunksjonalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funkcjonalizm_(antropologia)" title="Funkcjonalizm (antropologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Funkcjonalizm (antropologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Funcionalismo_(ci%C3%AAncias_sociais)" title="Funcionalismo (ciências sociais) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Funcionalismo (ciências sociais)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%84%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Структурный функционализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Структурный функционализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalism" title="Structural functionalism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Structural functionalism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakenteellinen_funktionalismi" title="Rakenteellinen funktionalismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rakenteellinen funktionalismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strukturfunktionalism" title="Strukturfunktionalism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Strukturfunktionalism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yap%C4%B1sal_i%C5%9Flevselcilik" title="Yapısal işlevselcilik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Yapısal işlevselcilik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%83%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%84%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Структурний функціоналізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Структурний функціоналізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%93%E6%9E%84%E5%8A%9F%E8%83%BD%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="结构功能主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="结构功能主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q831725#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/250px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="97" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/375px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg/500px-Social_Network_Diagram_%28segment%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="260" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_sociology" title="Outline of sociology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Key themes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">Globalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavior" title="Human behavior">Human behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human environmental impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(social_science)" title="Identity (social science)">Identity</a></li> <li>Industrial revolutions <a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">3</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">4</a> / <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Industrial_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Industrial Revolution">5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popularity" title="Popularity">Popularity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_complexity" title="Social complexity">Social complexity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_environment" title="Social environment">Social environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">Social equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Social power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">Social stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">Social structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cycle_theory" title="Social cycle theory">Social cycle theory</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">Perspectives</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_darwinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social darwinism">Social darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Branches_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Branches of sociology">Branches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerontology" title="Gerontology">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_architecture" title="Sociology of architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_art" title="Sociology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrosociology" title="Astrosociology">Astrosociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_body" title="Sociology of the body">Body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_human_consciousness" title="Sociology of human consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_culture" title="Sociology of culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_death" title="Sociology of death">Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_disaster" title="Sociology of disaster">Disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_sociology" title="Economic sociology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_education" title="Sociology of education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_emotions" title="Sociology of emotions">Emotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Social_aspects_of_jealousy" title="Social aspects of jealousy">Jealousy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_family" title="Sociology of the family">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiscal_sociology" title="Fiscal sociology">Fiscal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_food" title="Sociology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_gender" title="Sociology of gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_generations" title="Theory of generations">Generations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_immigration" title="Sociology of immigration">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_sociology" title="Industrial sociology">Industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Jewry" title="Sociology of Jewry">Jewry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_language" title="Sociology of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_law" title="Sociology of law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_leisure" title="Sociology of leisure">Leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_sociology" title="Marxist sociology">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_sociology" title="Military sociology">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociomusicology" title="Sociomusicology">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_peace,_war,_and_social_conflict" title="Sociology of peace, war, and social conflict">Peace, war, and social conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_philosophy" title="Sociology of philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sociology" title="Public sociology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_punishment" title="Sociology of punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_race_and_ethnic_relations" title="Sociology of race and ethnic relations">Race and ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">Rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">History of science</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_movement_theory" title="Social movement theory">Social movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology_(sociology)" title="Social psychology (sociology)">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociocybernetics" title="Sociocybernetics">Sociocybernetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sociology" title="Sociology of sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_space" title="Sociology of space">Space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_sport" title="Sociology of sport">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_terrorism" title="Sociology of terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_utopian_sociology" title="Real utopian sociology">Utopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimology" title="Victimology">Victimology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_sociology" title="Visual sociology">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Social_research" title="Social research">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_historical_research" title="Comparative historical research">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_sociology" title="Computational sociology">Computational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversation_analysis" title="Conversation analysis">Conversation analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_sociology" title="Mathematical sociology">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Network analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">Major theorists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><b>1700s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> · <a href="/wiki/Emmanuel_Joseph_Siey%C3%A8s" title="Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès">Sieyès</a><br /></li></ul> <p><b>1800s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Harriet_Martineau" title="Harriet Martineau">Martineau</a> · <a href="/wiki/Alexis_de_Tocqueville" title="Alexis de Tocqueville">Tocqueville</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Marx</a> · <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Spencer</a> · <a href="/wiki/Gustave_Le_Bon" title="Gustave Le Bon">Le Bon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Lester_Frank_Ward" title="Lester Frank Ward">Ward</a> · <a href="/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto" title="Vilfredo Pareto">Pareto</a> · <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_T%C3%B6nnies" title="Ferdinand Tönnies">Tönnies</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thorstein_Veblen" title="Thorstein Veblen">Veblen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Georg_Simmel" title="Georg Simmel">Simmel</a> · <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Durkheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Addams</a> · <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> · <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Weber</a> · <a href="/wiki/W.E.B._Du_Bois" class="mw-redirect" title="W.E.B. Du Bois">Du Bois</a> · <a href="/wiki/Karl_Mannheim" title="Karl Mannheim">Mannheim</a> · <a href="/wiki/Norbert_Elias" title="Norbert Elias">Elias</a><br /> </p> <b>1900s:</b> <a href="/wiki/Erich_Fromm" title="Erich Fromm">Fromm</a> · <a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Adorno</a> · <a href="/wiki/Arnold_Gehlen" title="Arnold Gehlen">Gehlen</a> · <a href="/wiki/Raymond_Aron" title="Raymond Aron">Aron</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton</a> · <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nisbet" title="Robert Nisbet">Nisbet</a> · <a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">Mills</a> · <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bell" title="Daniel Bell">Bell</a> · <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Schoeck" title="Helmut Schoeck">Schoeck</a> · <a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Goffman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Zygmunt_Bauman" title="Zygmunt Bauman">Bauman</a> · <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Foucault</a> · <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann </a> · <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Habermas</a> · <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a> · <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Bourdieu</a> · <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Giddens</a></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Lists</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_sociology" title="Bibliography of sociology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociological_terminology" title="Category:Sociological terminology">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociology_journals" title="List of sociology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociological_associations" title="List of sociological associations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sociologists" title="List of sociologists">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_sociology" title="Timeline of sociology">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sociology_by_country" title="Category:Sociology by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology" title="Category:Anthropology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#efefef;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Queue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/100px-Queue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/150px-Queue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Queue.svg/200px-Queue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border:none;padding-bottom:0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_anthropology" title="Outline of anthropology">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">History</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Types</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.75em;padding-right:0.75em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">Archaeological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_archaeology" title="Aerial archaeology">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_archaeology" title="Aviation archaeology">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battlefield_archaeology" title="Battlefield archaeology">Battlefield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_archaeology" title="Biblical archaeology">Biblical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioarchaeology" title="Bioarchaeology">Bioarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_archaeology" title="Environmental archaeology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnoarchaeology" title="Ethnoarchaeology">Ethnoarchaeological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_archaeology" title="Experimental archaeology">Experiential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_archaeology" title="Maritime archaeology">Maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoethnobotany" title="Paleoethnobotany">Paleoethnobotanical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooarchaeology" title="Zooarchaeology">Zooarchaeological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Biological_anthropology" title="Biological anthropology">Biological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biocultural_anthropology" title="Biocultural anthropology">Biocultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_anthropology" title="Molecular anthropology">Molecular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroanthropology" title="Neuroanthropology"> Neurological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutritional_anthropology" title="Nutritional anthropology">Nutritional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_anthropology" title="Applied anthropology">Applied</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_art" title="Anthropology of art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_anthropology" title="Cognitive anthropology">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_development" title="Anthropology of development">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_anthropology" title="Ecological anthropology">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_anthropology" title="Environmental anthropology">Environmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_anthropology" title="Economic anthropology">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology"><span class="wrap">Political economy</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_food" title="Anthropology of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnohistory" title="Ethnohistory">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_institutions" title="Anthropology of institutions">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_anthropology" title="Legal anthropology">Legal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_media" title="Anthropology of media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomuseology" title="Ethnomuseology">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnomusicology" title="Ethnomusicology">Musical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_anthropology" title="Political anthropology">Political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_anthropology" title="Psychological anthropology">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_anthropology" title="Public anthropology">Public</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Symbolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transpersonal_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Transpersonal anthropology">Transpersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_anthropology" title="Urban anthropology">Urban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Visual</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_anthropology" title="Linguistic anthropology">Linguistic</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_linguistics" title="Anthropological linguistics">Anthropological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_description" title="Linguistic description">Descriptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnolinguistics" title="Ethnolinguistics">Ethnological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnopoetics" title="Ethnopoetics">Ethnopoetical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_linguistics" title="Historical linguistics">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_ideology" title="Language ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotic_anthropology" title="Semiotic anthropology">Semiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociolinguistics" title="Sociolinguistics">Sociological</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology#Methods" title="Cultural anthropology">Research framework</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropometry" title="Anthropometry">Anthropometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyber-ethnography" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyber-ethnography">cyber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnology" title="Ethnology">Ethnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_cross-cultural_sample" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard cross-cultural sample">Cross-cultural comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexivity_(social_theory)" title="Reflexivity (social theory)">Reflexivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thick_description" title="Thick description">Thick description</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_relativism" title="Cultural relativism">Cultural relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emic_and_etic" title="Emic and etic">Emic and etic</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_anthropology" title="Development anthropology">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicity" title="Ethnicity">Ethnicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">sociocultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">Gender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">Kinship and descent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Meme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistory" title="Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_(human_categorization)" title="Race (human categorization)">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">Postcolonialism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Key theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance_theory" title="Alliance theory">Alliance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_studies" title="Cross-cultural studies">Cross-cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_materialism_(anthropology)" title="Cultural materialism (anthropology)">Cultural materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_theory" title="Culture theory">Culture theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">Diffusionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_particularism" title="Historical particularism">Historical particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boasian_anthropology" title="Boasian anthropology">Boasian anthropology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_anthropology" title="Symbolic anthropology">Interpretive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_studies" title="Performance studies">Performance studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy_in_anthropology" title="Political economy in anthropology">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practice_theory" title="Practice theory">Practice theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Lists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropologists_by_nationality" title="Category:Anthropologists by nationality">Anthropologists by nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_anthropology" title="List of years in anthropology">Anthropology by year</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_anthropology" title="Bibliography of anthropology">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anthropology_journals" title="List of anthropology journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_indigenous_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of indigenous peoples">List of indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anthropology_organizations" title="Category:Anthropology organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropology" title="Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropology" title="Template talk:Anthropology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Structural functionalism</b>, or simply <b>functionalism</b>, is "a framework for building theory that sees society as a <a href="/wiki/Complex_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex systems">complex system</a> whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This approach looks at society through a <a href="/wiki/Macrosociology" title="Macrosociology">macro-level orientation</a>, which is a broad focus on the <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structures</a> that shape society as a whole,<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and believes that society has evolved like organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach looks at both <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> and <b>social functions</b>. Functionalism addresses society as a whole in terms of the function of its constituent elements; namely <a href="/wiki/Norms_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Norms (sociology)">norms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">customs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Traditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditions">traditions</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions">institutions</a>. </p><p>A common analogy called the organic or biological analogy, popularized by <a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a>, presents these parts of society as human body "organs" that work toward the proper functioning of the "body" as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the most basic terms, it simply emphasizes "the effort to impute, as rigorously as possible, to each feature, custom, or practice, its effect on the functioning of a supposedly stable, cohesive system". For <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, "structural-functionalism" came to describe a particular stage in the methodological development of <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a>, rather than a specific school of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emile_Durkheim.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg/200px-Emile_Durkheim.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Emile_Durkheim.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="229" data-file-height="324" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In sociology, <a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory#Classical_theoretical_traditions" title="Sociological theory">classical theories</a> are defined by a tendency towards biological analogy and notions of <a href="/wiki/Social_evolutionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Social evolutionism">social evolutionism</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Functionalist thought, from <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Comte</a> onwards, has looked particularly towards biology as the science providing the closest and most compatible model for social science. Biology has been taken to provide a guide to conceptualizing the structure and function of social systems and analyzing evolution processes via mechanisms of adaptation ... functionalism strongly emphasises the pre-eminence of the social world over its individual parts (i.e. its constituent actors, human subjects).</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a>, <i>The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration</i><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>While one may regard functionalism as a logical extension of the organic analogies for societies presented by <a href="/wiki/Political_philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Political philosopher">political philosophers</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Rousseau" class="mw-redirect" title="Rousseau">Rousseau</a>, sociology draws firmer attention to those institutions unique to industrialized capitalist society (or <i><a href="/wiki/Modernity" title="Modernity">modernity</a></i>). </p><p>Auguste Comte believed that society constitutes a separate "level" of reality, distinct from both biological and inorganic matter. Explanations of <a href="/wiki/Social_phenomenon" title="Social phenomenon">social phenomena</a> had therefore to be constructed within this level, individuals being merely transient occupants of comparatively stable social roles. In this view, Comte was followed by <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>. A central concern for Durkheim was the question of how certain societies maintain internal stability and survive over time. He proposed that such societies tend to be segmented, with equivalent parts held together by shared values, common symbols or (as his nephew <a href="/wiki/Marcel_Mauss" title="Marcel Mauss">Marcel Mauss</a> held), systems of exchanges. Durkheim used the term "<a href="/wiki/Mechanical_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical solidarity">mechanical solidarity</a>" to refer to these types of "social bonds, based on common sentiments and shared moral values, that are strong among members of pre-industrial societies".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In modern, complex societies, members perform very different tasks, resulting in a strong interdependence. Based on the metaphor above of an organism in which many parts function together to sustain the whole, Durkheim argued that complex societies are held together by "<a href="/wiki/Social_solidarity" class="mw-redirect" title="Social solidarity">organic solidarity</a>", i.e. "social bonds, based on specialization and interdependence, that are strong among members of industrial societies".<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The central concern of structural functionalism may be regarded as a continuation of the Durkheimian task of explaining the apparent stability and internal <a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">cohesion</a> needed by societies to endure over time. Societies are seen as coherent, bounded and fundamentally relational constructs that function like organisms, with their various (or social institutions) working together in an unconscious, quasi-automatic fashion toward achieving an overall <a href="/wiki/Social_equilibrium" title="Social equilibrium">social equilibrium</a>. All social and cultural phenomena are therefore seen as functional in the sense of working together, and are effectively deemed to have "lives" of their own. They are primarily analyzed in terms of this function. The individual is significant not in and of themselves, but rather in terms of their status, their position in patterns of social relations, and the behaviours associated with their status. Therefore, the social structure is the network of statuses connected by associated roles. </p><p>Functionalism also has an anthropological basis in the work of theorists such as Marcel Mauss, <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a> and <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Radcliffe-Brown">Radcliffe-Brown</a>. The prefix 'structural' emerged in Radcliffe-Brown's specific usage.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radcliffe-Brown proposed that most stateless, "primitive" societies, lacking strong centralized institutions, are based on an association of corporate-descent groups, i.e. the respective society's recognised <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kinship</a> groups.<sup id="cite_ref-integratedsociopsychology_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-integratedsociopsychology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Structural functionalism also took on Malinowski's argument that the basic building block of society is the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_family" title="Nuclear family">nuclear family</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-integratedsociopsychology_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-integratedsociopsychology-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that the <a href="/wiki/Clan" title="Clan">clan</a> is an outgrowth, not <i>vice versa</i>. It is simplistic to equate the perspective directly with political <a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">conservatism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The tendency to emphasize "cohesive systems", however, leads functionalist theories to be contrasted with "<a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theories</a>" which instead emphasize social problems and inequalities. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prominent_theorists">Prominent theorists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prominent theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Auguste_Comte">Auguste Comte</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Auguste Comte"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Law_of_three_stages" title="Law of three stages">Law of three stages</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a>, the "Father of <a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a>", pointed out the need to keep society unified as many traditions were diminishing. He was the first person to coin the term sociology. Comte suggests that sociology is the product of a three-stage development:<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><b>Theological stage</b>: From the beginning of human history until the end of the European <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, people took a religious view that society expressed God's will.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Theological" class="mw-redirect" title="Theological">theological</a> state, the human mind, seeking the essential nature of beings, the first and final causes (the origin and purpose) of all effects—in short, absolute knowledge—supposes all phenomena to be produced by the immediate action of supernatural beings.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Metaphysical stage</b>: People began seeing society as a natural system as opposed to the supernatural. This began with <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">enlightenment</a> and the ideas of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Hobbes</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a>, and Rousseau. Perceptions of society reflected the failings of a selfish human nature rather than the perfection of God.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Positive or scientific stage</b>: Describing society through the application of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific approach</a>, which draws on the work of scientists.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herbert_Spencer">Herbert Spencer</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Herbert Spencer"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Herbert_Spencer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/200px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="308" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/300px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Herbert_Spencer.jpg/400px-Herbert_Spencer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1541" /></a><figcaption>Herbert Spencer</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a> (1820–1903) was a British <a href="/wiki/Philosopher" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosopher">philosopher</a> famous for applying the theory of <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a> to society. He was in many ways the first true sociological functionalist.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, while Durkheim is widely considered the most important functionalist among positivist theorists, it is known that much of his analysis was culled from reading Spencer's work, especially his <i>Principles of Sociology</i> (1874–96).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In describing society, Spencer alludes to the analogy of a human body. Just as the structural parts of the human body—the skeleton, muscles, and various internal organs—function independently to help the entire organism survive, social structures work together to preserve society.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While reading Spencer's massive volumes can be tedious (long passages explicating the organic analogy, with reference to <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>, simple organisms, animals, humans and society), there are some important insights that have quietly influenced many contemporary theorists, including <a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a>, in his early work <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Social_Action" title="The Structure of Social Action">The Structure of Social Action</a></i> (1937). <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">Cultural anthropology</a> also consistently uses functionalism. </p><p>This <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_evolution" title="Sociocultural evolution">evolutionary model</a>, unlike most 19th century evolutionary theories, is cyclical, beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Differentiation_(sociology)" title="Differentiation (sociology)">differentiation</a> and increasing complication of an organic or "super-organic" (Spencer's term for a <a href="/wiki/Social_system" title="Social system">social system</a>) body, followed by a fluctuating state of equilibrium and disequilibrium (or a state of adjustment and <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a>), and, finally, the stage of disintegration or dissolution. Following <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a>' population principles, Spencer concluded that society is constantly facing <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressures</a> (internal and external) that force it to adapt its internal structure through differentiation. </p><p>Every solution, however, causes a new set of selection pressures that threaten society's viability. Spencer was not a determinist in the sense that he never said that </p> <ol><li>Selection pressures will be felt in time to change them;</li> <li>They will be felt and reacted to; or</li> <li>The solutions will always work.</li></ol> <p>In fact, he was in many ways a <a href="/wiki/Political_sociologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Political sociologist">political sociologist</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:6_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and recognized that the degree of centralized and consolidated authority in a given polity could make or break its ability to adapt. In other words, he saw a general trend towards the centralization of power as leading to stagnation and ultimately, pressures to decentralize. </p><p>More specifically, Spencer recognized three functional needs or prerequisites that produce selection pressures: they are regulatory, operative (production) and distributive. He argued that all societies need to solve problems of control and coordination, production of goods, <a href="/wiki/Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> and <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a>, and, finally, to find ways of distributing these resources. </p><p>Initially, in tribal societies, these three needs are inseparable, and the kinship system is the dominant structure that satisfies them. As many scholars have noted, all institutions are subsumed under kinship organization,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but, with increasing population (both in terms of sheer numbers and density), problems emerge with regard to feeding individuals, creating new forms of organization—consider the emergent division of labour—coordinating and controlling various differentiated social units, and developing systems of resource distribution. </p><p>The solution, as Spencer sees it, is to differentiate structures to fulfill more specialized functions; thus, a chief or "big man" emerges, soon followed by a group of lieutenants, and later kings and administrators. The structural parts of society (e.g. families, work) function interdependently to help society function. Therefore, social structures work together to preserve society.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Talcott_Parsons">Talcott Parsons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Talcott Parsons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Talcott Parsons began writing in the 1930s and contributed to sociology, political science, anthropology, and psychology. Structural functionalism and Parsons have received much criticism. Numerous critics have pointed out Parsons' underemphasis of political and monetary struggle, the basics of social change, and the by and large "manipulative" conduct unregulated by qualities and standards. Structural functionalism, and a large portion of Parsons' works, appear to be insufficient in their definitions concerning the connections amongst institutionalized and non-institutionalized conduct, and the procedures by which <a href="/wiki/Institutionalisation" title="Institutionalisation">institutionalization</a> happens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Parsons was heavily influenced by Durkheim and <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, synthesizing much of their work into his <a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)" title="Action theory (sociology)">action theory</a>, which he based on the system-theoretical concept and the methodological principle of <a href="/wiki/Voluntary_action" title="Voluntary action">voluntary action</a>. He held that "the social system is made up of the actions of individuals".<sup id="cite_ref-:7_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His starting point, accordingly, is the interaction between two individuals faced with a variety of choices about how they might act,<sup id="cite_ref-:7_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> choices that are influenced and constrained by a number of physical and social factors.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parsons determined that each individual has expectations of the other's action and reaction to their own behavior, and that these expectations would (if successful) be "derived" from the accepted norms and values of the society they inhabit.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Parsons himself emphasized, in a general context there would never exist any perfect "fit" between behaviors and norms, so such a relation is never complete or "perfect". </p><p>Social norms were always problematic for Parsons, who never claimed (as has often been alleged)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> that social norms were generally accepted and agreed upon, should this prevent some kind of universal law. Whether social norms were accepted or not was for Parsons simply a historical question. </p><p>As behaviors are repeated in more interactions, and these expectations are entrenched or institutionalized, a <a href="/wiki/Role" title="Role">role</a> is created. Parsons defines a "role" as the normatively-regulated participation "of a person in a concrete process of social interaction with specific, concrete role-partners".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although any individual, theoretically, can fulfill any role, the individual is expected to conform to the norms governing the nature of the role they fulfill.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Furthermore, one person can and does fulfill many different roles at the same time. In one sense, an individual can be seen to be a "composition"<sup id="cite_ref-:7_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the roles he inhabits. Certainly, today, when asked to describe themselves, most people would answer with reference to their societal roles. </p><p>Parsons later developed the idea of roles into collectivities of roles that complement each other in fulfilling functions for society.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some roles are bound up in <a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">institutions</a> and social structures (economic, educational, legal and even gender-based). These are functional in the sense that they assist society in operating<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and fulfilling its functional needs so that society runs smoothly. </p><p>Contrary to prevailing myth, Parsons never spoke about a society where there was no conflict or some kind of "perfect" equilibrium.<sup id="cite_ref-:36_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:36-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A society's cultural value-system was in the typical case never completely integrated, never static and most of the time, like in the case of the American society, in a complex state of transformation relative to its historical point of departure. To reach a "perfect" equilibrium was not any serious theoretical question in Parsons analysis of social systems, indeed, the most dynamic societies had generally cultural systems with important inner tensions like the US and India. These tensions were a source of their strength according to Parsons rather than the opposite. Parsons never thought about system-institutionalization and the level of strains (tensions, conflict) in the system as opposite forces per se.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The key processes for Parsons for system reproduction are <a href="/wiki/Socialization" title="Socialization">socialization</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>. Socialization is important because it is the mechanism for transferring the accepted norms and values of society to the individuals within the system. Parsons never spoke about "perfect socialization"—in any society socialization was only partial and "incomplete" from an integral point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Parsons states that "this point ... is independent of the sense in which [the] individual is concretely autonomous or creative rather than 'passive' or 'conforming', for individuality and creativity, are to a considerable extent, phenomena of the institutionalization of expectations";<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they are culturally constructed. </p><p>Socialization is supported by the positive and negative sanctioning of role behaviours that do or do not meet these expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A punishment could be informal, like a snigger or gossip, or more formalized, through institutions such as prisons and mental homes. If these two processes were perfect, society would become static and unchanging, but in reality, this is unlikely to occur for long. </p><p>Parsons recognizes this, stating that he treats "the structure of the system as problematic and subject to change",<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that his concept of the tendency towards equilibrium "does not imply the empirical dominance of stability over change".<sup id="cite_ref-:2_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He does, however, believe that these changes occur in a relatively smooth way. </p><p>Individuals in interaction with changing situations adapt through a process of "role bargaining".<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once the roles are established, they create norms that guide further action and are thus institutionalized, creating stability across social interactions. Where the adaptation process cannot adjust, due to sharp shocks or immediate radical change, structural dissolution occurs and either new structures (or therefore a new system) are formed, or society dies. This model of social change has been described as a "<a href="/wiki/Moving_equilibrium_theorem" title="Moving equilibrium theorem">moving equilibrium</a>",<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and emphasizes a desire for social order. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Davis_and_Moore">Davis and Moore</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Davis and Moore"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kingsley_Davis" title="Kingsley Davis">Kingsley Davis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilbert_E._Moore" title="Wilbert E. Moore">Wilbert E. Moore</a> (1945) gave an argument for <a href="/wiki/Social_stratification" title="Social stratification">social stratification</a> based on the idea of "functional necessity" (also known as <a href="/wiki/The_Davis-Moore_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="The Davis-Moore hypothesis">the Davis-Moore hypothesis</a>). They argue that the most difficult jobs in any society have the highest incomes in order to motivate individuals to fill the roles needed by the <a href="/wiki/Division_of_labour" title="Division of labour">division of labour</a>. Thus, inequality serves social stability.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This argument has been criticized as fallacious from a number of different angles:<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the argument is both that the individuals who are the most deserving are the highest rewarded, and that <i>a system of unequal rewards</i> is necessary, otherwise no individuals would perform as needed for the society to function. The problem is that these rewards are supposed to be based upon objective merit, rather than subjective "motivations." The argument also does not clearly establish why some positions are worth more than others, even when they benefit more people in society, e.g., teachers compared to athletes and movie stars. Critics have suggested that <a href="/wiki/Structural_inequality" title="Structural inequality">structural inequality</a> (inherited wealth, family power, etc.) is itself a cause of individual success or failure, not a consequence of it.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Robert_Merton">Robert Merton</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Robert Merton"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> made important refinements to functionalist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He fundamentally agreed with Parsons' theory but acknowledged that Parsons' theory could be questioned, believing that it was over generalized.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Merton tended to emphasize <a href="/wiki/Middle_range_theory_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle range theory (sociology)">middle range theory</a> rather than a <a href="/wiki/Grand_theory" title="Grand theory">grand theory</a>, meaning that he was able to deal specifically with some of the limitations in Parsons' thinking. Merton believed that any social structure probably has many functions, some more obvious than others.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He identified three main limitations: functional unity, universal functionalism and indispensability.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also developed the concept of deviance and made the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Manifest_and_latent_functions_and_dysfunctions" title="Manifest and latent functions and dysfunctions">manifest and latent functions</a>. Manifest functions referred to the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern. Latent functions referred to unrecognized and <a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequences" title="Unintended consequences">unintended consequences</a> of any social pattern.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merton criticized functional unity, saying that not all parts of a modern complex society work for the functional unity of society. Consequently, there is a social dysfunction referred to as any social pattern that may disrupt the operation of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some institutions and structures may have other functions, and some may even be generally dysfunctional, or be functional for some while being dysfunctional for others.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because not all structures are functional for society as a whole. Some practices are only functional for a dominant individual or a group.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are two types of functions that Merton discusses the "manifest functions" in that a social pattern can trigger a recognized and intended consequence. The manifest function of education includes preparing for a career by getting good grades, graduation and finding good job. The second type of function is "latent functions", where a social pattern results in an unrecognized or unintended consequence. The latent functions of education include meeting new people, extra-curricular activities, school trips.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another type of social function is "social dysfunction" which is any undesirable consequences that disrupts the operation of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_1-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The social dysfunction of education includes not getting good grades, a job. Merton states that by recognizing and examining the dysfunctional aspects of society we can explain the development and persistence of alternatives. Thus, as Holmwood states, "Merton explicitly made power and conflict central issues for research within a functionalist paradigm."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Merton also noted that there may be functional alternatives to the institutions and structures currently fulfilling the functions of society. This means that the institutions that currently exist are not indispensable to society. Merton states "just as the same item may have multiple functions, so may the same function be diversely fulfilled by alternative items."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This notion of functional alternatives is important because it reduces the tendency of functionalism to imply approval of the status quo. </p><p>Merton's theory of deviance is derived from Durkheim's idea of <a href="/wiki/Anomie" title="Anomie">anomie</a>. It is central in explaining how internal changes can occur in a system. For Merton, anomie means a discontinuity between cultural goals and the accepted methods available for reaching them. </p><p>Merton believes that there are 5 situations facing an actor. </p> <ul><li><b>Conformity</b> occurs when an individual has the means and desire to achieve the cultural goals socialized into them.</li> <li><b>Innovation</b> occurs when an individual strives to attain the accepted cultural goals but chooses to do so in novel or unaccepted method.</li> <li><b>Ritualism</b> occurs when an individual continues to do things as prescribed by society but forfeits the achievement of the goals.</li> <li><b>Retreatism</b> is the rejection of both the means and the goals of society.</li> <li><b>Rebellion</b> is a combination of the rejection of societal goals and means and a substitution of other goals and means.</li></ul> <p>Thus it can be seen that change can occur internally in society through either innovation or rebellion. It is true that society will attempt to control these individuals and negate the changes, but as the innovation or rebellion builds momentum, society will eventually adapt or face dissolution. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almond_and_Powell">Almond and Powell</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Almond and Powell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1970s, <a href="/wiki/Political_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Political scientists">political scientists</a> <a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Almond" title="Gabriel Almond">Gabriel Almond</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bingham_Powell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bingham Powell (page does not exist)">Bingham Powell</a> introduced a structural-functionalist approach to comparing <a href="/wiki/Political_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Political systems">political systems</a>. They argued that, in order to understand a political system, it is necessary to understand not only its institutions (or structures) but also their respective functions. They also insisted that these institutions, to be properly understood, must be placed in a meaningful and dynamic historical context. </p><p>This idea stood in marked contrast to prevalent approaches in the field of comparative politics—the state-society theory and the <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory" title="Dependency theory">dependency theory</a>. These were the descendants of <a href="/wiki/David_Easton" title="David Easton">David Easton</a>'s system theory in <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>, a mechanistic view that saw all political systems as essentially the same, subject to the same laws of "stimulus and response"—or inputs and outputs—while paying little attention to unique characteristics. The structural-functional approach is based on the view that a political system is made up of several key components, including <a href="/wiki/Interest_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Interest group">interest groups</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_parties" class="mw-redirect" title="Political parties">political parties</a> and branches of government. </p><p>In addition to structures, Almond and Powell showed that a political system consists of various functions, chief among them political socialization, <a href="/wiki/Recruitment" title="Recruitment">recruitment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>: socialization refers to the way in which societies pass along their values and beliefs to succeeding <a href="/wiki/Generation" title="Generation">generations</a>, and in political terms describe the process by which a society inculcates civic virtues, or the habits of effective citizenship; recruitment denotes the process by which a political system generates interest, engagement and participation from citizens; and communication refers to the way that a system promulgates its values and information. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unilineal_descent">Unilineal descent</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Unilineal descent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In their attempt to explain the social stability of African "primitive" <a href="/wiki/Stateless_society" title="Stateless society">stateless societies</a> where they undertook their fieldwork, <a href="/wiki/Evans-Pritchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Evans-Pritchard">Evans-Pritchard</a> (1940) and <a href="/wiki/Meyer_Fortes" title="Meyer Fortes">Meyer Fortes</a> (1945) argued that the <a href="/wiki/Tallensi" title="Tallensi">Tallensi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nuer_people" title="Nuer people">Nuer</a> were primarily organized around <a href="/wiki/Unilineal_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Unilineal descent">unilineal descent</a> groups. Such groups are characterized by common purposes, such as administering property or defending against attacks; they form a permanent social structure that persists well beyond the lifespan of their members. In the case of the Tallensi and the Nuer, these corporate groups were based on kinship which in turn fitted into the larger structures of unilineal descent; consequently Evans-Pritchard's and Fortes' model is called "descent theory". Moreover, in this African context territorial divisions were aligned with lineages; descent theory therefore synthesized both blood and soil as the same.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Affinal_kin" class="mw-redirect" title="Affinal kin">Affinal ties</a> with the parent through whom descent is not reckoned, however, are considered to be merely complementary or secondary (Fortes created the concept of "complementary filiation"), with the reckoning of kinship through descent being considered the primary organizing force of social systems. Because of its strong emphasis on unilineal descent, this new kinship theory came to be called "descent theory". </p><p>With no delay, descent theory had found its critics. Many African tribal societies seemed to fit this neat model rather well, although <a href="/wiki/Africanists" class="mw-redirect" title="Africanists">Africanists</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Paul_Richards_(anthropology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Richards (anthropology)">Paul Richards</a>, also argued that Fortes and Evans-Pritchard had deliberately downplayed internal contradictions and overemphasized the stability of the local lineage systems and their significance for the organization of society.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in many Asian settings the problems were even more obvious. In <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, the local <a href="/wiki/Patrilineal_descent" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrilineal descent">patrilineal descent</a> groups were fragmented and contained large amounts of non-agnates. Status distinctions did not depend on descent, and genealogies were too short to account for social solidarity through identification with a common ancestor. In particular, the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Cognatic_kinship" title="Cognatic kinship">cognatic</a> (or bilateral) kinship posed a serious problem to the proposition that descent groups are the primary element behind the social structures of "primitive" societies. </p><p>Leach's (1966) critique came in the form of the classical <a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Malinowskian</a> argument, pointing out that "in Evans-Pritchard's studies of the Nuer and also in Fortes's studies of the Tallensi unilineal descent turns out to be largely an ideal concept to which the empirical facts are only adapted by means of fictions".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> People's self-interest, manoeuvring, manipulation and competition had been ignored. Moreover, descent theory neglected the significance of marriage and affinal ties, which were emphasized by Lévi-Strauss's <a href="/wiki/Structural_anthropology" title="Structural anthropology">structural anthropology</a>, at the expense of overemphasizing the role of descent. To quote Leach: "The evident importance attached to <a href="/wiki/Matrilateral" title="Matrilateral">matrilateral</a> and affinal kinship connections is not so much explained as explained away."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biological">Biological</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Biological"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Structural_functionalism" title="Special:EditPage/Structural functionalism">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Structural+functionalism%22">"Structural functionalism"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Structural+functionalism%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Structural+functionalism%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Structural+functionalism%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Structural+functionalism%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Structural+functionalism%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2009</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Biological functionalism</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Anthropological" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological">anthropological</a> paradigm, asserting that all <a href="/wiki/Social_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Social organisation">social institutions</a>, beliefs, values and practices serve to address pragmatic concerns.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In many ways, the theorem derives from the longer-established <a class="mw-selflink selflink">structural functionalism</a>, yet the two theorems diverge from one another significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While both maintain the fundamental belief that a <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social structure</a> is composed of many interdependent <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frames of reference</a>, biological functionalists criticise the structural view that a <a href="/wiki/Solidarity_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidarity (sociology)">social solidarity</a> and collective conscience is required in a functioning system.<sup id="cite_ref-Alexander_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alexander-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By that fact, biological functionalism maintains that our individual survival and health is the driving provocation of actions, and that the importance of social rigidity is negligible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Everyday_application">Everyday application</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Everyday application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Although the actions of humans without doubt do not always engender positive results for the individual, a biological functionalist would argue that the intention was still <a href="/wiki/Self-preservation" title="Self-preservation">self-preservation</a>, albeit unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this is the belief in luck as an entity; while a disproportionately strong belief in good luck may lead to undesirable results, such as a huge loss in money from gambling, biological functionalism maintains that the newly created ability of the gambler to condemn luck will allow them to be free of individual blame, thus serving a practical and individual purpose. In this sense, biological functionalism maintains that while bad results often occur in life, which do not serve any pragmatic concerns, an entrenched <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive psychological</a> motivation was attempting to create a positive result, in spite of its eventual failure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decline">Decline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Structural functionalism reached the peak of its influence in the 1940s and 1950s, and by the 1960s was in rapid decline.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 1980s, its place was taken in Europe by more <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">conflict</a>-oriented approaches,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and more recently by <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While some of the critical approaches also gained popularity in the United States, the mainstream of the discipline has instead shifted to a myriad of empirically oriented <a href="/wiki/Middle_range_theory_(sociology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle range theory (sociology)">middle-range theories</a> with no overarching theoretical orientation. To most sociologists, functionalism is now "as dead as a <a href="/wiki/Dodo" title="Dodo">dodo</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As the influence of functionalism in the 1960s began to wane, the <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">linguistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_turn" title="Cultural turn">cultural turns</a> led to a myriad of new movements in the social sciences: "According to Giddens, the orthodox consensus terminated in the late 1960s and 1970s as the middle ground shared by otherwise competing perspectives gave way and was replaced by a baffling variety of competing perspectives. This third generation of <a href="/wiki/Social_theory" title="Social theory">social theory</a> includes phenomenologically inspired approaches, <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnomethodology" title="Ethnomethodology">ethnomethodology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">symbolic interactionism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structuralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">post-structuralism</a>, and theories written in the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">hermeneutics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While absent from empirical sociology, functionalist themes remained detectable in sociological theory, most notably in the works of <a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Luhmann</a> and Giddens. There are, however, signs of an incipient revival, as functionalist claims have recently been bolstered by developments in <a href="/wiki/Multilevel_selection" class="mw-redirect" title="Multilevel selection">multilevel selection theory</a> and in empirical research on how groups solve <a href="/wiki/Social_dilemma" class="mw-redirect" title="Social dilemma">social dilemmas</a>. Recent developments in <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary theory">evolutionary theory</a>—especially by biologist <a href="/wiki/David_Sloan_Wilson" title="David Sloan Wilson">David Sloan Wilson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropologists">anthropologists</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyd_(anthropologist)" title="Robert Boyd (anthropologist)">Robert Boyd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Richerson" title="Peter Richerson">Peter Richerson</a>—have provided strong support for structural functionalism in the form of multilevel selection theory. In this theory, culture and social structure are seen as a <a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinian</a> (biological or cultural) <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptation</a> at the group level. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theories" title="Conflict theories">Conflict theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></div> <p>In the 1960s, functionalism was criticized for being unable to account for social change, or for structural contradictions and conflict (and thus was often called "<a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">consensus theory</a>").<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, it ignores inequalities including race, gender, class, which cause tension and conflict. The refutation of the second criticism of functionalism, that it is static and has no concept of change, has already been articulated above, concluding that while Parsons' theory allows for change, it is an orderly process of change [Parsons, 1961:38], a moving equilibrium. Therefore, referring to Parsons' theory of society as static is inaccurate. It is true that it does place emphasis on equilibrium and the maintenance or quick return to social order, but this is a product of the time in which Parsons was writing (post-World War II, and the start of the cold war). Society was in upheaval and fear abounded. At the time social order was crucial, and this is reflected in Parsons' tendency to promote equilibrium and social order rather than social change. </p><p>Furthermore, Durkheim favoured a radical form of <a href="/wiki/Guild_socialism" title="Guild socialism">guild socialism</a> along with functionalist explanations. Also, <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>, while acknowledging social contradictions, still uses functionalist explanations. Parsons' evolutionary theory describes the differentiation and reintegration systems and subsystems and thus at least temporary conflict before reintegration (<i><a href="/wiki/Ibid." title="Ibid.">ibid</a></i>). "The fact that functional analysis can be seen by some as inherently conservative and by others as inherently radical suggests that it may be <i>inherently</i> neither one nor the other."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stronger criticisms include the <a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">epistemological</a> argument that functionalism is <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautologous</a>, that is, it attempts to account for the development of social institutions solely through recourse to the effects that are attributed to them, and thereby explains the two circularly. However, Parsons drew directly on many of Durkheim's concepts in creating his theory. Certainly Durkheim was one of the first theorists to explain a phenomenon with reference to the function it served for society. He said, "the determination of function is…necessary for the complete explanation of the phenomena."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However Durkheim made a clear distinction between historical and functional analysis, saying, "When ... the explanation of a social phenomenon is undertaken, we must seek separately the efficient cause which produces it and the function it fulfills."<sup id="cite_ref-:3_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If Durkheim made this distinction, then it is unlikely that Parsons did not. </p><p>However Merton does explicitly state that functional analysis does not seek to explain why the action happened in the first instance, but why it continues or is reproduced. By this particular logic, it can be argued that functionalists do not necessarily explain the original cause of a phenomenon with reference to its effect. Yet the logic stated in reverse, that social phenomena are (re)produced because they serve ends, is unoriginal to functionalist thought. Thus functionalism is either undefinable or it can be defined by the teleological arguments which functionalist theorists normatively produced before Merton. </p><p>Another criticism describes the <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> argument that society cannot have "needs" as a human being does, and even if society does have needs they need not be met. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Giddens" title="Anthony Giddens">Anthony Giddens</a> argues that functionalist explanations may all be rewritten as historical accounts of individual human actions and consequences (see <a href="/wiki/Structuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Structuration">Structuration</a>). </p><p>A further criticism directed at functionalism is that it contains no sense of <a href="/wiki/Agency_(philosophy)" title="Agency (philosophy)">agency</a>, that individuals are seen as puppets, acting as their role requires. Yet Holmwood states that the most sophisticated forms of functionalism are based on "a highly developed concept of action,"<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and as was explained above, Parsons took as his starting point the individual and their actions. His theory did not however articulate how these actors exercise their agency in opposition to the socialization and inculcation of accepted norms. As has been shown above, Merton addressed this limitation through his concept of deviance, and so it can be seen that functionalism allows for agency. It cannot, however, explain why individuals choose to accept or reject the accepted norms, why and in what circumstances they choose to exercise their agency, and this does remain a considerable limitation of the theory. </p><p>Further criticisms have been levelled at functionalism by proponents of other social theories, particularly <a href="/wiki/Conflict_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict theory">conflict theorists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marxists" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxists">Marxists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feminists" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminists">feminists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Postmodernists" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernists">postmodernists</a>. Conflict theorists criticized functionalism's concept of systems as giving far too much weight to integration and consensus, and neglecting independence and conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lockwood, in line with conflict theory, suggested that Parsons' theory missed the concept of system contradiction. He did not account for those parts of the system that might have tendencies to mal-integration.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lockwood, it was these tendencies that come to the surface as opposition and conflict among actors. However Parsons thought that the issues of conflict and cooperation were very much intertwined and sought to account for both in his model.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this however he was limited by his analysis of an ‘ideal type' of society which was characterized by consensus. Merton, through his critique of functional unity, introduced into functionalism an explicit analysis of tension and conflict. Yet Merton's functionalist explanations of social phenomena continued to rest on the idea that society is primarily co-operative rather than conflicted, which differentiates Merton from conflict theorists. </p><p>Marxism, which was revived soon after the emergence of conflict theory, criticized professional sociology (functionalism and conflict theory alike) for being partisan to advanced welfare capitalism.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gouldner thought that Parsons' theory specifically was an expression of the dominant interests of welfare capitalism, that it justified institutions with reference to the function they fulfill for society.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be that Parsons' work implied or articulated that certain institutions were necessary to fulfill the functional prerequisites of society, but whether or not this is the case, Merton explicitly states that institutions are not indispensable and that there are functional alternatives. That he does not identify any alternatives to the current institutions does reflect a conservative bias, which as has been stated before is a product of the specific time that he was writing in. </p><p>As functionalism's prominence was ending, feminism was on the rise, and it attempted a radical criticism of functionalism. It believed that functionalism neglected the suppression of women within the family structure. Holmwood<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shows, however, that Parsons did in fact describe the situations where tensions and conflict existed or were about to take place, even if he did not articulate those conflicts. Some feminists agree, suggesting that Parsons provided accurate descriptions of these situations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, Parsons recognized that he had oversimplified his functional analysis of women in relation to work and the family, and focused on the positive functions of the family for society and not on its dysfunctions for women. Merton, too, although addressing situations where function and dysfunction occurred simultaneously, lacked a "feminist sensibility".<sup id="cite_ref-:0_23-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Postmodernism, as a theory, is critical of claims of <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">objectivity</a>. Therefore, the idea of <a href="/wiki/Grand_theory" title="Grand theory">grand theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_narrative" class="mw-redirect" title="Grand narrative">grand narrative</a> that can explain society in all its forms is treated with skepticism. This critique focuses on exposing the danger that grand theory can pose when not seen as a limited perspective, as one way of understanding society.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Alexander" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeffrey Alexander">Jeffrey Alexander</a> (1985) sees functionalism as a broad school rather than a specific method or system, such as Parsons, who is capable of taking equilibrium (stability) as a reference-point rather than assumption and treats structural differentiation as a major form of social change. The name 'functionalism' implies a difference of method or interpretation that does not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This removes the determinism criticized above. Cohen argues that rather than needs a society has dispositional facts: features of the social environment that support the existence of particular social institutions but do not cause them. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influential_theorists">Influential theorists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Influential theorists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingsley_Davis" title="Kingsley Davis">Kingsley Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Denton" title="Michael Denton">Michael Denton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Keen" title="David Keen">David Keen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronis%C5%82aw_Malinowski" title="Bronisław Malinowski">Bronisław Malinowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilbert_E._Moore" title="Wilbert E. Moore">Wilbert E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Murdock" title="George Murdock">George Murdock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Reginald_Radcliffe-Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown">Alfred Reginald Radcliffe-Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Spencer" title="Herbert Spencer">Herbert Spencer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fei_Xiaotong" title="Fei Xiaotong">Fei Xiaotong</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causation_(sociology)" title="Causation (sociology)">Causation (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_structuralism" title="Functional structuralism">Functional structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neofunctionalism_(sociology)" title="Neofunctionalism (sociology)">Neofunctionalism (sociology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_institutional_economics" title="New institutional economics">New institutional economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_sociology" title="Pure sociology">Pure sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacancy_chain" title="Vacancy chain">Vacancy chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dennis_Wrong" title="Dennis Wrong">Dennis Wrong</a> (critic of structural functionalism)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:4-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_1-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMacionis1944–2011" class="citation book cs1">Macionis, John (1944–2011). <i>Sociology</i>. Gerber, Linda Marie (7th ed.). Toronto, Canada: Pearson Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780137001613" title="Special:BookSources/9780137001613"><bdi>9780137001613</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/652430995">652430995</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Canada&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=1944%2F2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F652430995&rft.isbn=9780137001613&rft.aulast=Macionis&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeRosso" class="citation web cs1">DeRosso, Deb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wisc-online.com/learn/social-science/sociology/i2s3404/the-structural-functional-theoretical-approac">"The Structural-Functional Theoretical Approach"</a>. <i>Wisc-Online OER</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-09-20</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wisc-Online+OER&rft.atitle=The+Structural-Functional+Theoretical+Approach&rft.aulast=DeRosso&rft.aufirst=Deb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisc-online.com%2Flearn%2Fsocial-science%2Fsociology%2Fi2s3404%2Fthe-structural-functional-theoretical-approac&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrry2000" class="citation book cs1">Urry, John (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ogyDBobOHVEC&pg=PA23">"Metaphors"</a>. <i>Sociology beyond societies: mobilities for the twenty-first century</i>. Routledge. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19089-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-19089-3"><bdi>978-0-415-19089-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Metaphors&rft.btitle=Sociology+beyond+societies%3A+mobilities+for+the+twenty-first+century&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-415-19089-3&rft.aulast=Urry&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DogyDBobOHVEC%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_4-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFParsons,_Talcott1977" class="citation book cs1">Parsons, Talcott (1977). <i>Social systems and the evolution of action theory</i>. New York: Free Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0029248003" title="Special:BookSources/978-0029248003"><bdi>978-0029248003</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2968515">2968515</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+systems+and+the+evolution+of+action+theory&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2968515&rft.isbn=978-0029248003&rft.au=Parsons%2C+Talcott&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrançois.1981" class="citation book cs1">François., Bourricaud (1981). <i>The sociology of Talcott Parsons</i> (Pbk. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0226067568" title="Special:BookSources/978-0226067568"><bdi>978-0226067568</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35778236">35778236</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sociology+of+Talcott+Parsons&rft.place=Chicago&rft.edition=Pbk.&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35778236&rft.isbn=978-0226067568&rft.aulast=Fran%C3%A7ois.&rft.aufirst=Bourricaud&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony.1984" class="citation book cs1">Anthony., Giddens (1984). <i>The constitution of society: outline of the theory of structuration</i>. 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Boston: Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780205116713" title="Special:BookSources/9780205116713"><bdi>9780205116713</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/727658545">727658545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociology&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=14th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F727658545&rft.isbn=9780205116713&rft.aulast=J.&rft.aufirst=Macionis%2C+John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFH.1985" class="citation book cs1">H., Turner, Jonathan (1985). <i>Herbert Spencer : a renewed appreciation</i>. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0803922440" title="Special:BookSources/978-0803922440"><bdi>978-0803922440</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11444338">11444338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Herbert+Spencer+%3A+a+renewed+appreciation&rft.place=Beverly+Hills%2C+California&rft.pub=Sage+Publications&rft.date=1985&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11444338&rft.isbn=978-0803922440&rft.aulast=H.&rft.aufirst=Turner%2C+Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNolan2004" class="citation book cs1">Nolan, Patrick (2004). <i>Human societies: an introduction to macrosociology</i>. 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Boulder: Paradigm Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781594515781" title="Special:BookSources/9781594515781"><bdi>9781594515781</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/226355644">226355644</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+societies%3A+an+introduction+to+macrosociology&rft.place=Boulder&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Paradigm+Publishers&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F226355644&rft.isbn=9781594515781&rft.aulast=Nolan&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasters1994" class="citation journal cs1">Masters, Roger D. 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[Erscheinungsort nicht ermittelbar]: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674863491" title="Special:BookSources/9780674863491"><bdi>9780674863491</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/900849450">900849450</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Toward+a+General+Theory+of+Action&rft.place=%5BErscheinungsort+nicht+ermittelbar%5D&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F900849450&rft.isbn=9780674863491&rft.aulast=W.&rft.aufirst=Allport%2C+Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraib1992" class="citation book cs1">Craib, Ian (1992). <i>Modern social theory: from Parsons to Habermas</i> (2nd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0312086749" title="Special:BookSources/978-0312086749"><bdi>978-0312086749</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26054873">26054873</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+social+theory%3A+from+Parsons+to+Habermas&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26054873&rft.isbn=978-0312086749&rft.aulast=Craib&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:8_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:8_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCuffPayne1979" class="citation book cs1">Cuff, E. C.; Payne, G. C. F. (1979). <i>Perspectives in sociology</i>. London: G. Allen & Unwin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0043010914" title="Special:BookSources/978-0043010914"><bdi>978-0043010914</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/4882507">4882507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Perspectives+in+sociology&rft.place=London&rft.pub=G.+Allen+%26+Unwin&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F4882507&rft.isbn=978-0043010914&rft.aulast=Cuff&rft.aufirst=E.+C.&rft.au=Payne%2C+G.+C.+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGingrich1999" class="citation web cs1">Gingrich (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm">"Notes on Structural Functionalism and Parsons"</a>. <i>uregina.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 April</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=uregina.ca&rft.atitle=Notes+on+Structural+Functionalism+and+Parsons&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Gingrich&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Furegina.ca%2F~gingrich%2Fn2f99.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:36-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:36_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRitzerGoodman2004" class="citation book cs1">Ritzer, G.; Goodman, D. (2004). <i>Sociological Theory, 6th edition</i> (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07281718-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-07281718-6"><bdi>0-07281718-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52240022">52240022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sociological+Theory%2C+6th+edition&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52240022&rft.isbn=0-07281718-6&rft.aulast=Ritzer&rft.aufirst=G.&rft.au=Goodman%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisMoore1945" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Kingsley; Moore, Wilbert E. 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"Some Principles of Stratification". <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>10</b> (2): 242–249. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2085643">10.2307/2085643</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2085643">2085643</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Some+Principles+of+Stratification&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=242-249&rft.date=1945&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2085643&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2085643%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Kingsley&rft.au=Moore%2C+Wilbert+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Maio1976–2010" class="citation book cs1">De Maio, Fernando (1976–2010). <i>Health and social theory</i>. 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Harrington, Austin, 1970. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 87–110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199255702" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199255702"><bdi>978-0199255702</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56608295">56608295</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+social+theory%3A+an+introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=87-110&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56608295&rft.isbn=978-0199255702&rft.aulast=Holmwood&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge.1988" class="citation book cs1">George., Ritzer (1988). <i>Contemporary sociological theory</i> (2nd ed.). New York, N.Y. etc.: McGraw-Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0075538326" title="Special:BookSources/0075538326"><bdi>0075538326</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/908996993">908996993</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Contemporary+sociological+theory&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y.+etc.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F908996993&rft.isbn=0075538326&rft.aulast=George.&rft.aufirst=Ritzer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In sociology, another term for describing a <i>positive function</i>, in opposition to a <i>dysfunction</i>, is eufunction.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_26-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuper1988" class="citation book cs1">Kuper, Adam (1988). <i>The invention of primitive society : transformations of an illusion</i>. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415009027" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415009027"><bdi>978-0415009027</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/17841268">17841268</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+invention+of+primitive+society+%3A+transformations+of+an+illusion&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F17841268&rft.isbn=978-0415009027&rft.aulast=Kuper&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeach2011" class="citation book cs1">Leach, E. R. (Edmund Ronald) (2011). <i>Pul Eliya : a village in Ceylon</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521200219" title="Special:BookSources/9780521200219"><bdi>9780521200219</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/751128426">751128426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pul+Eliya+%3A+a+village+in+Ceylon&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F751128426&rft.isbn=9780521200219&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=E.+R.+%28Edmund+Ronald%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin,_D.F.2000" class="citation web cs1">Austin, D.F. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100624005750/http://www4.ncsu.edu/~n51ls801/340life.html">"The Meaning of "Life"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www4.ncsu.edu/~n51ls801/340life.html">the original</a> on 24 June 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+%22Life%22&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Austin%2C+D.F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww4.ncsu.edu%2F~n51ls801%2F340life.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alexander-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alexander_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.the-rathouse.com/EvenMoreAustrianProgram/EMACulturevsGMProg.html">"Comparing "The Strong Program in Cultural Theory"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Comparing+%22The+Strong+Program+in+Cultural+Theory&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.the-rathouse.com%2FEvenMoreAustrianProgram%2FEMACulturevsGMProg.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorning,_Peter_A." class="citation web cs1">Corning, Peter A. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080725082133/http://www.complexsystems.org/publications/pdf/basic_needs.pdf">"Biological Adaptation in Human Societies: A 'Basic Needs' Approach"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.complexsystems.org/publications/pdf/basic_needs.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 25 July 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 August</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Biological+Adaptation+in+Human+Societies%3A+A+%27Basic+Needs%27+Approach&rft.au=Corning%2C+Peter+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.complexsystems.org%2Fpublications%2Fpdf%2Fbasic_needs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Handbook of Sports Studies</i>. Jay J. Coakley, Eric Dunning. SAGE. 2000. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781446224687" title="Special:BookSources/9781446224687"><bdi>9781446224687</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Sports+Studies&rft.pub=SAGE&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9781446224687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlattery2003" class="citation book cs1">Slattery, Martin (2003). <i>Key ideas in sociology</i>. Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0748765652" title="Special:BookSources/978-0748765652"><bdi>978-0748765652</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52531237">52531237</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Key+ideas+in+sociology&rft.place=Cheltenham&rft.pub=Nelson+Thornes&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52531237&rft.isbn=978-0748765652&rft.aulast=Slattery&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1984" class="citation book cs1">Giddens, Anthony (1984). <i>The constitution of society : outline of the theory of structuration</i>. Berkeley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520052925" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520052925"><bdi>978-0520052925</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11029282">11029282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+constitution+of+society+%3A+outline+of+the+theory+of+structuration&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11029282&rft.isbn=978-0520052925&rft.aulast=Giddens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes1943" class="citation book cs1">Barnes, Barry (1943). <i>The elements of social theory</i>. Princeton, N.J. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134215904" title="Special:BookSources/9781134215904"><bdi>9781134215904</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/862745810">862745810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+elements+of+social+theory&rft.place=Princeton%2C+N.J.&rft.date=1943&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F862745810&rft.isbn=9781134215904&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Barry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiddens1993" class="citation book cs1">Giddens, Anthony (1993). <i>The Giddens reader</i>. Cassell, Philip. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0804722025" title="Special:BookSources/978-0804722025"><bdi>978-0804722025</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/28914206">28914206</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Giddens+reader&rft.place=Stanford%2C+Calif.&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F28914206&rft.isbn=978-0804722025&rft.aulast=Giddens&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubedi" class="citation book cs1">Subedi, Devi Prasad. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://subedi.orgfree.com/docs/Structural_Functionalism.pdf"><i>STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL PERSPECTIVE IN SOCIOLOGY</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. TU Nepal.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=STRUCTURAL+FUNCTIONAL+PERSPECTIVE+IN+SOCIOLOGY&rft.pub=TU+Nepal&rft.aulast=Subedi&rft.aufirst=Devi+Prasad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsubedi.orgfree.com%2Fdocs%2FStructural_Functionalism.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerton1968" class="citation book cs1">Merton, Robert King (1968). <i>Social theory and social structure</i> (1968 enlarged ed.). 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(1977). <i>Masters of sociological thought : ideas in historical and social context</i> (2nd ed.). Long Grove, Illinois. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1577663072" title="Special:BookSources/978-1577663072"><bdi>978-1577663072</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53480377">53480377</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+sociological+thought+%3A+ideas+in+historical+and+social+context&rft.place=Long+Grove%2C+Illinois&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53480377&rft.isbn=978-1577663072&rft.aulast=Coser&rft.aufirst=Lewis+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1959" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Kingsley (1959). "The Myth of Functional Analysis as a Special Method in Sociology and Anthropology". <i>American Sociological Review</i>. <b>24</b> (6): 757–772. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2088563">10.2307/2088563</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2088563">2088563</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Myth+of+Functional+Analysis+as+a+Special+Method+in+Sociology+and+Anthropology&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=757-772&rft.date=1959&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2088563&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2088563%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Kingsley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStructural+functionalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Structural_functionalism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about <br /> <b>structural functionalism</b> <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Structural+functionalism">Resources in your library</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Barnard, A. 2000. <i>History and Theory in Anthropology.</i> Cambridge: CUP.</li> <li>Barnard, A., and Good, A. 1984. <i>Research Practices in the Study of Kinship.</i> London: Academic Press.</li> <li>Barnes, J. 1971. <i>Three Styles in the Study of Kinship.</i> London: Butler & Tanner.</li> <li>Elster, J., (1990), “Merton's Functionalism and the Unintended Consequences of Action”, in Clark, J., Modgil, C. & Modgil, S., (eds) Robert Merton: Consensus and Controversy, Falmer Press, London, pp. 129–35</li> <li>Gingrich, P., (1999) “Functionalism and Parsons” in Sociology 250 Subject Notes, University of Regina, accessed, 24/5/06, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uregina.ca/~gingrich/n2f99.htm">uregina.ca</a></li> <li>Holy, L. 1996. <i>Anthropological Perspectives on Kinship.</i> London: Pluto Press.</li> <li>Homans, George Casper (1962). <i>Sentiments and Activities</i>. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe.</li> <li>Hoult, Thomas Ford (1969). <i>Dictionary of Modern Sociology</i>.</li> <li>Kuper, A. 1996. <i>Anthropology and Anthropologists.</i> London: Routledge.</li> <li>Layton, R. 1997. <i>An Introduction to Theory in Anthropology.</i> Cambridge: CUP.</li> <li>Leach, E. 1954. <i>Political Systems of Highland Burma.</i> London: Bell.</li> <li>Leach, E. 1966. <i>Rethinking Anthropology.</i> Northampton: Dickens.</li> <li>Lenski, Gerhard (1966). "Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification." New York: McGraw-Hill.</li> <li>Lenski, Gerhard (2005). "Evolutionary-Ecological Theory." Boulder, CO: Paradigm.</li> <li>Levi-Strauss, C. 1969. <i>The Elementary Structures of Kinship.</i> London: Eyre and Spottis-woode.</li> <li>Maryanski, Alexandra (1998). "Evolutionary Sociology." Advances in Human Ecology. 7:1–56.</li> <li>Maryanski, Alexandra and Jonathan Turner (1992). "The Social Cage: Human Nature and the Evolution of Society." Stanford: Stanford University Press.</li> <li>Marshall, Gordon (1994). <i>The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Sociology</i>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-285237-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-285237-X">0-19-285237-X</a></li> <li>Parsons, T., (1961) Theories of Society: foundations of modern sociological theory, Free Press, New York</li> <li>Perey, Arnold (2005) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perey-anthropology.net/Aesthetic-Realism-Malinowski.html">"Malinowski, His Diary, and Men Today</a> (with a note on the nature of Malinowskian functionalism)</li> <li>Ritzer, George and Douglas J. Goodman (2004). Sociological Theory, 6th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.</li> <li>Sanderson, Stephen K. (1999). "Social Transformations: A General Theory of Historical Development." Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.</li> <li>Turner, Jonathan (1995). "Macrodynamics: Toward a Theory on the Organization of Human Populations." New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.</li> <li>Turner, Jonathan and Jan Stets (2005). "The Sociology of Emotions." Cambridge. Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox 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href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Declinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivist_school_(criminology)" title="Positivist school (criminology)">Positivist school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociological_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociological positivism">Sociological positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Machian positivism (empirio-criticism)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankean_historical_positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Rankean historical positivism">Rankean historical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Positivism in Poland">Polish positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Machism" title="Russian Machism">Russian Machism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Principal concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle#Critique_of_metaphysics" title="Vienna Circle">Critique of metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Antitheses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historism" title="Historism">Historism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodological_dualism" title="Methodological dualism">Methodological dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related <a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">paradigm shifts</a><br />in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a> (1830s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncertainty_principle" title="Uncertainty principle">Uncertainty principle</a> (1927)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioralism" title="Behavioralism">Behavioralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-behavioralism" title="Post-behavioralism">Post-behavioralism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_idealism" title="Epistemological idealism">idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_nihilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological nihilism">nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_pluralism" title="Epistemological pluralism">pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_realism" title="Epistemological realism">realism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(literature)" title="Naturalism (literature)">Naturalism in literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nomothetic_and_idiographic" title="Nomothetic and idiographic">Nomothetic–idiographic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">Objectivity in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operationalization" title="Operationalization">Operationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_sentence" title="Ramsey sentence">Ramsey sentence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense-data theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Structural functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuration_theory" title="Structuration theory">Structuration theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Positivist-related_debate" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Positivist-related debate</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Method</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Methodenstreit" title="Methodenstreit">Methodenstreit</a></i></span> (1890s)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Werturteilsstreit" title="Werturteilsstreit">Werturteilsstreit</a></i></span> (1909–1959)</li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Positivism_dispute" title="Positivism dispute">Positivismusstreit</a></i></span> (1960s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)#Fourth_Great_Debate" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Fourth Great Debate in international relations</a> (1980s)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">Science wars</a> (1990s)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Contributions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Course_in_Positive_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="The Course in Positive Philosophy">The Course in Positive Philosophy</a></i> (1830)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_General_View_of_Positivism" title="A General View of Positivism">A General View of Positivism</a></i> (1848)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critical_History_of_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critical History of Philosophy">Critical History of Philosophy</a></i> (1869)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idealism_and_Positivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Idealism and Positivism">Idealism and Positivism</a></i> (1879–1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Analysis_of_Sensations" class="mw-redirect" title="The Analysis of Sensations">The Analysis of Sensations</a></i> (1886)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Modern_Physics" title="The Logic of Modern Physics">The Logic of Modern Physics</a></i> (1927)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Language,_Truth,_and_Logic" title="Language, Truth, and Logic">Language, Truth, and Logic</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Two_Cultures" title="The Two Cultures">The Two Cultures</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Universe_in_a_Nutshell" title="The Universe in a Nutshell">The Universe in a Nutshell</a></i> (2001)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Proponents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Avenarius" title="Richard Avenarius">Richard Avenarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Percy_Williams_Bridgman" title="Percy Williams Bridgman">Percy Williams Bridgman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugen_D%C3%BChring" title="Eugen Dühring">Eugen Dühring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Laas" title="Ernst Laas">Ernst Laas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mach" title="Ernst Mach">Ernst Mach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._P._Snow" title="C. P. Snow">C. P. Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Criticism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Materialism_and_Empirio-criticism" title="Materialism and Empirio-criticism">Materialism and Empirio-criticism</a></i> (1909)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/History_and_Class_Consciousness" title="History and Class Consciousness">History and Class Consciousness</a></i> (1923)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Logic_of_Scientific_Discovery" title="The Logic of Scientific Discovery">The Logic of Scientific Discovery</a></i> (1934)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Historicism" title="The Poverty of Historicism">The Poverty of Historicism</a></i> (1936)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/World_Hypotheses" title="World Hypotheses">World Hypotheses</a></i> (1942)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a></i> (1951)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Truth_and_Method" title="Truth and Method">Truth and Method</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_of_Scientific_Revolutions" title="The Structure of Scientific Revolutions">The Structure of Scientific Revolutions</a></i> (1962)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Conjectures_and_Refutations" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjectures and Refutations">Conjectures and Refutations</a></i> (1963)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/One-Dimensional_Man" title="One-Dimensional Man">One-Dimensional Man</a></i> (1964)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_and_Human_Interests" title="Knowledge and Human Interests">Knowledge and Human Interests</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Poverty_of_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="The Poverty of Theory">The Poverty of Theory</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Scientific_Image" class="mw-redirect" title="The Scientific Image">The Scientific Image</a></i> (1980)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Rhetoric_of_Economics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Rhetoric of Economics">The Rhetoric of Economics</a></i> (1986)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Critics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theodor_W._Adorno" title="Theodor W. Adorno">Theodor W. Adorno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaston_Bachelard" title="Gaston Bachelard">Gaston Bachelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mario_Bunge" title="Mario Bunge">Mario Bunge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Dilthey" title="Wilhelm Dilthey">Wilhelm Dilthey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Hans-Georg Gadamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gy%C3%B6rgy_Luk%C3%A1cs" title="György Lukács">György Lukács</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Marcuse" title="Herbert Marcuse">Herbert Marcuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deirdre_McCloskey" title="Deirdre McCloskey">Deirdre McCloskey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Pepper" title="Stephen Pepper">Stephen Pepper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._P._Thompson" title="E. P. Thompson">E. P. Thompson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:12.0em">Concepts in contention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Phronesis" title="Phronesis">Phronesis</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><span title="German-language text"><i lang="de"><a href="/wiki/Verstehen" title="Verstehen">Verstehen</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Category:Positivism" title="Category:Positivism">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><span class="portal-bar-header"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:</span><ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/18px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/27px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg/35px-DodgerBlue_flag_waving.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="249" data-file-height="268" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Conservatism" title="Portal:Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li></ul></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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