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id="toc-Deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Amazonian_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Amazonian_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Amazonian deforestation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Amazonian_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deforestation_in_the_Orinoco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deforestation_in_the_Orinoco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Deforestation in the Orinoco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deforestation_in_the_Orinoco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caribbean_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Caribbean deforestation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Pacific deforestation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Andean_deforestation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Andean_deforestation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Andean deforestation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Andean_deforestation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Biodiversity loss</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biodiversity_loss-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biodiversity loss subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Birds_loss_in_Los_Andes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birds_loss_in_Los_Andes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Birds loss in Los Andes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birds_loss_in_Los_Andes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wildlife_trafficking" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wildlife_trafficking"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Wildlife trafficking</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wildlife_trafficking-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sloths" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sloths"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Sloths</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sloths-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Air pollution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Air_pollution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Air pollution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Air_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bogotá" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bogotá"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Bogotá</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bogotá-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medellín" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medellín"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Medellín</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medellín-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cali" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cali"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Cali</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cali-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Water pollution</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Water_pollution-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Water pollution subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Water_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Toxic_and_pathogenic_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toxic_and_pathogenic_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Toxic and pathogenic pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toxic_and_pathogenic_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mining_sector" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mining_sector"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Mining sector</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mining_sector-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_pollution_due_to_mercury_contamination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_pollution_due_to_mercury_contamination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Water pollution due to mercury contamination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_pollution_due_to_mercury_contamination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_exposure_and_risk_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_exposure_and_risk_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Human exposure and risk assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_exposure_and_risk_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prevention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prevention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Prevention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prevention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Government response</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Government_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p> Environmentally, <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Megadiverse_countries" title="Megadiverse countries">mega-diverse country</a> from its natural land <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a> to its biological <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its biodiversity is a result of its geographical location and elevation.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the fourth largest South American country and only country in South America to have coasts on the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombia's terrain can be divided into six main natural zones: The Caribbean, the Pacific (including Choco's Biogeographic rainforest), The Orinoco region, The Amazonia region, the Andean region, and the Insular region.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 52.2% of the environment is predominately the Andes, Amazon, and Pacific Basins, followed by the Orinoco basin 13.9%, the Andes and the Caribbean.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Tropical Andes, Choco, and the Caribbean are considered biodiversity hotspots which puts these areas at high risk of concentration of colonizing activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombia host over 1800 bird species and at least one new species are detected every year.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decades of civil war and political unrest have impeded biological and environmental research in Colombia.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The political unrest in Colombia catalyzes the alteration of land patterns through the cultivation of coca and opium crops, the redirection of extractive activities, and land abandonment in some areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg/300px-Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg/450px-Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg/600px-Mineria_Ilegal_-_Colombia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Contaminated water after the gold extraction process.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waste01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Waste01.jpg/300px-Waste01.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Waste01.jpg/450px-Waste01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Waste01.jpg/600px-Waste01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Trash in the bay of <a href="/wiki/Cartagena,_Colombia" title="Cartagena, Colombia">Cartagena, Colombia</a> (2005).</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg/300px-Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg/450px-Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg/600px-Bquilla_-_17_ago_2007_185.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Pollution on the streets of <a href="/wiki/Barranquilla" title="Barranquilla">Barranquilla</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>There are many <b>environmental issues in Colombia</b>. Issues include <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a>, illicit drug crops grown in national natural reserves by mafias (not peasants), pollution on major bodies of water by corporations (backed up by unregulated / unsupervised policies and by the corruption of local and federal authorities) among others. </p><p>There is soil and water quality damage from contamination by the use of chemicals in the coca-refining process, spillage of crude oil into the local rivers as a result of <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Guerrilla">guerrilla</a> sabotage of pipelines, overuse of pesticides, and air pollution (especially in <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a>) from vehicle emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Natural hazards include highlands subject to <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>, occasional <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">earthquakes</a>, and periodic <a href="/wiki/Droughts" class="mw-redirect" title="Droughts">droughts</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Deforestation">Deforestation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Deforestation_in_Colombia" title="Deforestation in Colombia">Deforestation in Colombia</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> loses 2,000 km<sup>2</sup> of forest annually to <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, according to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-Monga_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monga-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some suggest that this figure is as high as 3,000 km<sup>2</sup> due to <a href="/wiki/Illegal_logging" title="Illegal logging">illegal logging</a> in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Monga_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monga-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation results mainly from logging for timber, small-scale agricultural ranching, mining, development of energy resources such as hydro-electricity, infrastructure, <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a> production, and farming.<sup id="cite_ref-Monga_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monga-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around one-third of the country's original forest has been removed as a result of deforestation. </p><p>Deforestation in Colombia is mainly targeted at primary rainforest which covers more than 80% of Colombia. This has a profound ecological impact in that Colombia is extremely rich in <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, with 10% of the world's species, making it the second most biologically diverse country on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Monga_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Monga-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A national and regional deforestation study in Colombia found a total loss of 5,116,071 ha of forest between 1990 and 2005 which indicates an annual deforestation rate of 341,071 ha.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This concludes the national rate of deforestation equals to 0.62%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Higher deforestation rates are found in flatter areas around rural locations where protected areas are more present.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though majority of ecosystems in the Amazon, the Choco, and the Orinoco remain intact, 71% of original forest in the Andes has been wiped out.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forest conversion has the highest probability in the Andean and Caribbean territory, although tropical forest in the Pacific and Amazon lowlands continue to be exterminated.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ecosystems most vulnerable to deforestation ranked: the plains in northern Amazonia, the humid high, sub, and mid-altitude Andean forests, the tropical high and low land forests in the Caribbean and the Magdalena tropical forest plains.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation is happening more frequently in flatter zones, where cattle density and rural population are low.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Illicit crop cultivation has been recorded a main driver of deforestation in Colombia.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo-Peñuela_et_al_2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The globalized economy has extended new engenders of deforestation, such as biofuel production, mining, and hydrocarbon extraction.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the national level, rate of rural population, protected areas, cattle practicing, and slope, are deforestation drivers.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forest eradication is a crucial environmental issue given the biodiversity and ecosystems these forests provide and all the life that can be potentially lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concurrent forested areas predominately exist on less fertile soil and are distant from roads.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Amazonian_deforestation">Amazonian deforestation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Amazonian deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Colombia, majority of forests are contained within the Amazonia.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The population of this region is sparsely populated engendering the zone to be concentrated by deforestation and high levels of extractive activities.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Colombian Amazonia from 1990 to 2005 there was a <a href="/wiki/Forest_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest loss">forest loss</a> of 1,886,769 ha (3.9%) with an annual rate of 0.49%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation in this region is accounted to population and land use.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Amazonia possess a low populated area with <a href="/wiki/Smallholding" title="Smallholding">small scale agriculture</a> (including illegal crops), and cattle ranching.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fires in the Amazon also remain as a catalyst of deforestation which is an indicator of slash and burn activities associated with <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">exploitation of natural resources</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Study results suggest deforestation in the Amazonia often takes place in unoccupied rural territory where an influx of “colonist population move freely and colonization hotspots using the river” are created.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deforestation_in_the_Orinoco">Deforestation in the Orinoco</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Deforestation in the Orinoco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Majority of the Orinoco is composed by grasslands and pastures areas with small-scale agriculture, forest with extensive river networks and a small population.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major threat to this region is deforestation, and deforestation is a critical menace to biodiversity.<sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1990 to 2005, 507,337 ha that is 3.2% of the Orinoco forest disappeared at an annual rate of 0.83%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Causes of deforestation in this region range from land use for agriculture, illicit crops, and mining to slope elevation.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the Amazonia, the Orinoco is scarcely populated and has a small-scale agriculture (including illicit cropping), and cattle grazing.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation is highly affected by both legal and illegal cropping, and by mining that negative impacts mountain forest at higher lands of the basin.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over the last 10 years the Orinoco along with the Amazonia has been subjected to greater pressures from bio-fuel companies.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean_deforestation">Caribbean deforestation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Caribbean deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Caribbean forest significantly has been transformed into an area of fragments of dry forest with pastures scarce of vegetation.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the fifteen-year period (1990–2005) 753,893 ha of forest were lost that is 5% of the Caribbean forest at an annual rate of 1.92%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Colombia, cattle grazing productivity is the highest in this region, this practice plus its use of slash and burn activities influence deforestation.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Land tenure and illicit cropping also prompt deforestation in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When land becomes scarce highland areas provide opportunity for agriculture expansion and forest removal.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three deforestation hotspots were found in the Caribbean: the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, San Lucas, and Perija, where slopes are wetter and steeper and flat land is occupied by cattle grazing or agricultural operations indicating that wetter and steeper municipalities had higher forest loss.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_deforestation">Pacific deforestation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pacific deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Pacific is regarded as one of the wettest zones in the world holding an annual precipitation of 4,000 mm up to more than 10,000 mm in some areas, the climate ranges from humid to superhumid, the population is sparse, and this region is recognized as one of the world's most biologically and culturally diverse areas composed by various Afro-Colombians, and indigenous peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a fifteen-year period, the Pacific experienced one of the highest deforestation rate loss of 472,863 ha about 6.32% of forest loss at an annual rate of 0.42%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logging has occurred in the region for decades, but over the last ten years, pressures from bio-fuel companies have intensified.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2013_3-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2013-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Andean_deforestation">Andean deforestation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Andean deforestation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Andes is of particular interest because of its known importance as a biodiversity hot spot, as a provider of water to a grand human population, and its <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_vulnerability" title="Climate change vulnerability">vulnerability to climate change</a> and deforestation. The Andean forest stand as the second most fragmented natural habitat In Colombia. Recent causes of deforestation in this region has shifted to illicit crops and cattle grazing.<sup id="cite_ref-Chadid_et_al_2015_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chadid_et_al_2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 2007–2010, 340,842 Ha of forest were lost, while 633 Ha of illicit crops and 225,279 Ha of pastures were added.<sup id="cite_ref-Chadid_et_al_2015_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chadid_et_al_2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Deforestation rate of 0.67% found in the Colombian Andes is higher than the average deforestation rate reported for South American forests 0.38%.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2011_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, low lands in this region experience deforestation at higher rates than mountain lands because the population is mainly concentrated in mountain top areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2011_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1990 to 2005 montane forests went from 7,335,125 ha to 6,405,591 ha (0.63%), and for lowland forest change from 3,671,768 ha to 3,123,369 ha (0.75%).<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2011_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the decades, deforestation in the Colombian Andean zone has only accelerated (Vina). By 1998, 69% of the Andean forest and 30% of the lowland Andean forests were cleared.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andres1999_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andres1999-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2000 the remaining natural cover in Los Andes was 39%, that means that over 60% of its natural coverage has been lost and today this region continues to through natural resource extraction including exploitation, settlement and deforestation.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andres1999_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andres1999-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation was mostly accounted to cropping 32% and cattle ranching activities for its remaining.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the montane forest deforestation was affected by land tenure of small parcels, road, water presence, and temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2011_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the lowlands deforestation was associated with population, crops (licit and illicit), protected areas and temperature.<sup id="cite_ref-Armenteras_et_al_2011_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Armenteras_et_al_2011-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of the oil industry in the 1990s and its promise of high wages has generated deforestation and migration of local farmers who abandoned their pasture maintenance to enter the extraction industry.<sup id="cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Colombia had a 2018 <a href="/wiki/Forest_Landscape_Integrity_Index" title="Forest Landscape Integrity Index">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a> mean score of 8.26/10, ranking it 26th globally out of 172 countries.<sup id="cite_ref-FLII-Supplementary_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FLII-Supplementary-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity_loss">Biodiversity loss</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biodiversity loss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birds_loss_in_Los_Andes">Birds loss in Los Andes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Birds loss in Los Andes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colombia holds 18% of the world's bird species.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Andes alone is one of the most diverse areas in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, bird species specifically in the San Lucas Andean mountain ranges are endangered. The absence of government protection from armed conflict in San Lucas has facilitated the cultivation of coca crops and deforestation, which has resulted in local <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chadid_et_al_2015_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chadid_et_al_2015-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some areas in the Western Andes concentrations of endemic threatened birds reached 46 species in certain areas.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Neotropical birds especially from higher elevations are more prone to extinction.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study done in a 3000 ha reserve in Los Andes that conserves an extensive amount of endemic and small ranged bird species found 227 species in the region nine that pronounced threatened by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature four of these are endemic species to Colombia: the Munchique Wood-wren, the Chestnut-bellied Flowerpiercer, the Yellow-eared Parrot, the Magdalena Tapaculo, the Bicoloured Antvireo, the Tanager Finch, the Ruddy Pigeon, the White-capped Tanager, and Red-bellied Grackle.<sup id="cite_ref-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ocampo‐Peñuela_&_Pimm_2014-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wildlife_trafficking">Wildlife trafficking</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Wildlife trafficking"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The black market of animal trafficking is considered the second biggest threat to biodiversity in Colombia and the third most lucrative illegal enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Soto_et_al_2011_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soto_et_al_2011-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombia has a seventy-year history of animal smuggling, in some cases impoverished families from the country side amplify their income by selling mafia groups lizards, monkey, and parrots.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> International smuggling entities tend to be involved in the business of smuggling other trades because they are specialized in smuggling routes.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Experts approximate that in 2003 6,000,000 animals were illegally exported from Colombia, 200,000 of these are primates destined for laboratories and research centers.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombian drug lords are known to have private zoos with endangered species engendering a demand of exotic creatures.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombia has an animal trafficking policy of six months to three years of jail but no one has served such sentence.<sup id="cite_ref-Zimmerman2003_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zimmerman2003-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the first months of 2012, enforcement officers rescued more than 46,000 animals including birds and reptiles heading for the illegal international trade.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sloths">Sloths</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Sloths"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The biggest threat to sloth's survival in Colombia is the destruction and fragmentation of their habitat.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Three types of sloths’ species are distinguished in Colombia: the <a href="/wiki/Brown-throated_sloth" title="Brown-throated sloth">brown-throated three-toed sloth</a>, Bradypus variegatus which inhabits the Pacific and Amazonian lowland rainforest and the Caribbean, the <a href="/wiki/Hoffmann%27s_two-toed_sloth" title="Hoffmann's two-toed sloth">Hoffman's two-toed sloth</a>, Choloepus hoffmanni prevails in the north along with the B. variegatus, in the Pacific rainforest and the Caribbean savanna dry forest, but it is also found in Andean montane forest, and the <a href="/wiki/Linnaeus%27s_two-toed_sloth" title="Linnaeus's two-toed sloth">southern two-toed sloth</a>, Choloepus didactylus who is native in the south with B. variegatus, sharing the lowland Amazonian rainforest, but this specific species has been studied little in Colombia. Habitat for these species is limited primarily by the ongoing deforestation with in natural forest.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The continuous expansion of agriculture, ranching, and urbanization are a direct threat to sloths’ survival.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frequently, sloths die in large numbers in accidents related to the destruction of natural forests that go underreported by the media and lack attention from wildlife agencies and police.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All three-different species have a different rate and specific threat to their survival but collectively habitat loss – deforestation is pivotal.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deforestation facilitates the illegal trade of sloths as they are usually caught by young children who take them from deforested areas and sell them to traffickers.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Poachers also take hundreds of young two-and three-toed sloths from their mothers.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Colombian Ministry does not recognize the three-sloth species as being in threat of extinction mainly because there is no long-term study that represents the estimate of the total sloth population to demonstrate cause of concern.<sup id="cite_ref-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006_6-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moreno_&_Tinka_2006-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_pollution">Air pollution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Air pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2019, 37% of greenhouse gases generated in Colombia came from transportation, and only 1.2% of the quarter-million new vehicles registered that year were electric or hybrids.<sup id="cite_ref-eltiempo.com_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eltiempo.com-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bogotá"><span id="Bogot.C3.A1"></span>Bogotá</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Bogotá"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colombia's capital city, <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a>, is the country's largest population center. With over 7 million people, it is also one of the biggest cities in Latin America.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bogotá also has the highest rate of air pollution in Colombia and it has surged most recently as a result of the expansion of cars in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air pollution has been monitored in Bogotá since 1967, but it was not until 1990 that monitors were widely spread through the city.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study conducted by the Secretary of Health of the District in collaboration with the Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA) concluded that 70% of air pollution is attributed to vehicles, it was also identified that bricks, battery plants and others were crucial pollution sources as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This study concluded a nexus between air pollution and respiratory health by relating air pollutants with the number of daily respiratory admissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Statistics from the Secretary of Health demonstrated that between 1998 and 1999 about 9.6% of visits to hospitals were related to respiratory issues this percentage was higher for infant visits to the doctor associated to Acute Respiratory Illnesses 24.3%.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Monitoring stations reveal that half of the areas with monitoring stations are surpass emission limits considered safe by the WHO, Particulate Matter (PM10) and ozone levels are the leading problem.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medellín"><span id="Medell.C3.ADn"></span>Medellín</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Medellín"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Medell%C3%ADn" title="Medellín">Medellín</a> is the second city in Colombia with the worst air quality, and within the city, Downtown Medellin is one of the most contaminated areas by car emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Low quality gasoline and diesel are considered a main source of air pollutants.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medellin's shift toward urbanization, has increased the number of vehicles and thus extended the use of fossil fuels.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Areas known for heavy traffic are monitored by meters that measure the amount of air pollution. Some of the sectors that have been recognized with the highest levels of pollution within the metropolitan area are: Itagüí-Ditaires, Politécnico Jaime Isaza-Cadavid, and Downtown Medellín (particularly the Miguel de Aguinaga building and San Antonio Park).<sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Downtown Medellin's pollution rates exceed the norm established by the WHO of being a risk to human health.<sup id="cite_ref-:11_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cali">Cali</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cali"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cali" title="Cali">Cali</a> is the capital of Valle del Cauca municipality, and one of the city's of greatest concern in terms of air pollution in Colombia together with Bogotá and Medellin.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> City authorities launched the "Clean Air for Cali Program" to reduce atmospheric contamination; the program deals with emissions and their health impacts, improving air quality monitoring, implementation of measures to reduce contamination, and the cost-benefit evaluation those measures.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Air quality reports are publicly available.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Water_pollution">Water pollution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Water pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colombia is well endowed with rich water resources with a national average fresh water supply of more than 2,100 cubic kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is several times larger when compared to other Latin American countries like Argentina and Mexico.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But Colombia is facing a serious problem of <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. This is limiting their use of abundant water resources for water supply, recreation and ecological benefits.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Toxic_and_pathogenic_pollution">Toxic and pathogenic pollution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Toxic and pathogenic pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rivers such as Bogotá, Cali, Combeima, Otún, Medellín, de Oro, Pamplonita, and Pasto which are one of the important water resources of Colombia are highly contaminated due to direct discharge of untreated effluents, pathogens and various other toxic substances primarily discharged by the agricultural sector, industrial sector and the mining sectors.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These contaminants may result in cumulative and persistent consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Crude oil spills due to the acts of sabotage by leftist guerrilla squads, have become another cause of water pollution in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_22-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:17_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:17-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mining_sector">Mining sector</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Mining sector"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colombia is one of the largest producers of gold in Latin America. It has recently increased its production, especially in the Departments of Antioquia, Chocó, Bolívar and Córdoba, which in 2014 produced 90% of Colombia's gold.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of this production comes from artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining (ASGM).<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The artisanal gold mining sector in Colombia has 200,000 miners officially producing 30 tons Au/a.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The impact of gold mining on the environment mainly depends on the location of the metal and the methods used to extract it. Gold mining activities require high volumes of water to obtain the metal and this leads to an alteration in surface and underground water bodies.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rivers are affected as many local mines discharge untreated waters and tailings directly to waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When rivers like Magdalena and Cauca reach Antioquia, they receive polluted loads caused by mining activity from tributaries from the Northeast and Bajo Cauca regions.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the local mines, informal mining operations add to the water pollution by directly discharging many pollutants like suspended sediment, organic matter, acid drainage, metals, grease, oils and fuels into the waterways.<sup id="cite_ref-:19_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:19-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The major health risk from <a href="/wiki/Artisanal_mining" title="Artisanal mining">artisanal mining</a> is mercury exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the emissions from artisanal mining, two thirds are released locally into soil and water near mining operations, and a third is released into the atmosphere, where it can potentially attack people far from mining sites too.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Artisanal mining is the largest single source of atmospheric mercury.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pollution due to Mercury can occur in two ways- a) through Air and b) through Water. Mercury vapors in the air around amalgam burning sites can be alarmingly high and almost always exceed the WHO limit for public exposure of 1,000 nanogram/cubic meter.<sup id="cite_ref-:21_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:21-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This risks the health of workers but also those in the communities surrounding the processing centers.<sup id="cite_ref-:30_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:30-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure to levels of mercury vapors above 1,200,000 nanogram/cubic meter can be fatal.<sup id="cite_ref-:30_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:30-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water pollution due to mercury has become one of the biggest concerns in recent years. Artisanal and small-scale gold miners use mercury to extract gold in developing nations worldwide, contributing an estimated 30% of global mercury emissions annually.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colombia is the world's highest per capita mercury polluter.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The total mercury release/emissions to the Colombian environment can be as high as 150 tons/a.<sup id="cite_ref-:18_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:18-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of Antioquia, the total amount of mercury used in the Northeast and Bajo Cauca regions is around 93.4 tons/annum.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_pollution_due_to_mercury_contamination">Water pollution due to mercury contamination</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Water pollution due to mercury contamination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Studies conducted in the Department of Cordoba showed that mercury levels in fish species in the basin of San Jorge river exceed the specified threshold (200 ng/g) for populations at risk established by World Health Organization.<sup id="cite_ref-:22_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:22-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:23_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Few other studies show mercury contamination in plants, fish and sediments in some water bodies in the region of Mojana.<sup id="cite_ref-:24_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:24-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:25_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:25-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the region of Ayapel, significant concentrations of mercury in water, plants, fish and sediments swamp was found.<sup id="cite_ref-:26_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:26-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sources suggest that all the metal contaminations can be attributed to the mining activities on the main gold zone of Colombia and San Jorge River basin.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_exposure_and_risk_assessment">Human exposure and risk assessment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Human exposure and risk assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In placer mining, mercury is added to the material extracted from the alluvial deposits. Excess mercury is discharged into adjacent waterways along with other residues of the ore which enters into the local ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercury grows into a greater threat to health as it moves through the aquatic food chain.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the aquatic environment, the elemental “quicksilver” form of mercury is taken by the bacteria and algae and is converted into the far more dangerous <a href="/wiki/Methylmercury" title="Methylmercury">methylmercury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As methylmercury travels up the food chain, from algae to plankton to small fish to big fish, it becomes progressively more concentrated.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When humans consume fish that contains methyl mercury, it is absorbed into the human body through gastrointestinal system.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mercury can enter the brain and cross the placenta.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once methylmercury enters the human body, it is relatively difficult to eliminate methylmercury from the body as it is bound to proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effects of methylmercury on developing fetus were tragically demonstrated in Minimata, Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Children born to mothers who consumed mercury-contaminated fish suffered devastating birth defects, particularly those affecting the nervous system.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When humans consume contaminated fish, they suffer neurological damage and autoimmune disorders.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, methylmercury can cause IQ loss, delayed speech and other neuro-developmental deficits among children when exposed.<sup id="cite_ref-:27_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:27-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early life exposures are the most harmful as they can damage the whole brain.<sup id="cite_ref-:27_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:27-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later life exposures may result in localized damage to the cerebellum, visual cortex, and motor strip.<sup id="cite_ref-:27_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:27-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In adults, these exposures can lead to visuospatial problems and effects on executive functioning, memory and mood.<sup id="cite_ref-:28_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:28-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prevention">Prevention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Prevention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Colombian government has been putting effort to reduce mercury usage levels. The adoption in July 2013 of Law 1658 to reduce and eliminate mercury use is an important step. It aims to phase out the use of mercury in all production processes within ten years and in mining within five years.<sup id="cite_ref-:29_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:29-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Awareness has to be brought in miners regarding the risks involved in using mercury.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to the awareness, miners should be introduced to new techniques that minimize mercury use or provided with safer alternatives that can replace mercury amalgamation.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Sam Spiegel, a lecturer in international development at the University of Edinburgh, “efforts to lower mercury emissions should aim to support miners and their livelihoods by supplying access to better technology’’.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This does not mean completely eliminating mercury but rather using it more efficiently.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A practical guide published by ASGM in 2011 on how to reduce mercury uses, UNEP recommends limiting mercury use with improved practices and moving towards mercury-free technologies that either boost or maintain miner income while protecting the health and the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:30_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:30-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic interests of the miners should also be safeguarded while protecting health and environment. </p><p>Currently, the Government of Antioquia, Corantioquia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia and BioRedd are developing programs to help informal miners to improve their mining circuit and are introducing technologies that avoid mercury use in their process.<sup id="cite_ref-:16_23-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They presented a proposed plant design that eliminates the use of mercury by replacing gravity concentration processes taking advantage of the characteristics of the treated material.<sup id="cite_ref-:20_27-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:20-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, many companies have started re-evaluating gravity systems as they are relatively simple and that they produce little environmental pollution and also due to the increased costs of flotation reagents. They proved to be effective as they significantly reduce mercury use. They are proving to miners that with technical support and using alternatives to mercury they are able to recover more valuable material than they do at present.<sup id="cite_ref-:31_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:31-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government_response">Government response</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Government response"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>New environmental protection legislation was enacted in 1991, including the creation of specially protected zones,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of which more than 200 were created in the early 1990s,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> mostly in forest areas and national parks.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of this charter, the Ministry of the Environment was established in 1993, merging with the housing and drinking water division of the Ministry of Economic Development, Housing, and Potable Water in 2003. </p><p>As of April 5, 2018, Colombia's highest court has declared that the government of Colombia is responsible and must take urgent action to protect its Amazon Rainforest.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This 4-3 ruling has also recognized the Amazon as an "entity subject of rights", which means the Amazon Rainforest has the same legal rights as a human being. The court ordered the local and national government, the environment and agriculture ministries and environmental authorities to come up with action plans within four months to combat deforestation in the Amazon.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2019, however, the government spent 21% less on environmental protection than it had the previous year. This was one of the conclusions of a 333-page report, <i>"Estado de los recursos naturales y del ambiente,"</i> released by the government's <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_General_of_Colombia" title="Office of the Comptroller General of Colombia">Contraloría General</a> in 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-eltiempo.com_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-eltiempo.com-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On November 24, 2016, FARC and the Colombian government signed a peace agreement. This was expected to give the government more control to regulate illegal logging and deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, allowing the government to avoid expenses caused by environmental degradation. The savings were estimated at about COP $7.1 <i>billones</i> annually (US $2.4 billion at the exchange rate at that time).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The government of Colombia has launched the Amazon Vision Project. The Project, with the financial backing of Norway, Germany, and the United Kingdom, aims to completely eradicate deforestation of Colombia's Amazon by 2020. In the Climate Summit of 2015, Colombia, Germany, Norway, and the United Kingdom signed a Joint Declaration to strengthen collaboration on the climate and forests in Colombia. Norway has committed to a total of 1.8 billion Norwegian crones to Colombia within 2020.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project has been adopted as a national policy and priority in the new National Development Plan 2014-2018.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inclusion of the Program in this PND meant that for the first time in the country there is a framework for development policy that promotes green growth strategies with concrete goals of education of consequences of deforestation and goals of conservation and sustainable use for the Amazon region, offering the opportunity to influence national policies by inserting specificities of the Amazon region that help the region reduce deforestation.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The project aims to improve forest governance, plan a sustainable sector development, begin environmental governance with indigenous people and enable conditions for the environment to thrive. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_rights_in_Colombia" title="Animal rights in Colombia">Animal rights in Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Colombia" title="Illegal drug trade in Colombia">Illegal drug trade in Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_invasive_species_in_Colombia" title="List of invasive species in Colombia">List of invasive species in Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plan_Colombia#Aerial_Eradication_strategy_and_criticisms" title="Plan Colombia">Plan Colombia § Aerial Eradication strategy and criticisms</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Etter_et_al_2006-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Etter_et_al_2006_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Climate+Docket&rft.atitle=Colombian+court+orders+government+to+stop+deforestation%2C+protect+climate&rft.date=2018-04-06&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Ucilia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.climatedocket.com%2F2018%2F04%2F05%2Fcolombia-amazon-climate-change-deforestation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+in+Colombia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation pressrelease cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dnp.gov.co/Paginas/%E2%80%9CPor-cada-a%C3%B1o-de-paz,-Colombia-ahorrar%C3%ADa-$7,1-billones-en-degradaci%C3%B3n-ambiental%E2%80%9D-Sim%C3%B3n-Gaviria-Mu%C3%B1oz.aspx">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Por cada año de paz, Colombia ahorraría $7,1 billones en degradación ambiental': Simón Gaviria Muñoz"</a> ['For each year of peace, Colombia would save $ 7.1 billion in environmental degradation': Simón Gaviria Muñoz] (Press release) (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/National_Planning_Department_(Colombia)" title="National Planning Department (Colombia)">Departamento Nacional de Planeación</a>. 10 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27Por+cada+a%C3%B1o+de+paz%2C+Colombia+ahorrar%C3%ADa+%247%2C1+billones+en+degradaci%C3%B3n+ambiental%27%3A+Sim%C3%B3n+Gaviria+Mu%C3%B1oz&rft.pub=Departamento+Nacional+de+Planeaci%C3%B3n&rft.date=2016-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dnp.gov.co%2FPaginas%2F%25E2%2580%259CPor-cada-a%25C3%25B1o-de-paz%2C-Colombia-ahorrar%25C3%25ADa-%247%2C1-billones-en-degradaci%25C3%25B3n-ambiental%25E2%2580%259D-Sim%25C3%25B3n-Gaviria-Mu%25C3%25B1oz.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+in+Colombia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/colombia-to-build-environment-friendly-peace/id2523734/">"Colombia to build environment-friendly peace"</a>. 2016-12-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Colombia+to+build+environment-friendly+peace&rft.date=2016-12-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.regjeringen.no%2Fen%2Faktuelt%2Fcolombia-to-build-environment-friendly-peace%2Fid2523734%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+in+Colombia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.greengrowthknowledge.org/sites/default/files/GGGI%20Fact%20Sheet%20Colombia%20-%20Amazon%20Vision.pdf">"GGGI Colombia: Fact Sheet"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Global Green Growth Institute</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Global+Green+Growth+Institute&rft.atitle=GGGI+Colombia%3A+Fact+Sheet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.greengrowthknowledge.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FGGGI%2520Fact%2520Sheet%2520Colombia%2520-%2520Amazon%2520Vision.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+in+Colombia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://visionamazonia.minambiente.gov.co/content/uploads/2018/09/PTG-aprobado.pdf">"Vision Amazonia"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>visionamazonia.minambiente.gov.co</i> (in Spanish). 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-03-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=visionamazonia.minambiente.gov.co&rft.atitle=Vision+Amazonia&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fvisionamazonia.minambiente.gov.co%2Fcontent%2Fuploads%2F2018%2F09%2FPTG-aprobado.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+issues+in+Colombia" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_issues_in_Colombia&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in Spanish)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.minambiente.gov.co/">Colombian Ministry of Environment</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Colombia-related_articles" title="Index of Colombia-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Colombia" title="History of Colombia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Colombian_history" title="Timeline of Colombian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Colombia" title="Indigenous peoples in Colombia">Indigenous peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_Confederation" title="Muisca Confederation">Muisca Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_the_Muisca" title="Spanish conquest of the Muisca">Spanish conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Granada" title="New Kingdom of Granada">Kingdom of New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Granada" title="Viceroyalty of New Granada">Viceroyalty of New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foolish_Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Foolish Fatherland">Foolish Fatherland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Provinces_of_New_Granada" title="United Provinces of New Granada">United Provinces of New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_career_of_Sim%C3%B3n_Bol%C3%ADvar" title="Military career of Simón Bolívar">Military career of Simón Bolívar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_American_wars_of_independence" title="Spanish American wars of independence">Wars of independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gran_Colombia" title="Gran Colombia">Gran Colombia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Gran_Colombia" title="Reunification of Gran Colombia">reunification</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_New_Granada" title="Republic of New Granada">Republic of New Granada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granadine_Confederation" title="Granadine Confederation">Granadine Confederation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Colombia" title="United States of Colombia">United States of Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Republic of Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Civil_War_of_1895" title="Colombian Civil War of 1895">Colombian Civil War of 1895</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thousand_Days%27_War" title="Thousand Days' War">Thousand Days' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_Panama_from_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Separation of Panama from Colombia">Separation of Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93Peru_War" title="Colombia–Peru War">Colombia–Peru War (Leticia Incident)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_during_World_War_II" title="Colombia during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/La_Violencia" title="La Violencia">La Violencia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Front_(Colombia)" title="National Front (Colombia)">National Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_conflict" title="Colombian conflict">Current internal armed conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_peace_process" title="Colombian peace process">Colombian peace process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Colombia" title="Geography of Colombia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_Colombia" title="Biodiversity of Colombia">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Colombia" title="Fauna of Colombia">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Colombia" title="Flora of Colombia">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Colombia" title="Climate of Colombia">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Colombia" title="Geology of Colombia">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mountain_ranges_of_Colombia" title="Category:Mountain ranges of Colombia">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islands_of_Colombia" title="Category:Islands of Colombia">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Colombia" title="List of rivers of Colombia">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Valleys_and_Plateaus_of_Colombia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Valleys and Plateaus of Colombia (page does not exist)">Valleys and Plateaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Colombia" title="List of national parks of Colombia">National parks <span style="font-size:85%;">(Protected Areas)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Colombia" title="List of cities and towns in Colombia">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_hazards_in_Colombia" title="Natural hazards in Colombia">Natural hazards</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_invasive_species_in_Colombia" title="List of invasive species in Colombia">Invasive species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Colombia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Colombia">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_regions_of_Colombia" title="Natural regions of Colombia">Natural regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_natural_region" title="Amazon natural region">Amazon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andean_natural_region" title="Andean natural region">Andean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_natural_region" title="Caribbean natural region">Caribbean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_region_of_Colombia" title="Insular region of Colombia">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinoqu%C3%ADa_natural_region" title="Orinoquía natural region">Orinoquía</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacific/Choc%C3%B3_natural_region" title="Pacific/Chocó natural region">Pacific/Chocó</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Administrative_divisions_of_Colombia" title="Administrative divisions of Colombia">Subdivisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Departments_of_Colombia" title="Departments of Colombia">Departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipalities_of_Colombia" title="Municipalities of Colombia">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_areas_of_Colombia" title="Metropolitan areas of Colombia">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Capital District</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Corregimientos_of_Colombia" title="Corregimientos of Colombia">Corregimientos</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_territory_(Colombia)" title="Indigenous territory (Colombia)">Indigenous territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Colombia" title="Politics of Colombia">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Colombia" title="List of political parties in Colombia">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Colombia" title="Elections in Colombia">Elections</a></li> <li>Ideologies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_in_Colombia" title="Liberalism in Colombia">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism_in_Colombia" title="Conservatism in Colombia">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism_in_Colombia" title="Communism in Colombia">Communism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Colombia" title="Government of Colombia">Governance</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Constitution_of_1991" title="Colombian Constitution of 1991">Constitution</a></li> <li>Control <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Auditor_General_of_Colombia" title="Office of the Auditor General of Colombia">Auditor General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Comptroller_General_of_Colombia" title="Office of the Comptroller General of Colombia">Comptroller General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Inspector_General_of_Colombia" title="Office of the Inspector General of Colombia">Inspector General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ombudsman%27s_Office_of_Colombia" title="Ombudsman's Office of Colombia">Ombudsman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Branch_of_Colombia" title="Executive Branch of Colombia">Executive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_of_Colombia" title="Council of Ministers of Colombia">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_entities_of_Colombia" title="Government entities of Colombia">Government agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Colombia" title="President of Colombia">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Colombia" title="Vice President of Colombia">Vice President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Colombia" title="Foreign relations of Colombia">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Colombia" title="Judiciary of Colombia">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Colombia" title="Congress of Colombia">Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Police_of_Colombia" title="National Police of Colombia">Police</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_Forces_of_Colombia" title="Military Forces of Colombia">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Aerospace_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Colombian Aerospace Force">Aerospace Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Army_of_Colombia" title="National Army of Colombia">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_Navy" title="Colombian Navy">Navy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Colombia" title="Economy of Colombia">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking in Colombia">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_the_Republic_(Colombia)" title="Bank of the Republic (Colombia)">Central bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Colombia" title="List of companies of Colombia">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Colombia" title="Economic history of Colombia">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Colombia" title="Agriculture in Colombia">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Colombia" title="Industry of Colombia">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_industry_of_Colombia" title="Mineral industry of Colombia">Mineral industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_peso" title="Colombian peso">Peso <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_Stock_Exchange" title="Colombia Stock Exchange">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Colombia" title="Science and technology in Colombia">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Colombia">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Colombia" title="Taxation in Colombia">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trade_unions_in_Colombia" title="Trade unions in Colombia">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Colombia" title="Tourism in Colombia">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Colombia" title="Transport in Colombia">Transportation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Colombia" title="Category:Society of Colombia">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" 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href="/wiki/Health_care_in_Colombia" title="Health care in Colombia">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Colombia" title="Water supply and sanitation in Colombia">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Colombia" title="Women in Colombia">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Colombia" title="Culture of Colombia">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_archaeological_sites_in_Colombia" title="List of archaeological sites in Colombia">Archaeological sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Colombia" title="Architecture of Colombia">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_art" title="Colombian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Colombia" title="Cinema of Colombia">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in Colombia">Video gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_cuisine" title="Colombian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Colombia" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Colombia">World Heritage Sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnival_in_Colombia" title="Carnival in Colombia">Carnivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Colombia" title="List of festivals in Colombia">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_folklore" title="Colombian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_handicrafts" title="Colombian handicrafts">Handicrafts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombian_literature" title="Colombian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Colombia">Media</a></li> <li><a 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href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Colombia" title="Smoking in Colombia">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Colombia" title="Crime in Colombia">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade_in_Colombia" title="Illegal drug trade in Colombia">Drug trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Colombia" title="Corruption in Colombia">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Colombia" title="Terrorism in Colombia">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_movements_in_Colombia" title="Guerrilla movements in Colombia">Guerrilla movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right-wing_paramilitarism_in_Colombia" title="Right-wing paramilitarism in Colombia">Right-wing paramilitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colombia_in_popular_culture" title="Colombia in popular culture">Colombia in popular culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" 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America</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Argentina" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Bolivia" title="Environmental issues in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Brazil" title="Environmental issues in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Chile" title="Environmental issues in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Guyana" 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