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aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-India_in_the_6th_century_BCE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#India_in_the_6th_century_BCE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>India in the 6th century BCE</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-India_in_the_6th_century_BCE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antiquity_to_the_19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antiquity_to_the_19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Antiquity to the 19th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antiquity_to_the_19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Roots_in_ancient_China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roots_in_ancient_China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Roots in ancient China</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roots_in_ancient_China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_in_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_in_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Europe in the 18th century</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe_in_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>In the United States</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1940s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1940s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>1940s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1940s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1950s_-_1970s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1950s_-_1970s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>1950s - 1970s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1950s_-_1970s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s_-_1990s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s_-_1990s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>1980s - 1990s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s_-_1990s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women's_civic_clubs_and_the_Settlement_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women's_civic_clubs_and_the_Settlement_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4</span> <span>Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women's_civic_clubs_and_the_Settlement_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Settlement_Model_of_Public_Administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Settlement_Model_of_Public_Administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.4.1</span> <span>The Settlement Model of Public Administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Settlement_Model_of_Public_Administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Branches</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Branches-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Branches subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Core_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Core branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_branches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_branches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Other branches</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_branches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Academic_field" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Academic_field"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Academic field</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Academic_field-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Academic field subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Academic_field-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Comparative_public_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_public_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Comparative public administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_public_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bachelor's_degrees,_academic_concentrations,_and_academic_minors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bachelor's_degrees,_academic_concentrations,_and_academic_minors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bachelor's_degrees,_academic_concentrations,_and_academic_minors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Master's_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Master's_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Master's degrees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Master's_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Doctoral_degrees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doctoral_degrees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Doctoral degrees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doctoral_degrees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_scholars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_scholars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Notable scholars</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_scholars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Notable Institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-International_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>International organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Public management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Public_management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Public management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Public_management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Organizations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Societies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Societies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Societies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Societies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_management_academic_resources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_management_academic_resources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Public management academic resources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_management_academic_resources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_management_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_management_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Public management</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_management_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Public administration</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 65 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-65" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">65 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9" title="إدارة عامة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إدارة عامة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alministraci%C3%B3n_p%C3%BAblica" title="Alministración pública – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Alministración pública" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%A8" title="লোকপ্রশাসন – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লোকপ্রশাসন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%AAng-ch%C3%A8ng" title="Hêng-chèng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hêng-chèng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="पब्लिक एडमिनिस्ट्रेशन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="पब्लिक एडमिनिस्ट्रेशन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Публична администрация – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Публична администрация" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administraci%C3%B3_p%C3%BAblica" title="Administració pública – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Administració pública" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C5%99ejn%C3%A1_spr%C3%A1va" title="Veřejná správa – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Veřejná správa" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_forvaltning" title="Offentlig forvaltning – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Offentlig forvaltning" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%96ffentliche_Verwaltung" title="Öffentliche Verwaltung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Öffentliche Verwaltung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avalik_haldus" title="Avalik haldus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Avalik haldus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%AF%CE%BA%CE%B7%CF%83%CE%B7" title="Δημόσια διοίκηση – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δημόσια διοίκηση" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administraci%C3%B3n_p%C3%BAblica" title="Administración pública – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Administración pública" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publika_administrado" title="Publika administrado – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Publika administrado" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrazio_publiko" title="Administrazio publiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Administrazio publiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="اداره امور عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اداره امور عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_publique" title="Administration publique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Administration publique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publiche_ministrazion" title="Publiche ministrazion – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Publiche ministrazion" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administraci%C3%B3n_p%C3%BAblica" title="Administración pública – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Administración pública" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%96%89%EC%A0%95" title="행정 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="행정" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D5%BE%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Հանրային կառավարում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանրային կառավարում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="लोक प्रशासन – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="लोक प्रशासन" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administro" title="Administro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Administro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrasi_publik" title="Administrasi publik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Administrasi publik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administration_public" title="Administration public – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Administration public" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opinber_stj%C3%B3rns%C3%BDsla" title="Opinber stjórnsýsla – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Opinber stjórnsýsla" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pubblica_amministrazione" title="Pubblica amministrazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pubblica amministrazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%94%D7%9C_%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99" title="מינהל ציבורי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מינהל ציבורי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%9C%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95_%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%A1%E0%B2%B3%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%A4" title="ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಆಡಳಿತ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸಾರ್ವಜನಿಕ ಆಡಳಿತ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%AF%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="საჯარო მმართველობა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="საჯარო მმართველობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utawala_wa_umma" title="Utawala wa umma – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utawala wa umma" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrasyon_piblik" title="Administrasyon piblik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Administrasyon piblik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vie%C5%A1asis_administravimas" title="Viešasis administravimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Viešasis administravimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zigazgat%C3%A1s" title="Közigazgatás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közigazgatás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentadbiran_awam" title="Pentadbiran awam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pentadbiran awam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B7%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AC_%E1%80%85%E1%80%AE%E1%80%99%E1%80%B6%E1%80%81%E1%80%94%E1%80%B7%E1%80%BA%E1%80%81%E1%80%BD%E1%80%B2%E1%80%99%E1%80%BE%E1%80%AF" title="ပြည်သူ့ရေးရာ စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှု – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပြည်သူ့ရေးရာ စီမံခန့်ခွဲမှု" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbaar_bestuur" title="Openbaar bestuur – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Openbaar bestuur" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A8" title="सार्वजनिक प्रशासन – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सार्वजनिक प्रशासन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" title="行政 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="行政" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_administrasjon" title="Offentlig administrasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Offentlig administrasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A7" title="ਲੋਕ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੋਕ ਪ੍ਰਬੰਧ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A8%D9%84%DA%A9_%D8%A7%DB%8C%DA%88%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%B9%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%86" title="پبلک ایڈمنسٹریشن – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="پبلک ایڈمنسٹریشن" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%87" title="عامه اداره – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عامه اداره" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administracja_publiczna" title="Administracja publiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Administracja publiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administra%C3%A7%C3%A3o_p%C3%BAblica" title="Administração pública – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Administração pública" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administra%C8%9Bie_public%C4%83" title="Administrație publică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Administrație publică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administrata_publike" title="Administrata publike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Administrata publike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Public administration" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%A8%D9%84%DA%AA_%D8%A7%D9%8A%DA%8A%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%BD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%B4%D9%86" title="پبلڪ ايڊمنسٽريشن – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="پبلڪ ايڊمنسٽريشن" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verejn%C3%A1_spr%C3%A1va" title="Verejná správa – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Verejná správa" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Јавна управа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јавна управа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julkishallinto" title="Julkishallinto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Julkishallinto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offentlig_f%C3%B6rvaltning" title="Offentlig förvaltning – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Offentlig förvaltning" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pampublikong_pangangasiwa" title="Pampublikong pangangasiwa – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pampublikong pangangasiwa" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="பொது நிர்வாகம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொது நிர்வாகம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%88" title="การบริหารรัฐกิจ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การบริหารรัฐกิจ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamu_y%C3%B6netimi" title="Kamu yönetimi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kamu yönetimi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%83%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Державне управління – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Державне управління" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A0nh_ch%C3%ADnh_c%C3%B4ng" title="Hành chính công – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hành chính công" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagdudumara_panpubliko" title="Pagdudumara panpubliko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagdudumara panpubliko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%AD%A6" title="公共行政学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="公共行政学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" title="行政 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="行政" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C4%97i%C5%A1%C4%81sis_valdims" title="Vėišāsis valdims – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Vėišāsis valdims" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Academic discipline; implementation or management of policy</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the discipline. For the journal, see <a href="/wiki/Public_Administration_(journal)" title="Public Administration (journal)">Public Administration (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonprofit management">Nonprofit management</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output 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1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">Political history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_world" title="Political history of the world">Political history of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a href="/wiki/Political_system" title="Political system">Political systems</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" 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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public administration</a></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(<a href="/wiki/Street-level_bureaucracy" title="Street-level bureaucracy">street-level</a>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adhocracy" title="Adhocracy">Adhocracy</a></li> <li>Service <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public</a> / <a 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington,_DC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/260px-FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/390px-FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg/520px-FEMA_-_43019_-_FEMA_National_Advistory_Council_meets_in_Washington%2C_DC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832" /></a><figcaption>Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">U.S. federal public servants</a> at a meeting.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Public administration</b>, or <b>public policy and administration</b> refers to "the management of public programs",<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day",<sup id="cite_ref-KettlDonald_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KettlDonald-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also to the <a href="/wiki/Academic_discipline" title="Academic discipline">academic discipline</a> which studies how <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> is created and implemented. </p><p>In an academic context, public administration has been described as the study of government decision-making; the analysis of policies and the various inputs that have produced them; and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also a subfield of <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a> where studies of policy processes and the structures, functions, and behavior of public institutions and their relationships with broader society take place. The study and application of public administration is founded on the principle that the proper functioning of an organization or institution relies on effective management. </p><p>The mid-twentieth century saw the rise of German <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>'s theory of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a>, bringing about a substantive interest in the theoretical aspects of public administration. The 1968 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Minnowbrook_Conference&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Minnowbrook Conference (page does not exist)">Minnowbrook Conference</a>, which convened at <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University" title="Syracuse University">Syracuse University</a> under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Dwight_Waldo" title="Dwight Waldo">Dwight Waldo</a>, gave rise to the concept of <a href="/wiki/New_Public_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="New Public Administration">New Public Administration</a>, a pivotal movement within the discipline today.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definitions">Definitions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definitions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg/200px-US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg/300px-US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg/400px-US_Navy_020614-N-0552D-001_SPAWAR_award_winning_employee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1792" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Administrators tend to work with both paper documents and computer files: "There has been a significant shift from paper to electronic records during the past two decades. Although government institutions continue to print and maintain paper documents as 'official records,' the vast majority of records are now created and stored in electronic format."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy.</figcaption></figure> <p>Public administration encompasses the execution, oversight, and management of government policies and the management of public affairs. The field involves the organization, operation, and strategic coordination of <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucratic structures</a> in the public sector. Public administrators play a significant role in devising and executing policies, managing shared resources, and ensuring the efficient functioning of government agencies and programs. <sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1947, <a href="/wiki/Paul_H._Appleby" title="Paul H. Appleby">Paul H. Appleby</a> defined public administration as the "public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action." In democracies, it usually has to do with such leadership and executive action in terms that respect and contribute to the dignity, worth, and potential of the citizen.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_Valley_Authority" title="Tennessee Valley Authority">Tennessee Valley Authority</a>, defined public administration "as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized." This implies that it must relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings and is thus concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> James D. Carroll and Alfred M. Zuck called <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>'s publication of his essay, "<a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_Administration" title="The Study of Administration">The Study of Administration</a>," "the beginning of public administration as a specific and influential field of study."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More recently, scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition" because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define."<sup id="cite_ref-thecanadianencyclopedia_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thecanadianencyclopedia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether public administration is a sub-field of political science or a sub-field of administrative science, the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research.<sup id="cite_ref-thecanadianencyclopedia_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-thecanadianencyclopedia-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholar Donald F. Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a sub-field within political science."<sup id="cite_ref-h-net_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h-net-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Lalor, a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration, whereas the absence of either (or <i>a fortiori</i> both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is rhetoric, providing for public goods, and the supply function is satisfied more or less efficiently by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts, producing public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/North_American_Industry_Classification_System" title="North American Industry Classification System">North American Industry Classification System</a> definition of the Public Administration sector (NAICS 91) states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them." This includes "legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature."<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_in_the_6th_century_BCE">India in the 6th century BCE</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: India in the 6th century BCE"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Charvaka#Public_administration" title="Charvaka">Charvaka § Public_administration</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Harappa" title="Harappa">Harappa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-daro</a> civilizations had organized bodies of public servants, suggesting the presence of some form of public administration. Numerous references exist to <a href="/wiki/Brihaspati" title="Brihaspati">Brihaspati</a>'s contributions to laws and governance. An excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Ain-i-Akbari" title="Ain-i-Akbari">Ain-i-Akbari</a> [vol.III, tr. by H. S. Barrett, p. 217–218], written by <a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Fazl_ibn_Mubarak" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak">Abul Fazl</a>, mentions a symposium of philosophers from various faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's instance.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is believed that some <a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a> thinkers may have participated in the symposium. In "<a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika_and_n%C4%81stika" title="Āstika and nāstika">Naastika</a>," Fazl refers to the Charvaka law-makers emphasizing "good work, judicious administration, and welfare schemes." <a href="/wiki/Somadeva" title="Somadeva">Somadeva</a> also describes the Charvaka method of defeating the nation's enemies, referring to thirteen disguised enemies in the kingdom with selfish interests who should not be spared. <a href="/wiki/Chanakya" title="Chanakya">Kautilya</a> presents a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the guise of friends. The Charvaka stalwart, Brihaspati, is more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva. He appears to be contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro cultures. </p><p>Archaeological evidence regarding kings, priests, and palaces in the Harappa and <a href="/wiki/Mohenjo-daro" title="Mohenjo-daro">Mohenjo-Daro</a> excavations is limited.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the presence of complex civilization and public facilities such as granaries and bathhouses, along with the existence of large cities, indicates the likelihood of centralized governance. The uniformity in the artifacts and brick sizes suggests that there was some form of centralized governance. Although speculation regarding social hierarchies and class structures is plausible, the absence of discernible elite burial sites also suggests that most citizens were almost equal in status. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antiquity_to_the_19th_century">Antiquity to the 19th century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Antiquity to the 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dating back to antiquity, states have required officials like pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Before the 19th century, the staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "<a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">spoils system</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public administrators have long been the "eyes and ears" of rulers. In medieval times, the abilities to read and write, as well as, add and subtract were as dominated by the educated elite as public employment. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies, and levying taxes. As the <a href="/wiki/European_imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="European imperialism">European imperialist age</a> progressed and the military powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Roots_in_ancient_China">Roots in ancient China</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roots in ancient China"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The field of <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> may have originated in ancient <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Ewan_Ferlie_p.30_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewan_Ferlie_p.30-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including, possibly, the first highly centralized bureaucratic state, and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of an <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> based on <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">civil service tests</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-APHq_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-APHq-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In regards to public administration, China was considered to be "advanced" compared to the rest of the world up until the end of the 18th century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Taylor_Meadows" title="Thomas Taylor Meadows">Thomas Taylor Meadows</a>, the British consul in <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou" title="Guangzhou">Guangzhou</a>, argued in his <i>Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China</i> (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only."<sup id="cite_ref-Bodde_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodde-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the <a href="/wiki/Northcote%E2%80%93Trevelyan_Report" title="Northcote–Trevelyan Report">Northcote–Trevelyan Report</a> of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be on the basis of merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bodde_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bodde-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to implementation of <a href="/wiki/Her_Majesty%27s_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="Her Majesty's Civil Service">Her Majesty's Civil Service</a> as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like the British, the development of French bureaucracy was influenced by the Chinese system. <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Quesnay" title="François Quesnay">François Quesnay</a> advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.<sup id="cite_ref-rung_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rung-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual, figures of the <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Fa-Jia</a> emphasizing a <a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">merit system</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> (400–337 BC), may have had the most influence, and could be considered its founders, if they are not valuable as rare pre-modern examples of the abstract theory of administration. Creel writes that, in Shen Buhai, there are the "seeds of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil service examination">civil service examination</a>", and that, if one wishes to exaggerate, it would "no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science'", and argue that he was the first political scientist, though Creel does "not care to go this far".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe_in_the_18th_century">Europe in the 18th century</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Europe in the 18th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Frederick_William_I_of_Prussia" title="Frederick William I of Prussia">King Frederick William I of Prussia</a> created professoriates in <a href="/wiki/Kameralism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kameralism">Cameralism</a> in order to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of <a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_an_der_Oder" class="mw-redirect" title="Frankfurt an der Oder">Frankfurt an der Oder</a> and the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Halle" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Halle">University of Halle</a> were <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussian</a> institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. <a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Gottlob_Justi" title="Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi">Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi</a> was a well-known professor of <a href="/wiki/Cameralism" title="Cameralism">Cameralism</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Lorenz_von_Stein" title="Lorenz von Stein">Lorenz von Stein</a>, an 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept was too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many pre-established disciplines such as <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, political science, <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">public finance</a>. He called public administration an integrating science and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_United_States">In the United States</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In the United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Woodrow_Wilson_(Nobel_1919).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Woodrow_Wilson_%28Nobel_1919%29.jpg/220px-Woodrow_Wilson_%28Nobel_1919%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Woodrow_Wilson_%28Nobel_1919%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="280" data-file-height="396" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The father of public administration in the US is considered to be <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled "<a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_Administration" title="The Study of Administration">The Study of Administration</a>". The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or energy."<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's solicitation and textbooks in this field were introduced. Distinguished scholars of that period include <a href="/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)" title="Luther Gulick (social scientist)">Luther Gulick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lyndall_Urwick" title="Lyndall Urwick">Lyndall Urwick</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Fayol" title="Henri Fayol">Henri Fayol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor" title="Frederick Winslow Taylor">Frederick Taylor</a>. Taylor argued in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Principles_of_Scientific_Management" title="The Principles of Scientific Management">The Principles of Scientific Management</a>,</i> that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the "[a] best way" to do things or carry out an operation. Taylor's technique was introduced to private industrialists, and later to various government organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-JeongChun_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JeongChun-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/American_Society_for_Public_Administration" title="American Society for Public Administration">American Society for Public Administration</a> (ASPA) the leading professional group for public administration was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal <a href="/wiki/Public_Administration_Review" title="Public Administration Review">Public Administration Review</a>, which was founded in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1940s">1940s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1940s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg/220px-Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg/330px-Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg/440px-Luther_Gulick_%28social_scientist%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="454" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)" title="Luther Gulick (social scientist)">Luther Gulick</a> (1892–1993) was an expert on public administration.</figcaption></figure> <p>The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second-generation scholars, beginning in the 1940s. <a href="/wiki/Luther_Gulick_(social_scientist)" title="Luther Gulick (social scientist)">Luther Gulick</a>'s fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed <a href="/wiki/Politics-administration_dichotomy" title="Politics-administration dichotomy">politics-administration dichotomy</a>. In place of Wilson's first generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Luther Gulick and <a href="/wiki/Lyndall_Urwick" title="Lyndall Urwick">Lyndall Urwick</a> are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational scholars including <a href="/wiki/Henri_Fayol" title="Henri Fayol">Henri Fayol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fredrick_Winslow_Taylor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fredrick Winslow Taylor">Fredrick Winslow Taylor</a>, Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relied upon logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature like classical and enlightened theorists. </p><p>Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym; <a href="/wiki/POSDCORB" title="POSDCORB">POSDCORB</a>, which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory bleeding the borders between the private and the public sector was thought to be possible. With the general theory, the administrative theory could be focused on governmental organizations. The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1950s_-_1970s">1950s - 1970s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: 1950s - 1970s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public Administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post-war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. Government was popular as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">American intervention in Vietnam</a> along with domestic scandals including the bugging of Democratic Party headquarters (the 1974 <a href="/wiki/Watergate" class="mw-redirect" title="Watergate">Watergate</a> scandal) are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienated citizens. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:B-52D(061127-F-1234S-017).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg/220px-B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg/330px-B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg/440px-B-52D%28061127-F-1234S-017%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>The costly <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a> alienated U.S. citizens from their government. Pictured is <a href="/wiki/Operation_Arc_Light" title="Operation Arc Light">Operation Arc Light</a>, a U.S. bombing operation.</figcaption></figure> <p>There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The <a href="/wiki/Hoover_Commission" title="Hoover Commission">Hoover Commission</a>, chaired by University of Chicago professor <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brownlow" title="Louis Brownlow">Louis Brownlow</a>, examines the reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization that provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s. </p><p>Concurrently, after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, the entire concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis, thus the study of "administrative policy making and analysis" was introduced and enhanced into the government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and emphasis in the study of public administration. This period witnessed the development and inclusion of other social sciences knowledge, predominantly, psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007).<sup id="cite_ref-JeongChun_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JeongChun-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Morstein_Marx" title="Fritz Morstein Marx">Fritz Morstein Marx</a>, with his book <i>The Elements of Public Administration</i> (1946), Paul H. Appleby <i>Policy and Administration</i> (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors. </p><p>Stimulated by events during the 1960s such as an active civil rights movement, the Vietnam War and war protests, assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders, and an active women's movement, public administration changed course somewhat. Landmark legislation such as the <a href="/wiki/Equal_Pay_Act_of_1963" title="Equal Pay Act of 1963">Equal Pay Act of 1963</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> also gave public administrators new responsibilities. These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement. "Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo, some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine they had received".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These new scholars demanded more policy-oriented public administrators that incorporated "four themes: relevance, values, equity, and change".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities.<sup id="cite_ref-Shields,_P._M._2022_pp.1_-_19_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shields,_P._M._2022_pp.1_-_19-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Stimulated by the events of the '60s, the 1970s brought significant change to the American Society for Public Administration. Racial and ethnic minorities and women members organized to seek greater participation.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1980s_-_1990s">1980s - 1990s</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: 1980s - 1990s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called <a href="/wiki/New_Public_Management" title="New Public Management">New Public Management</a>, was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book <i>Reinventing Government</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new model advocated the use of <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the <a href="/wiki/Clinton_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Clinton Administration">Clinton Administration</a> (1993–2001), Vice President <a href="/wiki/Al_Gore" title="Al Gore">Al Gore</a> adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990's, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK, and to a lesser extent, in Canada. The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis, according to <a href="/wiki/Richard_Elmore" title="Richard Elmore">Richard Elmore</a> in his 1986 article published in the "<a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Policy_Analysis_and_Management" title="Journal of Policy Analysis and Management">Journal of Policy Analysis and Management</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies, encouraging competition between different public agencies, and encouraging competition between public agencies and private firms and using economic incentives lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models).<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some critics<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units not as democratic participants which is the hazard of linking an MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model) too closely with the public administration (governmental, <a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">public good</a>) sector. Nevertheless, the NPM model (one of four described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government (e.g., municipal, state/province, and federal) and in many OECD nations.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A successor to NPM is <a href="/wiki/Digital_era_governance" title="Digital era governance">digital era governance</a>, focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage). </p><p>One example of the deployment of DEG is <a href="/wiki/Open_Forum_(Australia)" title="Open Forum (Australia)">openforum.com.au</a>, an Australian not-for-profit e-Democracy project that invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people, and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Another example is Brunei's Information Department in deploying Social Media technology to improve its Digital Governance process.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach that includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role, and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and, the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the mid-1980s, the goal of community programs in the United States was often represented by terms such as independent living, <a href="/wiki/Community_integration" title="Community integration">community integration</a>, inclusion, community participation, <a href="/wiki/Deinstitutionalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Deinstitutionalization">deinstitutionalization</a>, and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, inclusive of disability. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Behaviorists have also dominated "intervention practice" (generally not the province of public administration) in recent years, believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy (termed <a href="/wiki/Ecological_systems_theory" title="Ecological systems theory">ecological systems theory</a>, of the late <a href="/wiki/Urie_Bronfenbrenner" title="Urie Bronfenbrenner">Urie Bronfenbrenner</a>). </p><p>Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have utilized the theoretical concepts of <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> to explain policy outcomes such as the success or failure of reform efforts or the persistence of suboptimal outcomes.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Women's_civic_clubs_and_the_Settlement_movement"><span id="Women.27s_civic_clubs_and_the_Settlement_movement"></span>Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Contemporary scholars <sup id="cite_ref-elgaronline.com_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elgaronline.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stivers,_C._2000_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stivers,_C._2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story that includes the contributions of women. This has become known as the "alternative" or "settlement" model of public administration.<sup id="cite_ref-elgaronline.com_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elgaronline.com-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During the 19th century upper-class women in the United States and Europe organized voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization in their towns. Eventually, these voluntary associations became networks that were able to spearhead changes to policy and administration.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These women's civic clubs worked to make cities and workplaces safer (cleaner streets, water, sewage, and workplace. As well as workplace regulation) and more suited to the needs of their children (playgrounds, libraries, juvenile courts, child labor laws). These were administrative and policy spaces ignored by their fathers and husbands. The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non-profit organizations (<a href="/wiki/Settlement_houses" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement houses">Settlement Houses</a>), usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants.<sup id="cite_ref-Stivers,_C._2000_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stivers,_C._2000-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shields,_P._2022_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shields,_P._2022-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reforms that emerged from the <a href="/wiki/New_Deal" title="New Deal">New Deal</a> (e.g., income for the old, unemployment insurance, aid for dependent children and the disabled, child labor prohibitions and limits on hours worked, etc.) were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement. Richard Stillman <sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> credits <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a>, a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration with "conceiving and spawning" the modern welfare state. The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration were ignored in the early literature of public administration. The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published <i>Bureau Men and Settlement Women</i> in 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform.<sup id="cite_ref-doi.org_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-doi.org-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants, women, children, sick, old, and impoverished people. Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied an ethic of care informed by the feminine experience of policy and administration.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values (efficiency, effectiveness, etc.) and practices<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of their male reformist counterparts, they also emphasized social justice and social equity. Jane Addams, for example, was a founder of the <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP).<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_Settlement_Model_of_Public_Administration">The Settlement Model of Public Administration</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: The Settlement Model of Public Administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Settlement movement and its leaders such as Jane Addams, <a href="/wiki/Julia_Lathrop" title="Julia Lathrop">Julia Lathrop</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Florence_Kelley" title="Florence Kelley">Florence Kelley</a> were instrumental in crafting the alternative, feminine inspired, model of public administration.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceB_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This settlement model of public administration, had two interrelated components – municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship.<sup id="cite_ref-Shields,_P._2022_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shields,_P._2022-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Shields,_P._M._2022_pp.1_-_19_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shields,_P._M._2022_pp.1_-_19-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Municipal housekeeping<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> called for cities to be run like a caring home, the city should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe and children cared for. Clean streets, clean water, playgrounds, educational curricular reform, and juvenile courts, are examples of reforms associated with this movement. Industrial citizenship <sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez-faire, newly industrialized economy. Reforms that mitigated workplace problems such as child labor, unsanitary workplaces, excessive work schedules, risks of industrial accidents, and old age poverty were the focus of these efforts. Organized settlement women's reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections. Settlement reformers went on to serve as local, state, and federal administrators. Jane Addams was a garbage inspector, Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois, Julia Lathrop was the first director of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Women%27s_Bureau" title="United States Women's Bureau">Women's Bureau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Francis_Perkins" class="mw-redirect" title="Francis Perkins">Francis Perkins</a> was Secretary of Labor during the F. Roosevelt Administration<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches">Branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Core_branches">Core branches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Core branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In academia, the field of public administration consists of several sub-fields. Scholars have proposed several different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":<sup id="cite_ref-Shafritz_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shafritz-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Organization_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Organization theory">Organizational theory in public administration</a> is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector_ethics" title="Public sector ethics">Ethics in public administration</a> serves as a normative approach to decision making.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_analysis" title="Policy analysis">Policy analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Program_evaluation" title="Program evaluation">program evaluation</a> serves as an empirical approach to decision making.</li> <li>Public budgeting and public finance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_budgeting" title="Public budgeting">Public budgeting</a> is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_finance" title="Public finance">Public finance</a> is the study of the role of the government in the economy.<sup id="cite_ref-Public_Finance_and_Public_Policy2_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Public_Finance_and_Public_Policy2-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the branch of economics that assesses the <a href="/wiki/Government_revenue" title="Government revenue">government revenue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Government_expenditure" class="mw-redirect" title="Government expenditure">government expenditure</a> of the public authorities and the adjustment of one or the other to achieve desirable effects and avoid undesirable ones.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Economics_of_Public_Finance_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Economics_of_Public_Finance-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Resource_Management_in_Public_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Human Resource Management in Public Administration">Human resource management</a> is an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased, ethical and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system are employee benefits, employee health care, compensation, and many more (e.g., human rights, <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Americans with Disabilities Act">Americans with Disabilities Act</a>). The executives managing the HR director and other key departmental personnel are also part of the public administration system.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_branches">Other branches</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Other branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonprofit_studies" title="Nonprofit studies">Nonprofit management</a> is research into and the practice of operating nonprofit organizations and their effects.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">Emergency management</a> is the managerial function charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce <a href="/wiki/Vulnerability" title="Vulnerability">vulnerability</a> to hazards and cope with disasters.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Information_Technology_in_Public_Administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Information Technology in Public Administration (page does not exist)"> Information Technology in Public Administration</a></li></ul> <p>Examines the role of IT in enhancing public sector operations, including e-governance and digital service delivery. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/257008">https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/257008</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Academic_field">Academic field</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Academic field"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_school" title="Public policy school">Public policy school</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_degrees" title="Public policy degrees">Public policy degrees</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Political_science#Education" title="Political science">Political science § Education</a></div> <p>Universities can offer undergraduate and graduate degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with a concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. Graduate degrees include the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration" title="Master of Public Administration">Master of Public Administration (MPA)</a> degree, a <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts (MA)</a> or <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science (MS)</a> in Public Administration (for the management tract), and the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy" title="Master of Public Policy">Master of Public Policy (MPP)</a>, a Master of Arts (MA), or a Master of Science (MS) in Public Policy (for the research tract) </p><p>In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background in micro-economic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as <a href="/wiki/John_A._Rohr" class="mw-redirect" title="John A. Rohr">John A. Rohr</a> write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. </p><p>One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory".<sup id="cite_ref-h-net_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h-net-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science ... is struggling to define its role within the discipline".<sup id="cite_ref-h-net_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h-net-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag behind" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field".<sup id="cite_ref-h-net_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h-net-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Public_administration_theory" title="Public administration theory">Public administration theory</a> is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs take place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparative_public_administration">Comparative public administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Comparative public administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Comparative public administration or CPA is defined as the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion or the study of public administration in other countries. Today, there is a section of the American Society for Public Administration that specializes in comparative administration. It is responsible for the annual <a href="/wiki/Riggs_Award_for_Lifetime_Achievement_in_International_and_Comparative_Public_Administration" title="Riggs Award for Lifetime Achievement in International and Comparative Public Administration">Riggs Award for Lifetime Achievement in International and Comparative Public Administration</a>. </p><p>There have been several issues that have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including the major differences between Western countries and developing countries; the lack of curriculum on this sub-field in public administration programs; and the lack of success in developing theoretical models that can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this sub-field of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior."<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CPA is an integral part to the analysis of public administration techniques. The process of comparison allows for more widely applicable policies to be tested in a variety of situations. </p><p>Comparative public administration lacks a curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that build this field's foundation has ultimately led to its lack of use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State University has stated "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the socio-political context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bachelor's_degrees,_academic_concentrations,_and_academic_minors"><span id="Bachelor.27s_degrees.2C_academic_concentrations.2C_and_academic_minors"></span>Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">Bachelor's degree</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">Bachelor of Arts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science" title="Bachelor of Science">Bachelor of Science</a></div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Academic_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic concentration">Academic concentration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Academic_minor" title="Academic minor">Academic minor</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Student_organization" class="mw-redirect" title="Student organization">Student organization</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Missing_information plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/44px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png" decoding="async" width="44" height="44" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/66px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/88px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This <b>is missing information</b> about Bachelor's degrees and undergraduate concentrations, but information on this within the article is missing.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please expand the to include this information. Further details may exist on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Public_administration" title="Talk:Public administration">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2022</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Universities offer undergraduate level Bachelor's degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. At several universities undergraduate-level public administration and non-profit management education is packaged together (along with international relations and security studies) in a degree in political science. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Master's_degrees"><span id="Master.27s_degrees"></span>Master's degrees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Master's degrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration" title="Master of Public Administration">Master of Public Administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy" title="Master of Public Policy">Master of Public Policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Policy_and_Administration" title="Master of Public Policy and Administration">Master of Public Policy and Administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Nonprofit_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Nonprofit Organizations">Master of Nonprofit Organizations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Arts" title="Master of Arts">Master of Arts</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a></div> <p>Some public administration programs have similarities to <a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business administration</a> programs, in cases where the students from both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs take many of the same courses.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some programs, the MPA (or MAPA) is more clearly distinct from the MBA, in that the MPA often emphasizes substantially different ethical and sociological criteria that pertain to administering government programs for the public good that have not been key criteria for business managers, who typically aim to maximize profit or share price. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doctoral_degrees">Doctoral degrees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Doctoral degrees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Administration" title="Doctor of Public Administration">Doctor of Public Administration</a></div> <p>There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the <a href="/wiki/Ph.D." class="mw-redirect" title="Ph.D.">Ph.D.</a> in public administration. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in the field of public administration, focusing on the practice of public administration more than on its theoretical aspects. The Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_scholars">Notable scholars</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notable scholars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_notable_public_administration_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of notable public administration scholars">List of notable public administration scholars</a></div> <p>Notable scholars of public administration have come from a wide range of fields. In the period before public administration existed as its own independent sub-discipline of political science, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, legal—specifically administrative law—and other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_Institutions">Notable Institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notable Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_school" title="Public policy school">Public policy school</a></div><p>For notable institutions, see the Wikipedia article on <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_school" title="Public policy school">public policy schools</a>. </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_organizations">International organizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: International organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are a number of international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) includes the 56 member states of the Commonwealth from India and the UK to Nauru.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest organization is the <a href="/wiki/International_Institute_of_Administrative_Sciences" title="International Institute of Administrative Sciences">International Institute of Administrative Sciences</a> (IIAS), based in Brussels, Belgium. Another body, the International Committee of the US-based <a href="/wiki/Network_of_Schools_of_Public_Policy,_Affairs,_and_Administration" title="Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration">Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration</a> (NASPAA), has developed several relationships around the world. They include sub regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE and NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, is a regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in central Europe and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Regional_Organization_for_Public_Administration" title="Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration">Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration</a> (EROPA) is a state-membership based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in the Philippines with centers and membership organized around the Asia Pacific region. EROPA organizes annual conferences and publishes a journal <i>Asian Review of Public Administration</i> (ARPA). It has several centers in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Public_management">Public management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Public management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>"Public management" is an approach to government administration and nonprofit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector management and business techniques and approaches. These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Graham_T._Allison" class="mw-redirect" title="Graham T. Allison">Graham T. Allison</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Goodsell" title="Charles Goodsell">Charles Goodsell</a>) makes it different from the private sector.<sup id="cite_ref-Raczkowski_2016_15_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raczkowski_2016_15-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A positive and negative definition of public management have been proposed. The positive approach as: "praxeological and rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships, competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resources".<sup id="cite_ref-Raczkowski_2016_15_83-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raczkowski_2016_15-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Negative approach as: "Fiction, whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in <a href="/wiki/Developed_nation" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed nation">developed nations</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Organizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including: </p> <ul><li>In the US, the American Society for Public Administration. Indiana University Bloomington</li> <li>In Canada, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipac.ca">Institute of Public Administration of Canada</a>, the <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.observatoire.enap.ca">Observatoire de l'Administration publique</a></i>, and various projects of the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Canadian_Municipalities" title="Federation of Canadian Municipalities">Federation of Canadian Municipalities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Housing,_Infrastructure_and_Communities_Canada" title="Housing, Infrastructure and Communities Canada">Housing, Infrastructure and Communities Canada</a></li> <li>In the UK, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/government/departments/local-government-studies/index.aspx">Institute of Local Government Studies</a>, INLOGOV, <a href="/wiki/Newcastle_Business_School" title="Newcastle Business School">Newcastle Business School</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warwick_Business_School" title="Warwick Business School">Warwick Business School</a>, the <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Economics" title="London School of Economics">London School of Economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_College_London" title="University College London">University College London</a>, the <a href="/wiki/UK_local_democracy_project" class="mw-redirect" title="UK local democracy project">UK local democracy project</a> and <a href="/wiki/Public_health_observatory" title="Public health observatory">London Health Observatory</a>.</li> <li>In the Netherlands, <a href="/wiki/Erasmus_University_Rotterdam" title="Erasmus University Rotterdam">Erasmus University Rotterdam</a></li> <li>In Australia, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ipaa.org.au">Institute of Public Administration Australia</a>.</li> <li>In France, the <span title="French-language text"><span lang="fr" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_d%27administration" title="École nationale d'administration">École nationale d'administration</a></span></span>, the <a href="/wiki/Sciences_Po" title="Sciences Po">Sciences Po</a> School of Public Affairs, the <a href="/wiki/Institut_national_des_%C3%A9tudes_territoriales" title="Institut national des études territoriales">INET</a>, National Institute of Territorial Studies, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=IMPGT&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="IMPGT (page does not exist)">IMPGT</a><sup class="noprint" style="font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_de_management_public_et_de_gouvernance_territoriale" class="extiw" title="fr:Institut de management public et de gouvernance territoriale">fr</a>]</sup>, Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix-en-Provence, Aix-Marseille University.</li> <li>In Belgium, the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://soc.kuleuven.be/io/english/">Public Governance Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/KU_Leuven" title="KU Leuven">KU Leuven</a>.</li> <li>In Germany, the <a href="/wiki/German_University_of_Administrative_Sciences_Speyer" title="German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer">German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Hertie_School_of_Governance" class="mw-redirect" title="Hertie School of Governance">Hertie School of Governance</a>, the Bachelor and Master of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zu.de/pair">Politics, Administration & International Relations (PAIR)</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Zeppelin_University" title="Zeppelin University">Zeppelin University Friedrichshafen</a>, and the Bachelor and Master of Public Policy & Management and the Executive Public Management Master of <a href="/wiki/University_of_Potsdam" title="University of Potsdam">University of Potsdam</a>.</li> <li>In Switzerland, the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Geneva" title="University of Geneva">University of Geneva</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Graduate_School_of_Public_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration">Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)</a>.</li> <li>In Italy, the <a href="/wiki/SDA_Bocconi_School_of_Management" title="SDA Bocconi School of Management">SDA Bocconi School of Management</a>, the graduate business school of <a href="/wiki/Bocconi_University" title="Bocconi University">Bocconi University</a> in Milan.</li> <li>In Cyprus, the <a href="/wiki/Cyprus_International_Institute_of_Management" title="Cyprus International Institute of Management">Cyprus International Institute of Management</a> or CIIM.</li> <li>In Ireland, the Institute of Public Administration, Dublin.</li> <li>In South Africa, <a href="/wiki/Regenesys_Business_School" title="Regenesys Business School">Regenesys Business School</a> through the Regenesys School of Public Management and MANCOSA.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Comparative public management, through <a href="/wiki/Government_performance_auditing" title="Government performance auditing">government performance auditing</a>, examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administration_(government)" title="Administration (government)">Administration (government)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_discretion" title="Administrative discretion">Administrative discretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Budgeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Budgeting">Budgeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_society" title="Civil society">Civil society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Community services">Community services</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Administration" title="Doctor of Public Administration">Doctor of Public Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Public_Administration_Journals" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Public Administration Journals">List of Public Administration Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_public_administration_schools" title="List of public administration schools">List of public administration schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Administration" title="Master of Public Administration">Master of Public Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Municipal government">Municipal government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official" title="Official">Official</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional administration">Professional administration</a></li> <li>Public policy</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Policy_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Policy Studies">Policy Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Public policy schools">Public policy schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleadministration" title="Teleadministration">Teleadministration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Theories of administration">Theories of administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Study_of_Administration" title="The Study of Administration">The Study of Administration</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Societies">Societies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Societies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li>International Institute of Administrative Sciences</li> <li>American Society for Public Administration</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Public_Administration_Society" title="Chinese Public Administration Society">Chinese Public Administration Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Association_for_Public_Administration" title="Dutch Association for Public Administration">Dutch Association for Public Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Institute_of_Public_Administration" title="Indian Institute of Public Administration">Indian Institute of Public Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_University_Council_of_the_Applied_Social_Sciences" title="Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences">Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korea_Institute_of_Public_Administration" title="Korea Institute of Public Administration">Korea Institute of Public Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_Public_Administration" title="Royal Institute of Public Administration">Royal Institute of Public Administration</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_management_academic_resources">Public management academic resources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Public management academic resources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_Policy_and_Administration" title="Public Policy and Administration">Public Policy and Administration</a>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1749-4192">1749-4192</a>, (electronic) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0952-0767">0952-0767</a> (print), <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a> and Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences</li> <li>International Journal of Public Sector Management, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0951-3558">0951-3558</a>, Emerald Group Publishing</li> <li>Public Management Review, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1471-9045">1471-9045</a> (electronic) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1471-9037">1471-9037</a> (paper) <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a></li> <li>Public Works Management & Policy, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1552-7549">1552-7549</a> (electronic) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1087-724X">1087-724X</a> (paper), <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Administration_and_Development" title="Public Administration and Development">Public Administration and Development</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1099-162X">1099-162X</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wiley_(publisher)" title="Wiley (publisher)">Wiley (publisher)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert and Janet Denhardt, <i>Public Administration: An Action Orientation</i>. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont CA.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-KettlDonald-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KettlDonald_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kettl, Donald and James Fessler. 2009. <i>The Politics of the Administrative Process</i>. Washington D.C.: CQ Press</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Leary2011" class="citation journal cs1">O'Leary, Rosemary (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/jpart/article/21/suppl_1/i1/913462">"Minnowbrook: Tradition, Idea, Spirit, Event, Challenge"</a>. <i>Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory</i>. <b>21</b> (1): i1–i6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjopart%2Fmuq066">10.1093/jopart/muq066</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Public Administration in an Advancing South", <i><a href="/wiki/Public_Administration_Review" title="Public Administration Review">Public Administration Review</a></i> Vol. 8. no. 2 pp. 169–75. Clapp attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carroll, J.D. & Zuck, A.M. (1983). "The Study of Public Administration Revisited". <i>A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration</i>. Washington, DC; American Society for Public Administration.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-thecanadianencyclopedia-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-thecanadianencyclopedia_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-thecanadianencyclopedia_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/public-administration">"Public Administration | the Canadian Encyclopedia"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170328003943/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/public-administration/">Archived</a> from the original on March 28, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cham. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20312-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-20312-6"><bdi>978-3-319-20312-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/914254547">914254547</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Public+management+%3A+theory+and+practice&rft.place=Cham&rft.date=2015-07-14&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F914254547&rft.isbn=978-3-319-20312-6&rft.au=Raczkowski%2C+Konrad&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F914254547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+administration" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mancosa.co.za">"Home"</a>. 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Kirchwey">Kirchwey, George W.</a> (1905). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:The New International Encyclopædia/Civil Administration"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_International_Encyclop%C3%A6dia/Civil_Administration">"Civil Administration" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Coit_Gilman" title="Daniel Coit Gilman">Gilman, D. C.</a>; Peck, H. T.; Colby, F. M. (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/New_International_Encyclopedia" class="mw-redirect" title="New International Encyclopedia">New International Encyclopedia</a></i> (1st ed.). New York: Dodd, Mead.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Civil+Administration&rft.btitle=New+International+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Dodd%2C+Mead&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Kirchwey&rft.aufirst=George+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+administration" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–27.</li> <li>Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). <i>Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction.</i> Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-983-195-253-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-983-195-253-5">978-983-195-253-5</a></li> <li>Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. (2006) <i>Public Administration – Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government</i>, LA: Roxbury Pub. Co. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-933220-04-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-933220-04-X">1-933220-04-X</a></li> <li>White, Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. <i>Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice</i>. 1994.</li> <li>Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. <i>The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity</i>. New York: M. E. Sharpe.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_management_2">Public management</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Public management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Janicke, M. (1990). <i>State Failure</i>. Cambridge: Polity Press.</li> <li>Kanter, R. M. (1985). <i>The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work</i>. Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks.</li> <li>Lane, R. E. (1991). <i>The Market Experience</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li>Lynn, L. E. Jr. (1996). "Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession." Chatham House, CQ Press.</li> <li>Lynn, L. E. Jr. (2006). "Public Management: Old and New." Routledge.</li> <li>Raczkowski, K. (2016). "Public Management: Theory and Practice." 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title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_services" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_services" title="Template:Public services"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free-culture_movement" title="Free-culture movement">Free-culture movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_newspaper" title="Free newspaper">Free newspaper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_sample" title="Product sample">Product sample</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bad" title="Public bad">Public bad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">Public domain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_good_(economics)" title="Public good (economics)">Public good (economics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_interest" title="Public interest">Public interest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_ownership" title="State ownership">Public ownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_rights" title="Public rights">Public rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_procurement" title="Government procurement">Public procurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_trust" title="Public trust">Public trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_value" title="Public value">Public value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_access_to_education" title="Universal access to education">Universal access to education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_department" title="Fire department">Fire department</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement" title="Law enforcement">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mail" title="Mail">Postal service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postal_savings_system" title="Postal savings system">Savings system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_broadcasting" title="Public broadcasting">Public broadcasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transport" title="Public transport">Public transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_basic_services" title="Universal basic services">Universal basic services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_utility" title="Public utility">Public utility</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_utility" title="Electric utility">Electric utility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_oil_company" title="National oil company">Oil & gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postal,_telegraph_and_telephone_service" title="Postal, telegraph and telephone service">Telecommunication</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_broadband" title="Municipal broadband">Municipal broadband</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_infrastructure" class="mw-redirect" title="Public infrastructure">Public infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_water_system" title="Public water system">Public water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">Waste management</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">Public works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_fountain" title="Drinking fountain">Drinking fountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_clinic" title="Free clinic">Free clinic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_education" title="Free education">Free education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_and_syringe_programmes" title="Needle and syringe programmes">Needle and syringe programmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_art" title="Public art">Public art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bank" title="Public bank">Public bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_bookcase" title="Public bookcase">Public bookcase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_computer" title="Public computer">Public computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_hospital" title="Public hospital">Public hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">Public library</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_open_space" title="Public open space">Public open space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_school" title="State school">Public school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_space" title="Public space">Public space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_toilet" title="Public toilet">Public toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_university" title="Public university">Public university</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_injection_site" title="Supervised injection site">Supervised injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_park" title="Urban park">Urban park</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_services" title="Social services">Social services</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">Publicly funded health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_housing" title="Public housing">Public housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_creation" class="mw-redirect" title="Job creation">Job creation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_guarantee" title="Job guarantee">Job guarantee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-payer_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-payer health care">Single-payer health care</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_health_insurance" title="National health insurance">National health insurance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_insurance" title="Social insurance">Social insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_pension" title="Social pension">Social pension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Social security">Social security</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_services" title="Youth services">Youth services</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_auction" title="Government auction">Government auction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_float" title="Public float">Public float</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holiday" title="Public holiday">Public holiday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_offering" title="Public offering">Public offering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_security" title="Public security">Public security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_use" title="Public use">Public use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_viewing_area" title="Public viewing area">Public viewing area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_services" title="Category:Public services">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_services" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public services">Commons</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_service" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_service" title="Template:Civil service"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_service" title="Template talk:Civil service"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_service" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil service"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_service" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_service" title="Civil service">Civil service</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">Public sector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">Government agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">Bureaucracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">Bureaucrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_system" title="Merit system">Merit system</a> / <a href="/wiki/Spoils_system" title="Spoils system">Spoils system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomat" title="Diplomat">Diplomat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">Public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_service" title="Public service">Public service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_agency" title="Regulatory agency">Regulatory agency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country/territory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Public_Service" title="Australian Public Service">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Civil_Service" title="Bangladesh Civil Service">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Civil_Service" title="Brazilian Civil Service">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Service_of_Canada" title="Public Service of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Service of China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Civil_Service" title="Hong Kong Civil Service">Hong Kong</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Civil_Service" class="mw-redirect" title="French Civil Service">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beamter" title="Beamter">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Civil_Service" title="Greek Civil Service">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Services_of_India" title="Civil Services of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Civil Service of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Senior_Civil_Service" title="Italian Senior Civil Service">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_of_Japan" title="Civil service of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_service_in_Malaysia" title="Civil service in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_sector_organisations_in_New_Zealand#Public_service_departments" class="mw-redirect" title="Public sector organisations in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_Service" title="Nigerian Civil Service">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Superior_Services" title="Central Superior Services">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_of_the_Russian_Federation" title="Civil Service of the Russian Federation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singapore_Civil_Service" title="Singapore Civil Service">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka_Administrative_Service" title="Sri Lanka Administrative Service">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Service_(United_Kingdom)" title="Civil Service (United Kingdom)">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Civil_Service" title="Northern Ireland Civil Service">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Civil_Service" title="European Civil Service">European Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:National_civil_service_commissions" title="Category:National civil service commissions">National civil service commissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Government_occupations" title="Category:Government occupations">Government occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Civil_service_by_country" title="Category:Civil service by country">Civil service by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><i>See also:</i> <a href="/wiki/Civil_service_reform_in_developing_countries" title="Civil service reform in developing countries">Civil service reform in developing countries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31728#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31728#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q31728#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Public administration"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85108611">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Administration publique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930827q">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Administration publique"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930827q">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="行政"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00562701">Japan</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="veřejná správa"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph127076&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Valsts pārvalde"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000053078&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Public administration"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007546275405171">Israel</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/010342">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10643542">NARA</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&oldid=1258511364">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&oldid=1258511364</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_administration" 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