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</li> <li id="toc-Purpose" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purpose"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Purpose </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purpose-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Components" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Components"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Components </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Components-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Methods </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Priority_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Priority_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Priority areas </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Priority_areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Priority areas subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Priority_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Original_focal_areas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Original_focal_areas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Original focal areas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Original_focal_areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Changing_focal_areas_and_expanding_scope" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changing_focal_areas_and_expanding_scope"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Changing focal areas and expanding scope </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changing_focal_areas_and_expanding_scope-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-World_Health_Organization_(WHO)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Health_Organization_(WHO)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 World Health Organization (WHO) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Health_Organization_(WHO)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.2 Others </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Public health programs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavior_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavior_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Behavior change </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Behavior_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applications_in_health_care" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applications_in_health_care"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Applications in health care </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applications_in_health_care-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflicting_aims" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflicting_aims"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Conflicting aims </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conflicting_aims-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_perspectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_perspectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Global perspectives </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Global_perspectives-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Global perspectives subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Global_perspectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disparities_in_service_and_access" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disparities_in_service_and_access"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Disparities in service and access </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disparities_in_service_and_access-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Health_aid_in_developing_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Health_aid_in_developing_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Health aid in developing countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Health_aid_in_developing_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-International_health_aid_debates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#International_health_aid_debates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 International health aid debates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-International_health_aid_debates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sustainable_development_goals_for_2030" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sustainable_development_goals_for_2030"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Sustainable development goals for 2030 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sustainable_development_goals_for_2030-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Until_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Until_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Until the 18th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Until_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_18th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_18th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 After the 18th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_the_18th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Public_health_legislation_in_England" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_legislation_in_England"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Public health legislation in England </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_legislation_in_England-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_health_legislation_in_other_countries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_health_legislation_in_other_countries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Public health legislation in other countries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_health_legislation_in_other_countries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_of_infectious_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_of_infectious_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.4 Control of infectious diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_of_infectious_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society_and_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society_and_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Society and culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society and culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society_and_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Education_and_training" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education_and_training"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Education and training </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education_and_training-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schools_of_public_health:_a_US_perspective" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_public_health:_a_US_perspective"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.1 Schools of public health: a US perspective </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_public_health:_a_US_perspective-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrees_in_public_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrees_in_public_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1.2 Degrees in public health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Degrees_in_public_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Notable people </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Country_examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Country_examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Country examples </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Country_examples-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Country examples subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Country_examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Canada </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cuba" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuba"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Cuba </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuba-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia_and_Bolivia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia_and_Bolivia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Colombia and Bolivia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia_and_Bolivia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Ghana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 France </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mexico" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mexico"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Mexico </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mexico-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.7 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Public health</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 66 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-66" aria-hidden="true" > 66 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Openbare_gesondheid" title="Openbare gesondheid – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Openbare gesondheid" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A9" title="صحة عامة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صحة عامة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal%C3%BA_p%C3%BAblica" title="Salú pública – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Salú pública" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sosial_gigiyena_v%C9%99_s%C9%99hiyy%C9%99nin_t%C9%99%C5%9Fkili" title="Sosial gigiyena və səhiyyənin təşkili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Sosial gigiyena və səhiyyənin təşkili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="জনস্বাস্থ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জনস্বাস্থ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawigasan_awam" title="Kawigasan awam – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Kawigasan awam" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong-ki%C5%8Dng_%C5%8De-seng" title="Kong-kiōng ōe-seng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kong-kiōng ōe-seng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Обществено здравеопазване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Обществено здравеопазване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javno_zdravstvo" title="Javno zdravstvo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Javno zdravstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salut_p%C3%BAblica" title="Salut pública – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Salut pública" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ve%C5%99ejn%C3%A9_zdrav%C3%AD" title="Veřejné zdraví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Veřejné zdraví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkesundhedsvidenskab" title="Folkesundhedsvidenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Folkesundhedsvidenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81lbmotdearvva%C5%A1vuohta" title="Álbmotdearvvašvuohta – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Álbmotdearvvašvuohta" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Health" title="Public Health – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Public Health" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvatervis" title="Rahvatervis – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rahvatervis" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B7%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%B1_%CE%A5%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Δημόσια Υγεία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δημόσια Υγεία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salud_p%C3%BAblica" title="Salud pública – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Salud pública" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publika_sano" title="Publika sano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Publika sano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osasun_publiko" title="Osasun publiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Osasun publiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%87%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%88%D9%85%DB%8C" title="بهداشت عمومی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بهداشت عمومی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sant%C3%A9_publique" title="Santé publique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Santé publique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%ADochaine_phobail" title="Míochaine phobail – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Míochaine phobail" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%BAde_p%C3%BAblica" title="Saúde pública – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Saúde pública" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%B5%EC%A4%91%EB%B3%B4%EA%B1%B4" title="공중보건 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="공중보건" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%B8%D5%B2%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Հանրային առողջապահություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հանրային առողջապահություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF" title="जनस्वास्थ्य – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जनस्वास्थ्य" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdravstvo" title="Zdravstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Zdravstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesehatan_masyarakat" title="Kesehatan masyarakat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kesehatan masyarakat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%BD%C3%B0heilsufr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Lýðheilsufræði – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Lýðheilsufræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%90%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A8" title="בריאות הציבור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="בריאות הציבור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Коммуналдық гигиена – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Коммуналдық гигиена" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Социалдык гигиена – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Социалдык гигиена" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salus_publica" title="Salus publica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Salus publica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6zeg%C3%A9szs%C3%A9g%C3%BCgy" title="Közegészségügy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Közegészségügy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesihatan_awam" title="Kesihatan awam – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kesihatan awam" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%BC%E1%80%8A%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9E%E1%80%B0%E1%80%B7%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8" title="ပြည်သူ့ကျန်းမာရေး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပြည်သူ့ကျန်းမာရေး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volksgezondheid" title="Volksgezondheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Volksgezondheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E8%A1%86%E8%A1%9B%E7%94%9F" title="公衆衛生 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="公衆衛生" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkehelse" title="Folkehelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Folkehelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamoat_salomatligi" title="Jamoat salomatligi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jamoat salomatligi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%AA" title="عوامی صحت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عوامی صحت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%BA%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="عامه روغتیا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="عامه روغتیا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdrowie_publiczne" title="Zdrowie publiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zdrowie publiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%BAde_p%C3%BAblica" title="Saúde pública – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Saúde pública" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%83n%C4%83tate_public%C4%83" title="Sănătate publică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sănătate publică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B8_%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Социальная гигиена и организация здравоохранения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Социальная гигиена и организация здравоохранения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sh%C3%ABndeti_publik" title="Shëndeti publik – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shëndeti publik" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%84%E0%B6%A2%E0%B6%B1_%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%9E%E0%B6%9B%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%BA" title="මහජන සෞඛ්‍යය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="මහජන සෞඛ්‍යය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Public health" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javno_zdravje" title="Javno zdravje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Javno zdravje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%88%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B7%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%99%D0%B5" title="Јавно здравље – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Јавно здравље" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zdravstvo" title="Zdravstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Zdravstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansanterveys" title="Kansanterveys – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansanterveys" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkh%C3%A4lsa" title="Folkhälsa – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Folkhälsa" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalusugang_pampubliko" title="Kalusugang pampubliko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Kalusugang pampubliko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8A%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="பொது உடல்நலவியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பொது உடல்நலவியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D1%81%D3%99%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D3%99%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B5" title="Халык сәламәтлелеге – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Халык сәламәтлелеге" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="ప్రజారోగ్యం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రజారోగ్యం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%82" title="สาธารณสุข – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สาธารณสุข" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halk_sa%C4%9Fl%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Halk sağlığı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Halk sağlığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%27%D1%8F" title="Громадське здоров'я – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Громадське здоров'я" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%AA" title="عوامی صحت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="عوامی صحت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Y_t%E1%BA%BF_c%C3%B4ng_c%E1%BB%99ng" title="Y tế công cộng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Y tế công cộng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%AB%E7%94%9F" title="卫生 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="卫生" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%A1%9E%E7%94%9F" title="公共衞生 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="公共衞生" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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searchaux" style="display:none">Promoting health through informed choices</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about public health. For public health care, see <a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">publicly funded health care</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:392px;max-width:392px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:175px;max-width:175px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:118px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_(19165929668).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Delivery of malaria treatment by community health worker in Djénébougou, Mali. October 2013." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg/173px-Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg/260px-Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg/346px-Community_Health_Worker_treats_child_%2819165929668%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4148" data-file-height="2848" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:213px;max-width:213px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:118px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:COVID-19_vaccination_center,_fair_grounds_Cologne,_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="COVID-19 vaccination center, fair grounds Cologne, 1st vaccination" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg/211px-COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg" decoding="async" width="211" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg/317px-COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg/422px-COVID-19_vaccination_center%2C_fair_grounds_Cologne%2C_1st_vaccination-8237.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5479" data-file-height="3082" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:180px;max-width:180px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline,_1931.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Installing E. 80th Street pipeline, Seattle, Washington, USA, 1931" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg/178px-Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg" decoding="async" width="178" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg/267px-Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg/356px-Seattle_-_Installing_E._80th_Street_pipeline%2C_1931.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="923" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:208px;max-width:208px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:136px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Addl._Secretary,_Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare,_Shri_Keshav_Desiraju_addressing_at_the_launch_of_the_media_campaign_of_National_Tobacco_Control_Programme,_in_New_Delhi._The_WHO_Representative.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The Addl. Secretary, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Shri Keshav Desiraju addressing at the launch of the media campaign of National Tobacco Control Programme, in New Delhi on February 02, 2012. The WHO Representative, Dr. Nata Menabde and other dignitaries are also seen." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/The_Addl._Secretary%2C_Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare%2C_Shri_Keshav_Desiraju_addressing_at_the_launch_of_the_media_campaign_of_National_Tobacco_Control_Programme%2C_in_New_Delhi._The_WHO_Representative.jpg/206px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="206" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/The_Addl._Secretary%2C_Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare%2C_Shri_Keshav_Desiraju_addressing_at_the_launch_of_the_media_campaign_of_National_Tobacco_Control_Programme%2C_in_New_Delhi._The_WHO_Representative.jpg/309px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/The_Addl._Secretary%2C_Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare%2C_Shri_Keshav_Desiraju_addressing_at_the_launch_of_the_media_campaign_of_National_Tobacco_Control_Programme%2C_in_New_Delhi._The_WHO_Representative.jpg/412px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1461" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Various aspects of public health: From top to bottom : <a href="/wiki/Community_health_worker" title="Community health worker">Community health worker</a> in Mali, <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> example (<a href="/wiki/COVID-19_vaccine" title="COVID-19 vaccine">COVID-19 vaccination</a> in Germany), historical <a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">sewer</a> installation photo from the United States, <a href="/wiki/Anti-smoking_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-smoking campaign">anti-smoking campaign</a> in India.</div></div></div></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public health</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/150px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/225px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg/300px-Community_Health_Advocate_-_The_Noun_Project.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding-bottom:0.35em;"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_public_health" title="Outline of public health">Outline</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Subfields</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_public_health" title="Dental public health">Dental public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_(penology)" title="Rehabilitation (penology)">Rehabilitation (penology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li>World health (<a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a> - <a href="/wiki/International_health" title="International health">International health</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Prevention</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_indicators" class="mw-redirect" title="Health indicators">Health indicators</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#ddddff;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health-related_lists" title="Category:Public health-related lists">Lists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">categories</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Terminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health_journals" title="Category:Public health journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">National public health agencies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/7px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/10px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/13px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/16px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/24px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health_sidebar" title="Template:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health_sidebar" title="Template talk:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease, prolonging life and promoting health through the organized efforts and informed choices of society, organizations, public and private, communities and individuals".<a href="#cite_note-Gatseva-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Winslow_1920-2">[2]</a> Analyzing the determinants of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_Foundation-3">[3]</a> The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city; in the case of a <a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">pandemic</a> it may encompass several continents. The concept of health takes into account physical, <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">social well-being</a>, among other factors.<a href="#cite_note-What_is_the_WHO_definition_of_health-4">[4]</a> Public health is an <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> field. For example, <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> of <a href="/wiki/Health_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Health services">health services</a> are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">community health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral health">behavioral health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">health economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">health politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oral_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Oral health">oral health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender issues">gender issues</a> in health, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">sexual and reproductive health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Perdiguero_2001-5">[5]</a> Public health, together with <a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">primary care</a>, secondary care, and <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary care">tertiary care</a>, is part of a country's overall <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> system. Public health is implemented through the <a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">surveillance</a> of cases and <a href="/wiki/Health_indicators" class="mw-redirect" title="Health indicators">health indicators</a>, and through the <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">promotion of healthy behaviors</a>. Common public health initiatives include promotion of <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand-washing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>, delivery of <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a>, promoting ventilation and improved air quality both <a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">indoors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Air_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Air quality">outdoors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suicide_prevention" title="Suicide prevention">suicide prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity education</a>, increasing <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> accessibility and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">condoms</a> to control the spread of <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">sexually transmitted diseases</a>. There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_workers" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare workers">healthcare workers</a>, monetary resources, or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.<a href="#cite_note-Chen_2006-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jamison_15–22-7">[7]</a> A major public health concern in developing countries is poor <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pediatric_nursing" title="Pediatric nursing">child health</a>, exacerbated by <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> and poverty coupled with governments' reluctance in implementing public health policies. Developed nations are at greater risk of certain public health crises, including childhood obesity, although overweight populations in low- and middle-income countries are catching up.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> From the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Human_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human civilization">human civilization</a>, communities promoted <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and fought <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> at the population level.<a href="#cite_note-Rosen_2015-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Porter_1999-10">[10]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">complex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">pre-industrialized societies</a>, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders, such as army generals, the clergy or rulers. Great Britain became a leader in the development of public health initiatives, beginning in the 19th century, due to the fact that it was the first modern <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urban nation</a> worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> The public health initiatives that began to emerge initially focused on <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> (for example, the Liverpool and <a href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" class="mw-redirect" title="London sewerage system">London sewerage systems</a>), control of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious diseases</a> (including vaccination and <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a>) and an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum,_Bangladesh_(8630810827).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg/220px-A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg/330px-A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg/440px-A_community_health_worker_conducting_a_survey_in_the_Korail_slum%2C_Bangladesh_%288630810827%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3615" data-file-height="2410" /></a><figcaption>A community health worker in Korail Basti, a slum in <a href="/wiki/Dhaka" title="Dhaka">Dhaka</a>, Bangladesh</figcaption></figure> Public health has been defined as "the science and art of <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">preventing disease</a>", prolonging life and improving <a href="/wiki/Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a> through organized efforts and informed choices of <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a>, <a href="/wiki/Organization" title="Organization">organizations</a> (public and private), <a href="/wiki/Community" title="Community">communities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Individual" title="Individual">individuals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Winslow_1920-2">[2]</a> The public can be as small as a handful of people or as large as a village or an entire city. The concept of health takes into account physical, <a href="/wiki/Psychological" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological">psychological</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">social well-being</a>. As such, according to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>, "health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity".<a href="#cite_note-What_is_the_WHO_definition_of_health-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_terms">Related terms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Related terms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg/220px-World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg/330px-World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg/440px-World_Health_Organisation_building_from_west.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3880" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a> is the predominant agency associated with <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">global health</a>.</figcaption></figure> Public health is related to <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">global health</a> which is the health of populations in the worldwide context.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> It has been defined as "the area of study, <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in "<a href="/wiki/Health_for_all" class="mw-redirect" title="Health for all">Health for all</a>" people worldwide".<a href="#cite_note-Koplan-13">[13]</a> International health is a field of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> care, usually with a public health emphasis, dealing with health across regional or national boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Public health is not the same as public healthcare (<a href="/wiki/Publicly_funded_health_care" title="Publicly funded health care">publicly funded health care</a>). The term preventive medicine is related to public health. The American Board of Preventive Medicine separates three categories of preventive medicine: aerospace health, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational health</a>, and public health and general preventative medicine. Jung, Boris and Lushniak argue that preventive medicine should be considered the medical specialty for public health but note that the American College of Preventive Medicine and American Board of Preventive Medicine do not prominently use the term "public health".<a href="#cite_note-Jung_2017-15">[15]</a>: 1  Preventive medicine specialists are trained as <a href="/wiki/Clinician" title="Clinician">clinicians</a> and address complex health needs of a population such as by assessing the need for <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">disease prevention</a> programs, using the best methods to implement them, and assessing their effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-Jung_2017-15">[15]</a>: 1, 3  Since the 1990s many scholars in public health have been using the term population health.<a href="#cite_note-Valles_2018-16">[16]</a>: 3  There are no medical specialties directly related to population health.<a href="#cite_note-Jung_2017-15">[15]</a>: 4  Valles argues that consideration of <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">health equity</a> is a fundamental part of population health. Scholars such as Coggon and Pielke express concerns about bringing general issues of wealth distribution into population health. Pielke worries about "stealth issue advocacy" in population health.<a href="#cite_note-Valles_2018-16">[16]</a>: 163  Jung, Boris and Lushniak consider population health to be a concept that is the goal of an activity called public health practiced through the specialty preventive medicine.<a href="#cite_note-Jung_2017-15">[15]</a>: 4  <a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_medicine" title="Lifestyle medicine">Lifestyle medicine</a> uses individual lifestyle modification to prevent or revert disease and can be considered a component of preventive medicine and public health. It is implemented as part of <a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">primary care</a> rather than a specialty in its own right.<a href="#cite_note-Jung_2017-15">[15]</a>: 3  Valles argues that the term <a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">social medicine</a> has a narrower and more <a href="/wiki/Biomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Biomedical">biomedical</a> focus than the term population health.<a href="#cite_note-Valles_2018-16">[16]</a>: 7  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Purpose">Purpose</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Purpose">edit</a>]</div> The purpose of a <a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">public health intervention</a> is to prevent and <a href="/wiki/Mitigation" title="Mitigation">mitigate</a> diseases, <a href="/wiki/Injury" title="Injury">injuries</a>, and other health conditions. The overall goal is to improve the health of individuals and populations, and to increase <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Components">Components</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Components">edit</a>]</div> Public health is a complex term, composed of many elements and different practices. It is a multi-faceted, <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">interdisciplinary</a> field.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social sciences</a> and <a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">management</a> of health services are all relevant. Other important sub-fields include <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">community health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral health">behavioral health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">health economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">health politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">occupational safety</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">disability</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gender_issues" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender issues">gender issues</a> in health, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">sexual and reproductive health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Perdiguero_2001-5">[5]</a> Modern public health practice requires <a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">multidisciplinary</a> teams of public health workers and professionals. Teams might include <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatisticians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physician_assistant" title="Physician assistant">physician assistants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Public_health_nursing" title="Public health nursing">public health nurses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Midwives" class="mw-redirect" title="Midwives">midwives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbiologist" title="Microbiologist">medical microbiologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacist" title="Pharmacist">pharmacists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economists" class="mw-redirect" title="Economists">economists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologists">sociologists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geneticists" class="mw-redirect" title="Geneticists">geneticists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Data_management" title="Data management">data managers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health_officer" title="Environmental health officer">environmental health officers</a> (<a href="/wiki/Public_health_inspector" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health inspector">public health inspectors</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethicists</a>, gender experts, sexual and reproductive health specialists, <a href="/wiki/Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Veterinarian" title="Veterinarian">veterinarians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> The elements and priorities of public health have evolved over time, and are continuing to evolve.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> Common public health initiatives include promotion of <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">hand-washing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>, delivery of <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suicide_prevention" title="Suicide prevention">suicide prevention</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">smoking cessation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity education</a>, increasing <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">healthcare</a> accessibility and distribution of <a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">condoms</a> to control the spread of <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">sexually transmitted diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Methods">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salk_headlines.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Salk_headlines.jpg/220px-Salk_headlines.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Salk_headlines.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="397" /></a><figcaption>Newspaper headlines from around the world about <a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine" title="Polio vaccine">polio vaccine</a> tests (13 April 1955)</figcaption></figure> Public health aims are achieved through surveillance of cases and the <a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">promotion of healthy behaviors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Healthy_community_design" title="Healthy community design">communities</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_protection" title="Environmental protection">environments</a>. Analyzing the determinants of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> and the threats it faces is the basis for public health.<a href="#cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_Foundation-3">[3]</a> Many diseases are <a href="/wiki/Preventable_causes_of_death" title="Preventable causes of death">preventable</a> through simple, nonmedical methods. For example, research has shown that the simple act of <a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">handwashing</a> with soap can prevent the spread of many <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">contagious diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> In other cases, treating a disease or controlling a <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogen</a> can be vital to preventing its spread to others, either during an outbreak of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a> or through <a href="/wiki/Food_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Food contamination">contamination of food</a> or <a href="/wiki/Water_contamination" class="mw-redirect" title="Water contamination">water</a> supplies. Public health, together with <a href="/wiki/Primary_care" title="Primary care">primary care</a>, secondary care, and <a href="/wiki/Tertiary_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Tertiary care">tertiary care</a>, is part of a country's overall <a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> system. Many interventions of public health interest are delivered outside of <a href="/wiki/Health_facility" title="Health facility">health facilities</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">food safety</a> surveillance, distribution of <a href="/wiki/Condom" title="Condom">condoms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Needle-exchange_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle-exchange programme">needle-exchange programs</a> for the prevention of transmissible diseases. Public health requires <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic Information Systems</a> (GIS) because risk, vulnerability and exposure involve geographic aspects.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics">Ethics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A Public Health Prayer - Dr Edmond Fernandes" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg/220px-Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg/330px-Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg/440px-Public_Health_Prayer_by_Dr_Edmond_Fernandes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>A Public Health Prayer - Dr Edmond Fernandes</figcaption></figure> A dilemma in public health ethics is dealing with the conflict between <a href="/wiki/Individual_and_group_rights" title="Individual and group rights">individual rights</a> and maximizing <a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">right to health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 28  Public health is justified by <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialist</a> <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarian</a> ideas,<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 153  but is constrained and critiqued by <a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">liberal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">deontological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principlism" title="Principlism">principlist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">libertarian</a> philosophies<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 99, 95, 74, 123  Stephen Holland argues that it can be easy to find a particular framework to justify any viewpoint on public health issues, but that the correct approach is to find a framework that best describes a situation and see what it implies about public health policy.<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 154  The definition of <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> is vague and there are many conceptualizations. Public health practitioners definition of health can different markedly from members of the public or <a href="/wiki/Clinician" title="Clinician">clinicians</a>. This can mean that members of the public view the values behind public health interventions as alien which can cause resentment amongst the public towards certain interventions.<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 230  Such vagueness can be a problem for <a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">health promotion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Holland_2015-23">[23]</a>: 241  Critics have argued that public health tends to place more focus on individual factors associated with health at the expense of factors operating at the population level.<a href="#cite_note-Valles_2018-16">[16]</a>: 9  Historically, public health campaigns have been criticized as a form of "<a href="/wiki/Healthism" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthism">healthism</a>", as moralistic in nature rather than being focused on health. Medical doctors, Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote a series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's the Health of The Nation campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by the public health movement to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a>: 85 <a href="#cite_note-Sim_2011-25">[25]</a> A combination of inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been criticized as a form of "health fascism" by a number of scholars, objectifying the individual with no considerations of emotional or social factors.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>: 8 <a href="#cite_note-Sim_2011-25">[25]</a>: 7 <a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>: 81  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Priority_areas">Priority areas</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Priority areas">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Original_focal_areas">Original focal areas</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Original focal areas">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg/220px-Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg/330px-Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg/440px-Somali_boy_receives_a_polio_vaccination.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="1982" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> boy is injected with inactivated poliovirus vaccine (<a href="/wiki/Mogadishu" title="Mogadishu">Mogadishu</a>, 1993).</figcaption></figure> When public health initiatives began to emerge in England in modern times (18th century onwards) there were three core strands of public health which were all related to statecraft: Supply of clean water and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> (for example <a href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" class="mw-redirect" title="London sewerage system">London sewerage system</a>); control of <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious diseases</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a>); an evolving infrastructure of various sciences, e.g. statistics, microbiology, epidemiology, sciences of engineering.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> Great Britain was a leader in the development of public health during that time period out of necessity: Great Britain was the first modern <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">urban nation</a> (by 1851 more than half of the population lived in settlements of more than 2000 people).<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> This led to a certain type of distress which then led to public health initiatives.<a href="#cite_note-Crook_2016-11">[11]</a> Later that particular concern faded away. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Changing_focal_areas_and_expanding_scope">Changing focal areas and expanding scope</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Changing focal areas and expanding scope">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marlboro_warning_death.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Marlboro_warning_death.jpg/220px-Marlboro_warning_death.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Marlboro_warning_death.jpg/330px-Marlboro_warning_death.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Marlboro_warning_death.jpg/440px-Marlboro_warning_death.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Cigarette packet warnings as part of <a href="/wiki/Anti-smoking_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-smoking campaign">anti-smoking campaigns</a></figcaption></figure> With the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_transition" title="Epidemiological transition">epidemiological transition</a> and as the prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_in_the_20th_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease in the 20th century">infectious diseases decreased through the 20th century</a>, public health began to put more focus on <a href="/wiki/Chronic_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic diseases">chronic diseases</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Heart disease">heart disease</a>. Previous efforts in many developed countries had already led to dramatic reductions in the <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Infant mortality rate">infant mortality rate</a> using preventive methods. In Britain, the infant mortality rate fell from over 15% in 1870 to 7% by 1930.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> A major public health concern in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a> is poor <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal</a> and child health, exacerbated by <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> and poverty. The <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a> reports that a lack of <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding#Duration_and_exclusivity" title="Breastfeeding">exclusive breastfeeding</a> during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-29">[29]</a> Public health surveillance has led to the identification and prioritization of many public health issues facing the world today, including <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">waterborne diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> leading to the reemergence of infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>. <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">Antibiotic resistance</a>, also known as drug resistance, was the theme of <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Day" title="World Health Day">World Health Day 2011</a>. For example, the WHO reports that at least 220 million people worldwide have diabetes. Its incidence is increasing rapidly, and it is projected that the number of diabetes deaths will double by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> In a June 2010 editorial in the medical journal <a href="/wiki/The_Lancet" title="The Lancet">The Lancet</a>, the authors opined that "The fact that type 2 diabetes, a largely preventable disorder, has reached epidemic proportion is a public health humiliation."<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The risk of <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a> is closely linked with the growing problem of <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>. The WHO's latest estimates as of June 2016<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit">[update]</a> highlighted that globally approximately 1.9 billion adults were <a href="/wiki/Overweight" title="Overweight">overweight</a> in 2014, and 41 million children under the age of five were overweight in 2014.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Once considered a problem in high-income countries, it is now on the rise in low-income countries, especially in urban settings.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Many public health programs are increasingly dedicating attention and resources to the issue of obesity, with objectives to address the underlying causes including <a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">healthy diet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Physical_exercise" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical exercise">physical exercise</a>. The <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Health_and_Care_Research" title="National Institute for Health and Care Research">National Institute for Health and Care Research</a> (NIHR) has published a review of research on what <a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_England" title="Local government in England">local authorities</a> can do to tackle obesity.<a href="#cite_note-how-local-34">[34]</a> The review covers interventions in the food environment (what people buy and eat), the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environments</a>, schools, and the community, as well as those focussing on <a href="/wiki/Active_travel" class="mw-redirect" title="Active travel">active travel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leisure_centre" title="Leisure centre">leisure services</a> and public sports, <a href="/wiki/Weight_loss_programs" class="mw-redirect" title="Weight loss programs">weight management programmes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Systems_approach" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems approach">system-wide approaches</a>.<a href="#cite_note-how-local-34">[34]</a> Health inequalities, driven by the social determinants of health, are also a growing area of concern in public health. A central challenge to securing health equity is that the same social structures that contribute to health inequities also operate and are reproduced by public health organizations.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In other words, public health organizations have evolved to better meet the needs of some groups more than others. The result is often that those most in need of preventative interventions are least likely to receive them<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and interventions can actually aggravate inequities<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> as they are often inadvertently tailored to the needs of the normative group.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Identifying bias within public health research and practice is essential to ensuring public health efforts mitigate and don't aggravate health inequities. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organizations">Organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Organizations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_Health_Organization_(WHO)">World Health Organization (WHO)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: World Health Organization (WHO)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> (WHO) is a <a href="/wiki/List_of_specialized_agencies_of_the_United_Nations" title="List of specialized agencies of the United Nations">specialized agency of the United Nations</a> responsible for international public health.<a href="#cite_note-Jan_24-39">[39]</a> The WHO Constitution, which establishes the agency's governing structure and principles, states its main objective as "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health".<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The WHO's broad mandate includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The WHO has played a leading role in several public health achievements, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">eradication</a> of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, the near-<a href="/wiki/Polio_eradication" title="Polio eradication">eradication of polio</a>, and the development of an <a href="/wiki/Ebola_vaccine" title="Ebola vaccine">Ebola vaccine</a>. Its current priorities include <a href="/wiki/Communicable_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Communicable disease">communicable diseases</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">Ebola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus disease 2019">COVID-19</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>; <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable diseases</a> such as heart disease and cancer; <a href="/wiki/Healthy_eating" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthy eating">healthy diet</a>, nutrition, and <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>; <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational health">occupational health</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Substance_abuse" title="Substance abuse">substance abuse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Others">Others</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Others">edit</a>]</div> Most countries have their own governmental public health agency, often called the ministry of health, with responsibility for domestic health issues. For example, in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, state and local <a href="/wiki/Health_department" title="Health department">health departments</a> are on the front line of public health initiatives. In addition to their national duties, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a> (PHS), led by the <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General of the United States Public Health Service</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, headquartered in <a href="/wiki/Atlanta,_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlanta, Georgia">Atlanta</a>, are also involved with international health activities.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_health_programs">Public health programs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Public health programs">edit</a>]</div> Most governments recognize the importance of public health programs in reducing the incidence of disease, disability, and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Aging" class="mw-redirect" title="Aging">aging</a> and other physical and mental health conditions. However, public health generally receives significantly less government funding compared with medicine.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Although the collaboration of local health and government agencies is considered best practice to improve public health, the pieces of evidence available to support this is limited.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Public health programs providing <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccinations</a> have made major progress in promoting health, including substantially reducing the occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a> and eradicating <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>, diseases that have plagued humanity for thousands of years.<a href="#cite_note-Butcher-47">[47]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg/220px-Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg/330px-Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg/440px-Directors_of_Global_Smallpox_Eradication_Program.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2220" /></a><figcaption>Three former directors of the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox#Eradication" title="Smallpox">Global Smallpox Eradication Program</a> reading the news that smallpox had been globally eradicated, 1980</figcaption></figure> The World Health Organization (WHO) identifies core functions of public health programs including:<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> <ul><li>providing leadership on matters critical to health and engaging in partnerships where joint action is needed;</li> <li>shaping a <a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">research</a> agenda and stimulating the generation, translation and <a href="/wiki/Dissemination" title="Dissemination">dissemination</a> of valuable knowledge;</li> <li>setting norms and standards and promoting and monitoring their implementation;</li> <li>articulating ethical and <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">evidence-based policy</a> options;</li> <li>monitoring the health situation and assessing health trends.</li></ul> In particular, public health surveillance programs can:<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <ul><li>serve as an <a href="/wiki/Early_warning_system" title="Early warning system">early warning system</a> for impending public health emergencies;</li> <li>document the impact of an intervention, or track progress towards specified goals; and</li> <li>monitor and clarify the epidemiology of health problems, allow priorities to be set, and inform <a href="/wiki/Public_health_policy" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health policy">health policy</a> and strategies.</li> <li>diagnose, investigate, and monitor health problems and health hazards of the community</li></ul> The "Truth" campaign, launched by the American Legacy Foundation in 2000. This campaign aimed to educate and discourage young people from smoking by exposing the tobacco industry's deceptive practices. Through a combination of powerful visuals, persuasive storytelling, and relatable messaging, the "Truth" campaign successfully reduced smoking rates among teenagers and young adults. <a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Behavior_change">Behavior change</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Behavior change">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg/350px-HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg/525px-HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg/700px-HarmCausedByDrugsTableDetailed.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="990" data-file-height="765" /></a><figcaption>The 2010 <a href="/wiki/Independent_Scientific_Committee_on_Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Scientific Committee on Drugs">ISCD</a> study "Drug Harms in the UK: a <a href="/wiki/Multicriteria_decision_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Multicriteria decision analysis">multi-criteria decision analysis</a>" found that <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a> scored highest overall and in Economic cost, Injury, Family adversities, Environmental damage, and Community harm.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change (public health)</a></div> Many health problems are due to maladaptive personal behaviors. From an <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology" title="Evolutionary psychology">evolutionary psychology</a> perspective, over consumption of novel substances that are harmful is due to the activation of an evolved <a href="/wiki/Reward_system" title="Reward system">reward system</a> for substances such as drugs, tobacco, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_(drug)" title="Alcohol (drug)">alcohol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt" title="Salt">refined salt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fat" title="Fat">fat</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a>. New technologies such as modern transportation also cause reduced <a href="/wiki/Physical_activity" title="Physical activity">physical activity</a>. Research has found that <a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">behavior is more effectively changed</a> by taking evolutionary motivations into consideration instead of only presenting information about health effects. The marketing industry has long known the importance of associating products with high status and attractiveness to others. Films are increasingly being recognized as a public health tool, with the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Harvard_T.H._Chan_School_of_Public_Health" title="Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health">T.H. Chan School of Public Health</a> categorizing such films as "impact filmmaking."<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> In fact, <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Film_Festival" title="Public Health Film Festival">film festivals</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Public_Health_Film_Competition" class="mw-redirect" title="International Public Health Film Competition">competitions</a> have been established to specifically promote films about health.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Conversely, it has been argued that emphasizing the harmful and undesirable effects of tobacco smoking on other persons and imposing smoking bans in public places have been particularly effective in reducing tobacco smoking.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Public libraries can also be beneficial tools for public health changes. They provide access to healthcare information, link people to healthcare services, and even can provide direct care in certain situations.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Applications_in_health_care">Applications in health care</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Applications in health care">edit</a>]</div> As well as seeking to improve population health through the implementation of specific population-level interventions, public health contributes to medical care by identifying and assessing population needs for health care services, including:<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> <ul><li>Assessing current services and evaluating whether they are meeting the objectives of the <a href="/wiki/Health_care_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care system">health care system</a></li> <li>Ascertaining requirements as expressed by <a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">health professionals</a>, the public and other stakeholders</li> <li>Identifying the most appropriate interventions</li> <li>Considering the effect on resources for proposed interventions and assessing their cost-effectiveness</li> <li>Supporting decision making in health care and planning health services including any necessary changes.</li> <li>Informing, educating, and empowering people about health issues</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conflicting_aims">Conflicting aims</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Conflicting aims">edit</a>]</div> Some programs and policies associated with public <a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">health promotion</a> and prevention can be controversial. One such example is programs focusing on the prevention of <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> transmission through <a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">safe sex</a> campaigns and <a href="/wiki/Needle-exchange_programme" class="mw-redirect" title="Needle-exchange programme">needle-exchange programs</a>. Another is the control of <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking" title="Tobacco smoking">tobacco smoking</a>. Many nations have implemented <a href="/wiki/Tobacco_smoking#Public_policy" title="Tobacco smoking">major initiatives</a> to cut smoking, such as increased taxation and bans on smoking in some or all public places. Supporters argue by presenting evidence that smoking is one of the major killers, and that therefore governments have a duty to reduce the death rate, both through limiting <a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">passive (second-hand) smoking</a> and by providing fewer opportunities for people to smoke. Opponents say that this undermines individual freedom and personal responsibility, and worry that the state may be encouraged to remove more and more choice in the name of better population health overall.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Psychological research confirms this tension between concerns about public health and concerns about personal liberty: (i) the best predictor of complying with public health recommendations such as hand-washing, mask-wearing, and staying at home (except for essential activity) during the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> was people's perceived duties to prevent harm but (ii) the best predictor of flouting such public health recommendations was valuing liberty more than equality.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Simultaneously, while communicable diseases have historically ranged uppermost as a <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">global health</a> priority, <a href="/wiki/Non-communicable_disease" title="Non-communicable disease">non-communicable diseases</a> and the underlying behavior-related risk factors have been at the bottom. This is changing, however, as illustrated by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> hosting its first General Assembly Special Summit on the issue of non-communicable diseases in September 2011.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Global_perspectives">Global perspectives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Global perspectives">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Village_health_worker_checks,_Zimbabwe_(36273604714).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg/220px-Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg/330px-Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg/440px-Village_health_worker_checks%2C_Zimbabwe_%2836273604714%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>A village health worker in <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> conducting a pediatric examination</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disparities_in_service_and_access">Disparities in service and access</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Disparities in service and access">edit</a>]</div> There is a significant disparity in access to health care and public health initiatives between <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>, as well as within developing countries. In developing countries, public health infrastructures are still forming. There may not be enough trained <a href="/wiki/Health_workforce" class="mw-redirect" title="Health workforce">health workers</a>, monetary resources or, in some cases, sufficient knowledge to provide even a basic level of medical care and disease prevention.<a href="#cite_note-Chen_2006-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jamison_15–22-7">[7]</a> As a result, a large majority of disease and mortality in developing countries results from and contributes to extreme <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. For example, many African governments spend less than <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">$</a>100 USD per person per year on health care, while, in the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">federal government</a> spent approximately $10,600 USD per capita in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> However, expenditures on health care should not be confused with spending on public health. Public health measures may not generally be considered "health care" in the strictest sense. For example, mandating the use of seat belts in cars can save countless lives and contribute to the health of a population, but typically money spent enforcing this rule would not count as money spent on health care. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg/220px-Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg/330px-Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg/440px-Malaria_rapid_diagnostic_test_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1065" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> test in <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>. Despite being preventable and curable, malaria is a leading cause of death in many developing nations.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a></figcaption></figure> Large parts of the world remained plagued by largely preventable or treatable infectious diseases. In addition to this however, many developing countries are also experiencing an <a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_transition" title="Epidemiological transition">epidemiological shift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_polarization" title="Social polarization">polarization</a> in which populations are now experiencing more of the effects of chronic diseases as life expectancy increases, the poorer communities being heavily affected by both chronic and infectious diseases.<a href="#cite_note-Jamison_15–22-7">[7]</a> Another major public health concern in the developing world is poor <a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">maternal</a> and child health, exacerbated by <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> and poverty. The <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a> reports that a lack of <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding#Duration_and_exclusivity" title="Breastfeeding">exclusive breastfeeding</a> during the first six months of life contributes to over a million avoidable child deaths each year.<a href="#cite_note-World_Health_Organization-29">[29]</a> <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_preventive_therapy" title="Intermittent preventive therapy">Intermittent preventive therapy</a> aimed at treating and preventing <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> episodes among pregnant women and young children is one public health measure in <a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">endemic</a> countries. Since the 1980s, the growing field of <a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">population health</a> has broadened the focus of public health from individual behaviors and <a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">risk factors</a> to population-level issues such as <a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">inequality</a>, poverty, and education. Modern public health is often concerned with addressing determinants of health across a population. There is a recognition that health is affected by many factors including class, race, income, educational status, region of residence, and <a href="/wiki/Social_relation" title="Social relation">social relationships</a>; these are known as "<a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">social determinants of health</a>". The upstream drivers such as environment, education, employment, income, food security, housing, <a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">social inclusion</a> and many others effect the distribution of health between and within populations and are often shaped by policy.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> A social gradient in health runs through society. The poorest generally have the worst health, but even the middle classes will generally have worse health outcomes than those of a higher social level.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> The new public health advocates for population-based policies that improve health in an equitable manner. The health sector is one of Europe's most labor-intensive industries. In late 2020, it accounted for more than 21 million employment in the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> when combined with social work.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a>, several countries began the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> with insufficient health and care professionals, inappropriate skill mixtures, and unequal geographical distributions. These issues were worsened by the pandemic, reiterating the importance of public health.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In the United States, a history of underinvestment in public health undermined the public health workforce and support for population health, long before the pandemic added to stress, mental distress, job dissatisfaction, and accelerated departures among public health workers.<a href="#cite_note-Jonathon-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Health_aid_in_developing_countries">Health aid in developing countries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Health aid in developing countries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aid" title="Aid">Aid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara,_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif/lossy-page1-220px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif/lossy-page1-330px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif/lossy-page1-440px-ASC_Leiden_-_Coutinho_Collection_-_A_30_-_Surgery_in_Sara%2C_Guinea-Bissau_-_Continuing_the_operation_-_1974.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4494" data-file-height="3002" /></a><figcaption>A Cuban doctor performs an open air operation in <a href="/wiki/Guinea-Bissau" title="Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a>. Cuba <a href="/wiki/Cuban_medical_internationalism" title="Cuban medical internationalism">sends more medical personnel</a> to the developing world than all <a href="/wiki/G8" title="G8">G8</a> countries combined.<a href="#cite_note-HuishKirk07-70">[70]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Aid" title="Aid">Health aid</a> to developing countries is an important source of public health funding for many developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> Health aid to developing countries has shown a significant increase after World War II as concerns over the spread of disease as a result of <a href="/wiki/Globalization" title="Globalization">globalization</a> increased and the HIV/AIDS epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa surfaced.<a href="#cite_note-Twumasi_1981-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-Afridi_2013-73">[73]</a> From 1990 to 2010, total health aid from developed countries increased from 5.5 billion to 26.87 billion with wealthy countries continuously donating billions of dollars every year with the goal of improving population health.<a href="#cite_note-Afridi_2013-73">[73]</a> Some efforts, however, receive a significantly larger proportion of funds such as HIV which received an increase in funds of over $6 billion between 2000 and 2010 which was more than twice the increase seen in any other sector during those years.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> Health aid has seen an expansion through multiple channels including private philanthropy, <a href="/wiki/Non-governmental_organization" title="Non-governmental organization">non-governmental organizations</a>, private foundations such as the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Bill_%26_Melinda_Gates_Foundation" title="Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation">Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation</a>, bilateral donors, and multilateral donors such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> or <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Afridi_2013-73">[73]</a> The result has been a sharp rise in uncoordinated and fragmented funding of an ever-increasing number of initiatives and projects. To promote better strategic cooperation and coordination between partners, particularly among bilateral development agencies and funding organizations, the <a href="/wiki/Swedish_International_Development_Cooperation_Agency" title="Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency">Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency</a> (Sida) spearheaded the establishment of ESSENCE,<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> an initiative to facilitate dialogue between donors/funders, allowing them to identify synergies. ESSENCE brings together a wide range of funding agencies to coordinate funding efforts. In 2009 health aid from the <a href="/wiki/OECD" title="OECD">OECD</a> amounted to $12.47 billion which amounted to 11.4% of its total bilateral aid.<a href="#cite_note-Shwank-75">[75]</a> In 2009, Multilateral donors were found to spend 15.3% of their total aid on bettering public healthcare.<a href="#cite_note-Shwank-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_health_aid_debates">International health aid debates</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: International health aid debates">edit</a>]</div> Debates exist questioning the efficacy of international health aid. Supporters of aid claim that health aid from wealthy countries is necessary in order for developing countries to escape the <a href="/wiki/Poverty_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Poverty trap">poverty trap</a>. Opponents of health aid claim that international health aid actually disrupts developing countries' course of development, causes dependence on aid, and in many cases the aid fails to reach its recipients.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> For example, recently, health aid was funneled towards initiatives such as financing new technologies like <a href="/wiki/Antiretroviral_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiretroviral medication">antiretroviral medication</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insecticide-treated_mosquito_net" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticide-treated mosquito net">insecticide-treated mosquito nets</a>, and new vaccines. The positive impacts of these initiatives can be seen in the eradication of smallpox and <a href="/wiki/Polio" title="Polio">polio</a>; however, critics claim that misuse or misplacement of funds may cause many of these efforts to never come into achievement.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> Economic modeling based on the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Health_Metrics_and_Evaluation" title="Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation">Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> has shown a link between international health aid in developing countries and a reduction in adult mortality rates.<a href="#cite_note-Afridi_2013-73">[73]</a> However, a 2014–2016 study suggests that a potential confounding variable for this outcome is the possibility that aid was directed at countries once they were already on track for improvement.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> That same study, however, also suggests that 1 billion dollars in health aid was associated with 364,000 fewer deaths occurring between ages 0 and 5 in 2011.<a href="#cite_note-Bendavid_2014-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sustainable_development_goals_for_2030">Sustainable development goals for 2030</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Sustainable development goals for 2030">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals#Health" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals § Health</a></div> To address current and future challenges in addressing health issues in the world, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> have developed the <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> to be completed by 2030.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> These goals in their entirety encompass the entire spectrum of development across nations, however Goals 1–6 directly address <a href="/wiki/Health_disparities" class="mw-redirect" title="Health disparities">health disparities</a>, primarily in developing countries.<a href="#cite_note-UN2015-77">[77]</a> These six goals address key issues in <a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">global public health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>, hunger and <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>, health, education, <a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">gender equality</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">women's empowerment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN2015-77">[77]</a> Public health officials can use these goals to set their own agenda and plan for smaller scale initiatives for their organizations. These goals are designed to lessen the burden of disease and inequality faced by developing countries and lead to a healthier future. The links between the various sustainable development goals and public health are numerous and well established.<a href="#cite_note-UNhealth2015-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply_and_sanitation" title="History of water supply and sanitation">History of water supply and sanitation</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Until_the_18th_century">Until the 18th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Until the 18th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Doutielt3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/300px-Doutielt3.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/450px-Doutielt3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Doutielt3.jpg/600px-Doutielt3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="801" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Mass burials during the second plague pandemic (a.k.a. <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">the Black Death</a>; 1346–1353) intensified urban responses to disaster on the basis of earlier practices. Miniature from "The Chronicles of Gilles Li Muisis" (1272–1352). Bibliothèque royale de Belgique, MS 13076–77, f. 24v.</figcaption></figure> From the beginnings of <a href="/wiki/Human_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Human civilization">human civilization</a>, communities promoted <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a> and fought <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">disease</a> at the population level.<a href="#cite_note-Rosen_2015-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Porter_1999-10">[10]</a> Definitions of health as well as methods to pursue it differed according to the medical, religious and natural-<a href="/wiki/Philosophical" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical">philosophical</a> ideas groups held, the resources they had, and the changing circumstances in which they lived. Yet few early societies displayed the hygienic stagnation or even apathy often attributed to them.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The latter reputation is mainly based on the absence of present-day <a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">bioindicators</a>, especially <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Statistics" title="Statistics">statistical</a> tools developed in light of the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a> transmission.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Public health was born neither in <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> nor as a response to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. Preventive health interventions are attested almost anywhere historical communities have left their mark. In <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurvedic</a> medicine and subsequently <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> fostered occupational, dietary and sexual regimens that promised balanced bodies, lives and communities, a notion strongly present in <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine#Concept_of_disease" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese Medicine</a> as well.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Among the <a href="/wiki/Maya_peoples" title="Maya peoples">Mayans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> and other early civilizations in the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a>, population centers pursued hygienic programs, including by holding <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">medicinal herbal</a> markets.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> And among <a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_Australians" title="Aboriginal Australians">Aboriginal Australians</a>, techniques for preserving and protecting water and food sources, micro-zoning to reduce pollution and fire risks, and screens to protect people against <a href="/wiki/Flies" class="mw-redirect" title="Flies">flies</a> were common, even in temporary camps.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg/220px-Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg/330px-Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg/440px-Aztec_smallpox_victims.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1225" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of Aztec <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> victims</figcaption></figure> Western European, <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamicate</a> civilizations, which generally adopted a <a href="/wiki/Hippocrates" title="Hippocrates">Hippocratic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galenic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Four_temperaments" title="Four temperaments">humoral</a> medical system, fostered preventive programs as well.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> These were developed on the basis of evaluating the quality of local <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climates</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, wind conditions and exposure to the sun, and the properties and availability of water and food, for both <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> and nonhuman <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>. Diverse authors of <a href="/wiki/Regimen_sanitatis_Salernitanum" title="Regimen sanitatis Salernitanum">medical</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">architectural</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_re_aedificatoria" title="De re aedificatoria">engineering</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_military_manuals" title="Byzantine military manuals">military manuals</a> explained how to apply such theories to groups of different origins and under different circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> This was crucial, since under Galenism bodily constitutions were thought to be heavily shaped by their material <a href="/wiki/Biophysical_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Biophysical environment">environments</a>, so their balance required specific regimens as they traveled during different <a href="/wiki/Seasons" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasons">seasons</a> and between climate zones.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Complex_society" title="Complex society">complex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">pre-industrialized societies</a>, interventions designed to reduce health risks could be the initiative of different stakeholders. For instance, in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman antiquity</a>, army generals learned to provide for soldiers' wellbeing, including off the <a href="/wiki/Battlefield" title="Battlefield">battlefield</a>, where most combatants died prior to the twentieth century.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Monastery" title="Monastery">monasteries</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and western Europe since at least the fifth century <a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a> pursued strict but balanced regimens, including nutritious <a href="/wiki/Diet_(nutrition)" title="Diet (nutrition)">diets</a>, developed explicitly to extend their lives.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> And <a href="/wiki/Royal_court" title="Royal court">royal</a>, princely and <a href="/wiki/Papal_household" title="Papal household">papal courts</a>, which were often mobile as well, likewise adapted their behavior to suit environmental conditions in the sites they occupied. They could also choose sites they considered salubrious for their members and sometimes had them modified.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> In <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a>, residents and rulers developed measures to benefit the general <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a>, which faced a broad array of recognized <a href="/wiki/Risk#Health" title="Risk">health risks</a>. These provide some of the most sustained evidence for preventive measures in earlier civilizations. In numerous sites the upkeep of <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructures</a>, including roads, canals and marketplaces, as well as <a href="/wiki/Zoning" title="Zoning">zoning</a> policies, were introduced explicitly to preserve residents' health.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> Officials such as the <a href="/wiki/Muhtasib" title="Muhtasib">muhtasib</a> in the Middle East and the <a href="/wiki/Road_master" title="Road master">Road master</a> in Italy, fought the combined threats of <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollution</a> through <a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">sin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception#Early_studies" title="Visual perception">ocular intromission</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory" title="Miasma theory">miasma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid16540700-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18831288-107">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Craft <a href="/wiki/Guild" title="Guild">guilds</a> were important agents of waste disposal and promoted <a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">harm reduction</a> through honesty and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">labor safety</a> among their members. Medical practitioners, including public physicians,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> collaborated with urban governments in predicting and preparing for calamities and identifying and isolating people perceived as <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">lepers</a>, a disease with strong moral connotations.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <a href="/wiki/Neighbourhood" title="Neighbourhood">Neighborhoods</a> were also active in safeguarding local people's health, by monitoring at-risk sites near them and taking appropriate social and legal action against artisanal polluters and neglectful owners of animals. Religious institutions, individuals and charitable organizations in both <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and Christianity likewise promoted moral and physical wellbeing by endowing urban amenities such as wells, fountains, schools and bridges, also in the service of <a href="/wiki/Pilgrim" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim">pilgrims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> In western Europe and Byzantium, religious <a href="/wiki/Procession" title="Procession">processions</a> commonly took place, which purported to act as both preventive and curative measures for the entire community.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Urban residents and other groups also developed preventive measures in response to calamities such as <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a>, <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">widespread disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21674275-118">[118]</a> During and after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> (1346–53), for instance, inhabitants of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> reacted to massive population decline in part on the basis of existing medical theories and protocols, for instance concerning meat consumption and burial, and in part by developing new ones.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid6365216-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The latter included the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a> facilities and health boards, some of which eventually became regular urban (and later national) offices.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid27303653-123">[123]</a> Subsequent measures for protecting cities and their regions included issuing health <a href="/wiki/Passport" title="Passport">passports</a> for travelers, deploying guards to create <a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">sanitary cordons</a> for protecting local inhabitants, and gathering morbidity and mortality statistics.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> Such measures relied in turn on better transportation and communication networks, through which news on human and animal disease was efficiently spread. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_the_18th_century">After the 18th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: After the 18th century">edit</a>]</div> With the onset of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, living standards amongst the working population began to worsen, with cramped and unsanitary urban conditions. In the first four decades of the 19th century alone, <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>'s population doubled and even greater growth rates were recorded in the new industrial towns, such as <a href="/wiki/Leeds" title="Leeds">Leeds</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>. This rapid <a href="/wiki/Urbanisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Urbanisation">urbanization</a> exacerbated the spread of disease in the large <a href="/wiki/Conurbation" title="Conurbation">conurbations</a> that built up around the <a href="/wiki/Workhouse" title="Workhouse">workhouses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Factory" title="Factory">factories</a>. These settlements were cramped and primitive with no organized <a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a>. Disease was inevitable and its incubation in these areas was encouraged by the poor lifestyle of the inhabitants. Unavailable housing led to the rapid growth of <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Per_capita" title="Per capita">per capita</a> <a href="/wiki/Death_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Death rate">death rate</a> began to rise alarmingly, almost doubling in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham" title="Birmingham">Birmingham</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Malthus" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomas Malthus">Thomas Malthus</a> warned of the dangers of overpopulation in 1798. His ideas, as well as those of <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a>, became very influential in government circles in the early years of the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-127">[127]</a> The latter part of the century brought the establishment of the basic pattern of improvements in public health over the next two centuries: a social evil was identified, private philanthropists brought attention to it, and changing public opinion led to government action.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-127">[127]</a> The 18th century saw rapid growth in voluntary hospitals in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The practice of <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a> began in the 1800s, following the pioneering work of <a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> in treating <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a>. <a href="/wiki/James_Lind" title="James Lind">James Lind</a>'s discovery of the causes of <a href="/wiki/Scurvy" title="Scurvy">scurvy</a> amongst sailors and its mitigation via the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Fruit" title="Fruit">fruit</a> on lengthy voyages was published in 1754 and led to the adoption of this idea by the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy" title="Royal Navy">Royal Navy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> Efforts were also made to promulgate health matters to the broader public; in 1752 the British physician Sir <a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> published Observations on the Diseases of the Army in Camp and Garrison, in which he advocated for the importance of adequate ventilation in the <a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a> <a href="/wiki/Barracks" title="Barracks">barracks</a> and the provision of <a href="/wiki/Latrine" title="Latrine">latrines</a> for the soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_health_legislation_in_England">Public health legislation in England</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Public health legislation in England">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SirEdwinChadwick.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SirEdwinChadwick.jpg/200px-SirEdwinChadwick.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SirEdwinChadwick.jpg/300px-SirEdwinChadwick.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/SirEdwinChadwick.jpg/400px-SirEdwinChadwick.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1160" data-file-height="1544" /></a><figcaption>Sir <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Chadwick" title="Edwin Chadwick">Edwin Chadwick</a> was a pivotal influence on the early public health campaign.</figcaption></figure> The first attempts at sanitary reform and the establishment of public health institutions were made in the 1840s. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Southwood_Smith" title="Thomas Southwood Smith">Thomas Southwood Smith</a>, physician at the <a href="/wiki/London_Fever_Hospital" title="London Fever Hospital">London Fever Hospital</a>, began to write papers on the importance of public health, and was one of the first physicians brought in to give evidence before the <a href="/wiki/Poor_Law_Commission" title="Poor Law Commission">Poor Law Commission</a> in the 1830s, along with <a href="/wiki/Neil_Arnott" title="Neil Arnott">Neil Arnott</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Phillips_Kay" class="mw-redirect" title="James Phillips Kay">James Phillips Kay</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> Smith advised the government on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">quarantine</a> and sanitary improvement for limiting the spread of infectious diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The Poor Law Commission reported in 1838 that "the expenditures necessary to the adoption and maintenance of measures of prevention would ultimately amount to less than the cost of the disease now constantly engendered". It recommended the implementation of large scale government <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> projects to alleviate the conditions that allowed for the propagation of disease.<a href="#cite_note-Britannica-127">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Health_of_Towns_Association" title="Health of Towns Association">Health of Towns Association</a> was formed at Exeter Hall London on 11 December 1844, and vigorously campaigned for the development of public health in the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ashton-134">[134]</a> Its formation followed the 1843 establishment of the Health of Towns Commission, chaired by Sir <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Chadwick" title="Edwin Chadwick">Edwin Chadwick</a>, which produced a series of reports on poor and insanitary conditions in British cities.<a href="#cite_note-Ashton-134">[134]</a> These national and local movements led to the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1848" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Health Act 1848">Public Health Act</a>, finally passed in 1848. It aimed to improve the sanitary condition of towns and populous places in England and Wales by placing the supply of water, sewerage, drainage, cleansing and paving under a single local body with the General Board of Health as a central authority. The Act was passed by the <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Russell_ministry" title="First Russell ministry">government</a> of <a href="/wiki/John_Russell,_1st_Earl_Russell" title="John Russell, 1st Earl Russell">Lord John Russell</a>, in response to the urging of Edwin Chadwick. Chadwick's seminal report on The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population was published in 1842<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> and was followed up with a supplementary report a year later.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> During this time, <a href="/wiki/James_Newlands" title="James Newlands">James Newlands</a> (appointed following the passing of the 1846 Liverpool Sanatory Act championed by the Borough of Liverpool Health of Towns Committee) designed the world's first integrated sewerage system, in Liverpool (1848–1869), with <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bazalgette" title="Joseph Bazalgette">Joseph Bazalgette</a> later creating <a href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" class="mw-redirect" title="London sewerage system">London's sewerage system</a> (1858–1875). The Vaccination Act 1853 introduced compulsory <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccination</a> in England and Wales.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> By 1871 legislation required a comprehensive system of registration run by appointed vaccination officers.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Further interventions were made by a series of subsequent <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Acts" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Health Acts">Public Health Acts</a>, notably the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Act_1875" title="Public Health Act 1875">1875 Act</a>. Reforms included the building of <a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">sewers</a>, the regular <a href="/wiki/Waste_disposal" class="mw-redirect" title="Waste disposal">collection of garbage</a> followed by <a href="/wiki/Incineration" title="Incineration">incineration</a> or disposal in a <a href="/wiki/Landfill" title="Landfill">landfill</a>, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_water_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="History of water supply">provision of clean water</a> and the draining of standing water to prevent the breeding of mosquitoes. The <a href="/wiki/Infectious_Disease_(Notification)_Act_1889" title="Infectious Disease (Notification) Act 1889">Infectious Disease (Notification) Act 1889</a> (<a href="/wiki/52_%26_53_Vict." class="mw-redirect" title="52 & 53 Vict.">52 & 53 Vict.</a> c. 72) mandated the reporting of infectious diseases to the local sanitary authority, which could then pursue measures such as the removal of the patient to hospital and the disinfection of homes and properties.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Public_health_legislation_in_other_countries">Public health legislation in other countries</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Public health legislation in other countries">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson,_Paul.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/220px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/330px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png/440px-Illustrated_Current_News-1918-Thompson%2C_Paul.png 2x" data-file-width="1410" data-file-height="911" /></a><figcaption>Example of historical public health recommendations during the <a href="/wiki/1918_flu_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="1918 flu pandemic">1918 flu pandemic</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Haven,_Connecticut" title="New Haven, Connecticut">New Haven</a>, Connecticut, United States</figcaption></figure> In the United States, the first public health organization based on a state health department and local boards of health was founded in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a> in 1866.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> During <a href="/wiki/The_Weimar_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="The Weimar Republic">The Weimar Republic</a>, Germany faced many public health catastrophes.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> had a goal of modernizing health care with Volksgesundheit, German for people's public health; this modernization was based on the growing field of <a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">eugenics</a> and measures prioritizing group health over any care for the health of individuals.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> The end of World War 2 led to the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Code" title="Nuremberg Code">Nuremberg Code</a>, a set of research ethics concerning human experimentation.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/220px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/330px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg/440px-Snow-cholera-map-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="20124" data-file-height="18877" /></a><figcaption>Early <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiologist</a> John Snow mapped <a href="/wiki/Cluster_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cluster (epidemiology)">clusters</a> of cholera cases in London.</figcaption></figure> The science of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a>'s identification of a polluted public water well as the source of an 1854 <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> outbreak in London. Snow believed in the <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory">germ theory</a> of disease as opposed to the prevailing <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Miasma theory of disease">miasma theory</a>. By talking to local residents (with the help of <a href="/wiki/Reverend_Henry_Whitehead" class="mw-redirect" title="Reverend Henry Whitehead">Reverend Henry Whitehead</a>), he identified the source of the outbreak as the public water pump on Broad Street (now <a href="/wiki/Broadwick_Street" title="Broadwick Street">Broadwick Street</a>). Although Snow's chemical and microscope examination of a water sample from the <a href="/wiki/Broad_Street_pump" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad Street pump">Broad Street pump</a> did not conclusively prove its danger, his studies of the pattern of the disease were convincing enough to persuade the local council to close the well pump by removing its handle.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Snow later used a <a href="/wiki/Dot_distribution_map" title="Dot distribution map">dot map</a> to illustrate the cluster of cholera cases around the pump. He also used statistics to illustrate the connection between the quality of the water source and cholera cases. He showed that the <a href="/wiki/Southwark_and_Vauxhall_Waterworks_Company" title="Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company">Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company</a> was taking water from sewage-polluted sections of the <a href="/wiki/Thames" class="mw-redirect" title="Thames">Thames</a> and delivering the water to homes, leading to an increased incidence of cholera. Snow's study was a major event in the history of public health and geography. It is regarded as the founding event of the science of <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Control_of_infectious_diseases">Control of infectious diseases</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Control of infectious diseases">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/200px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/300px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg/400px-Paul-Louis_Simond_injecting_plague_vaccine_June_4th_1898_Karachi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="488" data-file-height="358" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul-Louis_Simond" title="Paul-Louis Simond">Paul-Louis Simond</a> injecting a plague vaccine in Karachi, 1898</figcaption></figure> With the pioneering work in <a href="/wiki/Bacteriology" title="Bacteriology">bacteriology</a> of French chemist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> and German scientist <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>, methods for isolating the <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> responsible for a given disease and vaccines for remedy were developed at the turn of the 20th century. British physician <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> identified the <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquito</a> as the carrier of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and laid the foundations for combating the disease.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister,_1st_Baron_Lister" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister">Joseph Lister</a> revolutionized <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> by the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptic</a> <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a> to eliminate <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a>. French epidemiologist <a href="/wiki/Paul-Louis_Simond" title="Paul-Louis Simond">Paul-Louis Simond</a> proved that <a href="/wiki/Plague_(disease)" title="Plague (disease)">plague</a> was carried by <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> on the back of <a href="/wiki/Rat" title="Rat">rats</a>,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> and Cuban scientist <a href="/wiki/Carlos_J._Finlay" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlos J. Finlay">Carlos J. Finlay</a> and U.S. Americans <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Carroll_(scientist)" title="James Carroll (scientist)">James Carroll</a> demonstrated that mosquitoes carry the virus responsible for <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pineo_1996-149">[149]</a>: 481 <a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Brazilian scientist <a href="/wiki/Carlos_Chagas" title="Carlos Chagas">Carlos Chagas</a> identified a <a href="/wiki/Chagas_disease" title="Chagas disease">tropical disease</a> and its vector.<a href="#cite_note-Pineo_1996-149">[149]</a>: 481  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society_and_culture">Society and culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Society and culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education_and_training">Education and training</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Education and training">edit</a>]</div> Education and training of public health professionals is available throughout the world in Schools of Public Health, Medical Schools, Veterinary Schools, Schools of Nursing, and Schools of Public Affairs. The training typically requires a <a href="/wiki/University_degree" class="mw-redirect" title="University degree">university degree</a> with a focus on core disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">biostatistics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_administration" title="Health administration">health services administration</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">health policy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">health education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral science">behavioral science</a>, gender issues, sexual and reproductive health, public health nutrition, and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_health" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational health">occupational</a> and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">environmental health</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mmwr4850-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> In the global context, the field of public health education has evolved enormously in recent decades, supported by institutions such as the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>, among others. Operational structures are formulated by strategic principles, with educational and career pathways guided by competency frameworks, all requiring modulation according to local, national and global realities. Moreover, integrating technology or digital platforms to connect to low health literacy LHL groups could be a way to increase health literacy. <a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a>It is critically important for the health of populations that nations assess their public health human resource needs and develop their ability to deliver this capacity, and not depend on other countries to supply it.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Schools_of_public_health:_a_US_perspective">Schools of public health: a US perspective</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Schools of public health: a US perspective">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the Welch-Rose Report of 1915<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> has been viewed as the basis for the critical movement in the history of the institutional schism between public health and medicine because it led to the establishment of schools of public health supported by the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PHP-156">[156]</a> The report was authored by <a href="/wiki/William_H._Welch" title="William H. Welch">William Welch</a>, founding dean of the <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_Bloomberg_School_of_Public_Health" title="Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health">Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Wickliffe_Rose" title="Wickliffe Rose">Wickliffe Rose</a> of the Rockefeller Foundation. The report focused more on research than practical education.<a href="#cite_note-PHP-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> Some have blamed the Rockefeller Foundation's 1916 decision to support the establishment of schools of public health for creating the schism between public health and medicine and legitimizing the rift between medicine's laboratory investigation of the mechanisms of disease and public health's nonclinical concern with environmental and social influences on health and wellness.<a href="#cite_note-PHP-156">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> Even though schools of public health had already been established in <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>, the United States had still maintained the traditional system of housing faculties of public health within their medical institutions. A $25,000 donation from businessman <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Zemurray" class="mw-redirect" title="Samuel Zemurray">Samuel Zemurray</a> instituted the <a href="/wiki/Tulane_University_School_of_Public_Health_and_Tropical_Medicine" title="Tulane University School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine">School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine at Tulane University</a> in 1912 conferring its first doctor of public health degree in 1914.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Yale_School_of_Public_Health" title="Yale School of Public Health">Yale School of Public Health</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Charles-Edward_Amory_Winslow" title="Charles-Edward Amory Winslow">Charles-Edward Amory Winslow</a> in 1915.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_School_of_Hygiene_and_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health">Johns Hopkins School of Hygiene and Public Health</a> was founded in 1916 and became an independent, degree-granting institution for research and training in public health, and the largest public health training facility in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> By 1922, schools of public health were established at <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Harvard" class="mw-redirect" title="Harvard">Harvard</a> on the Hopkins model. By 1999 there were twenty nine schools of public health in the US, enrolling around fifteen thousand students.<a href="#cite_note-mmwr4850-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-PHP-156">[156]</a> Over the years, the types of students and training provided have also changed. In the beginning, students who enrolled in public health schools typically had already obtained a medical degree; public health school training was largely a second degree for <a href="/wiki/Physician" title="Physician">medical professionals</a>. However, in 1978, 69% of American students enrolled in public health schools had only a <a href="/wiki/Bachelor%27s_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a>.<a href="#cite_note-mmwr4850-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Degrees_in_public_health">Degrees in public health</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Degrees in public health">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg/220px-London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg/330px-London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg/440px-London_School_of_Hygiene_and_Tropical_Medicine_Library_2017-09-12_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5999" data-file-height="3880" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/London_School_of_Hygiene_%26_Tropical_Medicine" title="London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine">London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine</a> is the oldest school of public health in the <a href="/wiki/Anglosphere" title="Anglosphere">Anglosphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a></figcaption></figure> Schools of public health offer a variety of degrees generally fall into two categories: professional or academic.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The two major postgraduate degrees are the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Public Health">Master of Public Health</a> (MPH) or the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a> in Public Health (MSPH). Doctoral studies in this field include <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a> (DrPH) and <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a> (PhD) in a subspecialty of greater Public Health disciplines. DrPH is regarded as a professional degree and PhD as more of an academic degree. Professional degrees are oriented towards practice in public health settings. The <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Public_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Master of Public Health">Master of Public Health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Health_Science" title="Doctor of Health Science">Doctor of Health Science</a> (DHSc/DHS) and the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Health_Administration" title="Master of Health Administration">Master of Health Care Administration</a> are examples of degrees which are geared towards people who want careers as practitioners of public health in health departments, managed care and community-based organizations, hospitals and consulting firms, among others. Master of Public Health degrees broadly fall into two categories, those that put more emphasis on an understanding of epidemiology and statistics as the scientific basis of public health practice and those that include a more wide range of methodologies. A Master of Science of Public Health is similar to an MPH but is considered an academic degree (as opposed to a professional degree) and places more emphasis on scientific methods and research. The same distinction can be made between the DrPH and the DHSc: The DrPH is considered a professional degree and the DHSc is an academic degree.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Academic degrees are more oriented towards those with interests in the scientific basis of public health and <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">preventive medicine</a> who wish to pursue careers in research, university teaching in graduate programs, policy analysis and development, and other high-level public health positions. Examples of academic degrees are the <a href="/wiki/Master_of_Science" title="Master of Science">Master of Science</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Philosophy" title="Doctor of Philosophy">Doctor of Philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Science" title="Doctor of Science">Doctor of Science</a> (ScD), and Doctor of Health Science (DHSc). The doctoral programs are distinct from the MPH and other professional programs by the addition of advanced coursework and the nature and scope of a <a href="/wiki/Dissertation" class="mw-redirect" title="Dissertation">dissertation</a> research project. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Notable people">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Graunt" title="John Graunt">John Graunt</a> (1620–1674) was a British citizen scientist who laid the foundations for epidemiology.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Jenner" title="Edward Jenner">Edward Jenner</a> (1749–1823) created the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccine</a>, the first vaccine in the world. He is often known as "the father of <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>".</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Waterhouse" title="Benjamin Waterhouse">Benjamin Waterhouse</a> (1753–1846) introduced the <a href="/wiki/Smallpox_vaccine" title="Smallpox vaccine">smallpox vaccine</a> in the United States.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemuel_Shattuck" title="Lemuel Shattuck">Lemuel Shattuck</a> (1793–1859) has been described as an "architect" and "prophet" of American public health<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow" title="John Snow">John Snow</a> (1813–1858) was 'the father of modern epidemiology'.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Bazalgette" title="Joseph Bazalgette">Sir Joseph William Bazalgette</a> (1819–1891) created a <a href="/wiki/London_sewerage_system" class="mw-redirect" title="London sewerage system">sewer network for central London</a> in response to the <a href="/wiki/Great_Stink" title="Great Stink">Great Stink</a> of 1858. This proved instrumental in relieving the city from <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a> epidemics.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> (1822–1895) conducted research that laid the foundation for our understanding of the causes and preventions of diseases.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> (1843–1910) used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease"<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a>and directly provided proofs for that <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ theory of diseases">germ theory of diseases</a>, therefore creating the scientific basis of public health,<a href="#cite_note-Lakhtakia_2014-175">[175]</a> saving millions of lives.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_V._Chapin" title="Charles V. Chapin">Charles V. Chapin</a> (1856–1941) public health advocate and researcher credited with planting "the roots of quality in public health" in the United States<a href="#cite_note-Beitsch-177">[177]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a> (1873–1945) was an "instrumental force in child and maternal health"<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nora_Wattie" title="Nora Wattie">Nora Wattie</a> (1900–1994) led the development of public health services and sanitation, and education in improving women and child health in the poorest <a href="/wiki/Slum" title="Slum">slums</a> of <a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a>, for which she received the <a href="/wiki/Order_of_the_British_Empire" title="Order of the British Empire">OBE</a>.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a> (1914–1995) developed one of the first <a href="/wiki/Polio_vaccine" title="Polio vaccine">polio vaccines</a> and campaigned vigorously for mandatory vaccinations.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Huenemann" title="Ruth Huenemann">Ruth Huenemann</a> (1910–2005) She became a pioneer in the study of <a href="/wiki/Childhood_obesity" title="Childhood obesity">childhood obesity</a> in the 1960s studying the diet and exercise habits of Berkeley teenagers.<a href="#cite_note-Asimov-180">[180]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmond_Fernandes" title="Edmond Fernandes">Edmond Fernandes</a> ( 1990-) Demonstrated proof of concept to end the burden of <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">Malnutrition</a> in India and around the world.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilip_Mahalanabis" title="Dilip Mahalanabis">Dilip Mahalanabis</a> - Credited to have evolved and utilized <a href="/wiki/Oral_rehydration_therapy" title="Oral rehydration therapy">ORS</a> to save thousands of lives during the <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh_Liberation_War" title="Bangladesh Liberation War">liberation war</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Country_examples">Country examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Country examples">edit</a>]</div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health_by_country" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible show navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Public health by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_Cuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in Mexico">Mexico</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Public health in the United States">United States</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Canada">Canada</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Canada">edit</a>]</div> In Canada, the <a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency of Canada</a> is the national agency responsible for public health, emergency preparedness and response, and infectious and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic disease">chronic disease</a> control and prevention.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuba">Cuba</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Cuba">edit</a>]</div> Since the 1959 <a href="/wiki/Cuban_Revolution" title="Cuban Revolution">Cuban Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cuban_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuban government">Cuban government</a> has devoted extensive resources to the improvement of <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Cuba" title="Healthcare in Cuba">health conditions</a> for its entire population via universal access to health care. Infant mortality has plummeted.<a href="#cite_note-Pineo_1996-149">[149]</a>: 483  <a href="/wiki/Cuban_medical_internationalism" title="Cuban medical internationalism">Cuban medical internationalism</a> as a policy has seen the Cuban government sent doctors as a form of aid and export to countries in need in Latin America, especially <a href="/wiki/Mission_Barrio_Adentro" title="Mission Barrio Adentro">Venezuela</a>, as well as Oceania and Africa countries. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colombia_and_Bolivia">Colombia and Bolivia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Colombia and Bolivia">edit</a>]</div> Public health was important elsewhere in Latin America in consolidating state power and integrating marginalized populations into the nation-state. In Colombia, public health was a means for creating and implementing ideas of citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> In Bolivia, a similar push came after their 1952 revolution.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghana">Ghana</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Ghana">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_(14011793910).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg/220px-Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg/330px-Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg/440px-Children_received_ITNs_during_a_school_distribution_in_Ghana_%2814011793910%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3744" data-file-height="5616" /></a><figcaption>Ghanaian children receive insecticide-treated bed nets to prevent exposure to <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> transmitting mosquitos. </figcaption></figure> Though curable and preventive, malaria remains a major public health issue and is the third leading cause of death in Ghana.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> In the absence of a vaccine, mosquito control, or access to anti-malaria medication, public health methods become the main strategy for reducing the prevalence and severity of malaria.<a href="#cite_note-Agyepong_1999-186">[186]</a> These methods include reducing breeding sites, screening doors and windows, insecticide sprays, prompt treatment following infection, and usage of insecticide treated mosquito nets.<a href="#cite_note-Agyepong_1999-186">[186]</a> Distribution and sale of insecticide-treated mosquito nets is a common, cost-effective anti-malaria public health intervention; however, barriers to use exist including cost, household and family organization, access to resources, and social and behavioral determinants which have not only been shown to affect malaria prevalence rates but also mosquito net use.<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Agyepong_1999-186">[186]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: France">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Health_care_in_France#Public_health_initiatives_(1871–1914)" title="Health care in France">Health care in France § Public health initiatives (1871–1914)</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Health_care_in_France&action=edit#Public_health_initiatives_(1871–1914)">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> The <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">French Third Republic</a> followed well behind Bismarckian Germany, as well as Great Britain, in developing the welfare state including public health. Tuberculosis was the most dreaded disease of the day, especially striking young people in their 20s. Germany set up vigorous measures of public hygiene and public sanatoria, but France let private physicians handle the problem, which left it with a much higher death rate.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> The French medical profession jealously guarded its prerogatives, and public health activists were not as well organized or as influential as in Germany, Britain or the United States.<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> For example, there was a long battle over a <a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">public health law</a> which began in the 1880s as a campaign to reorganize the nation's health services, to require the registration of infectious diseases, to mandate quarantines, and to improve the deficient health and housing legislation of 1850. However the reformers met opposition from bureaucrats, politicians, and physicians. Because it was so threatening to so many interests, the proposal was debated and postponed for 20 years before becoming law in 1902. Success finally came when the government realized that contagious diseases had a national security impact in weakening military recruits, and keeping the population growth rate well below Germany's.<a href="#cite_note-Health_care_in_France_pmid6991034-191">[191]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mexico">Mexico</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Mexico">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Mexico#Public_health" title="Healthcare in Mexico">Healthcare in Mexico § Public health</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Healthcare_in_Mexico&action=edit#Public_health">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> Public health issues were important for the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a> during the colonial era. Epidemic disease was the main factor in the decline of indigenous populations in the era immediately following the sixteenth-century conquest era and was a problem during the colonial era. The Spanish crown took steps in eighteenth-century Mexico to bring in regulations to make populations healthier.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> In the late nineteenth century, Mexico was in the process of modernization, and public health issues were again tackled from a scientific point of view.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> As in the U.S., food safety became a public health issue, particularly focusing on meat slaughterhouses and meatpacking.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> Even during the <a href="/wiki/Mexican_Revolution" title="Mexican Revolution">Mexican Revolution</a> (1910–20), public health was an important concern, with a text on hygiene published in 1916.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> During the Mexican Revolution, feminist and trained nurse <a href="/wiki/Elena_Arizmendi_Mejia" class="mw-redirect" title="Elena Arizmendi Mejia">Elena Arizmendi Mejia</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Neutral_White_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutral White Cross">Neutral White Cross</a>, treating wounded soldiers no matter for what faction they fought. In the post-revolutionary period after 1920, improved public health was a revolutionary goal of the Mexican government.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> The Mexican state promoted the health of the Mexican population, with most resources going to cities.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="United_States">United States</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: United States">edit</a>]</div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a>.[<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=United_States_Public_Health_Service&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_Public_Health_Service_(seal).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/220px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/330px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg/440px-United_States_Public_Health_Service_%28seal%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="327" data-file-height="319" /></a><figcaption>Logo of the United States Public Health Service</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">United States Public Health Service</a> (USPHS or PHS) is a collection of agencies of the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Health_and_Human_Services" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Health and Human Services">Department of Health and Human Services</a> concerned with public health, containing nine out of the department's twelve operating divisions. The <a href="/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Health" title="Assistant Secretary for Health">Assistant Secretary for Health</a> oversees the PHS. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Commissioned Corps</a> (PHSCC) is the federal uniformed service of the PHS, and is one of the eight <a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">uniformed services of the United States</a>. PHS had its origins in <a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._Marine_Hospitals" title="List of U.S. Marine Hospitals">the system of marine hospitals</a> that originated in 1798. In 1871 these were consolidated into the <a href="/wiki/Marine_Hospital_Service" title="Marine Hospital Service">Marine Hospital Service</a>, and shortly afterwards the position of <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General</a> and the PHSCC were established. As the system's scope grew to include quarantine authority and research, it was renamed the Public Health Service in 1912.</div></div> The United States lacks a coherent system for the governmental funding of public health, relying on a variety of agencies and programs at the federal, state and local levels.<a href="#cite_note-Leider-202">[202]</a> Between 1960 and 2001, public health spending in the United States tended to grow, based on increasing expenditures by state and local government, which made up 80–90% of total public health spending. Spending in support of public health in the United States peaked in 2002 and declined in the following decade.<a href="#cite_note-Himmelstein-203">[203]</a> State cuts to public health funding during the <a href="/wiki/Great_Recession" title="Great Recession">Great Recession</a> of 2007–2008 were not restored in subsequent years.<a href="#cite_note-Alfonso-204">[204]</a> As of 2012, a panel for the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Institute of Medicine">U.S. Institute of Medicine</a> panel warned that the United States spends disproportionately far more on clinical care than it does on public health, neglecting "population-based activities that offer efficient and effective approaches to improving the nation's health."<a href="#cite_note-IOM2012-205">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-Himmelstein-203">[203]</a> As of 2018<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit">[update]</a>, about 3% of government health spending was directed to public health and prevention.<a href="#cite_note-Butcher-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-California-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nunn-207">[207]</a> This situation has been described as an "uneven patchwork"<a href="#cite_note-Wallace-208">[208]</a> and "chronic underfunding".<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-Yale-210">[210]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eager-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-tfah-212">[212]</a> The <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a> has been seen as drawing attention to problems in the public health system in the United States and to a lack of understanding of public health and its important role as a <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Butcher-47">[47]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care" title="Health care">Health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_law" title="Health law">Health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_human_health" title="Effects of climate change on human health">Effects of climate change on human health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Public_Health_Association" title="European Public Health Association">European Public Health Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-assault_treatment_of_sexual_assault_victims" title="Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims">Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">List of national public health agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_health_care" title="Universal health care">Universal health care</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_health&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div 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Science. 51 (1306): 23–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1920Sci....51...23W">1920Sci....51...23W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.51.1306.23">10.1126/science.51.1306.23</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17838891">17838891</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=The+untilled+fields+of+public+health&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=1306&rft.pages=23-33&rft.date=1920-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17838891&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.51.1306.23&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1920Sci....51...23W&rft.aulast=Winslow&rft.aufirst=CE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1448241&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Centers_for_Disease_Control_Foundation-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Centers_for_Disease_Control_Foundation_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Centers_for_Disease_Control_Foundation_3-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdcfoundation.org/content/what-public-health">"What is Public Health"</a>. 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Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health. 55 (7): 528b–528. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjech.55.7.528b">10.1136/jech.55.7.528b</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0143-005X">0143-005X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1731924">1731924</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Epidemiology+%26+Community+Health&rft.atitle=Anthropology+in+public+health.+Bridging+differences+in+culture+and+society.&rft.volume=55&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=528b-528&rft.date=2001-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1731924%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0143-005X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjech.55.7.528b&rft.aulast=Perdiguero&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1731924&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chen_2006-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chen_2006_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chen_2006_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChenEvansEvansSadana2006" class="citation book cs1">Chen LC, Evans D, Evans T, Sadana R, <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Stilwell" title="Barbara Stilwell">Stilwell B</a>, Travis P, et al. 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The New England Journal of Medicine. 386 (1): 1–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMp2104881">10.1056/NEJMp2104881</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34979071">34979071</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:245640052">245640052</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+England+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+Patchwork+U.S.+Public+Health+System&rft.volume=386&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2022-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A245640052%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34979071&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1056%2FNEJMp2104881&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Sharfstein%2C+JM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americashealthrankings.org/explore/annual/measure/PH_funding/state/ALL">"Explore Public Health Funding in the United States | 2021 Annual Report"</a>. America's Health Rankings. Retrieved 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=America%27s+Health+Rankings&rft.atitle=Explore+Public+Health+Funding+in+the+United+States+%7C+2021+Annual+Report&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americashealthrankings.org%2Fexplore%2Fannual%2Fmeasure%2FPH_funding%2Fstate%2FALL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yale-210"><a href="#cite_ref-Yale_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.yale.edu/yls-today/news/ghjp-report-calls-reinvestment-revive-public-health-us">"GHJP Report Calls for Reinvestment to Revive Public Health in the U.S."</a> Yale Law School. 7 June 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Yale+Law+School&rft.atitle=GHJP+Report+Calls+for+Reinvestment+to+Revive+Public+Health+in+the+U.S.&rft.date=2021-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.yale.edu%2Fyls-today%2Fnews%2Fghjp-report-calls-reinvestment-revive-public-health-us&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eager-211"><a href="#cite_ref-Eager_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEagerHermanHouseRobinson2021" class="citation book cs1">Eager W, Herman D, House M, Robinson L, Williams C (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://law.yale.edu/sites/default/files/area/center/ghjp/documents/publichealthfunding_final_6.7.21.pdf">Confronting a legacy of scarcity: a plan for America's reinvestment in U.S. public health</a> (PDF). Yale School of Public Health.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confronting+a+legacy+of+scarcity%3A+a+plan+for+America%27s+reinvestment+in+U.S.+public+health&rft.pub=Yale+School+of+Public+Health&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Eager&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Herman%2C+D&rft.au=House%2C+M&rft.au=Robinson%2C+L&rft.au=Williams%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flaw.yale.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Farea%2Fcenter%2Fghjp%2Fdocuments%2Fpublichealthfunding_final_6.7.21.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tfah-212"><a href="#cite_ref-tfah_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tfah.org/report-details/pandemic-proved-underinvesting-in-public-health-lives-livelihoods-risk/">"The Impact of Chronic Underfunding on America's Public Health System: Trends, Risks, and Recommendations, 2021"</a>. Trust for America's Health. 7 May 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Trust+for+America%27s+Health&rft.atitle=The+Impact+of+Chronic+Underfunding+on+America%27s+Public+Health+System%3A+Trends%2C+Risks%2C+and+Recommendations%2C+2021&rft.date=2021-05-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tfah.org%2Freport-details%2Fpandemic-proved-underinvesting-in-public-health-lives-livelihoods-risk%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APublic+health" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.8em 0.8em; width: 18.55em; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 87%; clear: right; line-height:1.3em; background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;float:right;"><div style="float:left;"><a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App"><img alt="The offline app allows you to download all of Wikipedia's medical articles in an app to access them when you have no Internet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/42px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png" decoding="async" width="42" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/63px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Tango_Phone_medapp.svg/84px-Tango_Phone_medapp.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="42" data-file-height="47" /></a></div><div style="float:left;width:6px;padding:1px;height:47px;"></div>Wikipedia's health care articles can be viewed offline with the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wiki_Project_Med/App" class="extiw" title="meta:Wiki Project Med/App">Medical Wikipedia app</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 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.portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/21px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/42px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Psi_and_Caduceus.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/19px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/29px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Psi_and_Caduceus.svg/38px-Psi_and_Caduceus.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/19px-Psi2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/29px-Psi2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Psi2.svg/38px-Psi2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychology" title="Portal:Psychology">Psychology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Bisexuality_symbol_(bold,_color).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/21px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/32px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg/42px-Bisexuality_symbol_%28bold%2C_color%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="25" data-file-height="16" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Human_sexuality" title="Portal:Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Cannabis_leaf.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cannabis_leaf.svg/18px-Cannabis_leaf.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cannabis_leaf.svg/27px-Cannabis_leaf.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Cannabis_leaf.svg/36px-Cannabis_leaf.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="546" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Cannabis" title="Portal:Cannabis">Cannabis</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:SARS-CoV-2_(Wikimedia_colors).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="virus icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg/18px-SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg/27px-SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg/36px-SARS-CoV-2_%28Wikimedia_colors%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="711" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:COVID-19" title="Portal:COVID-19">COVID-19</a></li></ul></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236088147">.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline;font-size:88%;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em 0 0;padding:0 2em}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;padding:0.2em 0;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px;line-height:22px}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;align-items:baseline;padding:0.2em 0;column-gap:1em;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{display:flex;align-items:baseline;margin:0.15em 0;min-height:24px;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-logo{width:22px;line-height:22px;margin:0 0.2em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-link{margin:0 0.2em;text-align:left}@media screen and (max-width:960px){.mw-parser-output .sister-bar{flex-flow:column wrap;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-header{flex:0 1}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-content{flex:1;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .sister-bar-item{flex:0 0 20em;min-width:20em}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+link+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+style+.sister-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+.navbox-styles+.portal-bar{margin-top:-1px}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sister-bar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="noprint metadata sister-bar" role="navigation" aria-label="sister-projects"><div class="sister-bar-header">Public health at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a>:</div><ul class="sister-bar-content"><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/19px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/29px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Public_health" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Public health">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/14px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/21px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Public health">Media</a> from Commons</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/16px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/24px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Public_health" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Public health">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/18px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/28px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Public_health" class="extiw" title="s:Portal:Public health">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/19px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/29px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Public_health" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Public health">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/21px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/42px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Public_health" class="extiw" title="v:Public health">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li><li class="sister-bar-item"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/21px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/32px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/42px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1050" data-file-height="590" /><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189603" class="extiw" title="d:Q189603">Data</a> from Wikidata</li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Public_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Public_health" title="Template:Public health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Public_health" title="Template talk:Public health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Public_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Public health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Public_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxology" title="Auxology">Auxology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Medical_Officer" class="mw-redirect" title="Chief Medical Officer">Chief Medical Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_competence_in_health_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural competence in health care">Cultural competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">History of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_eugenics" title="New eugenics">Liberal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_genomics" title="Public health genomics">Genomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Globalization and disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harm_reduction" title="Harm reduction">Harm reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_economics" title="Health economics">Health economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_literacy" title="Health literacy">Health literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_policy" title="Health policy">Health policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_reform" title="Health care reform">Health care reform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_First" title="Housing First">Housing First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_right_to_water_and_sanitation" title="Human right to water and sanitation">Human right to water and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management_of_depression" title="Management of depression">Management of depression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_law" title="Public health law">Public health law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_public_health_institutes" class="mw-redirect" title="National public health institutes">National public health institute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_politics" title="Health politics">Health politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_rights" title="Labor rights">Labor rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_health" title="Maternal health">Maternal health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_anthropology" title="Medical anthropology">Medical anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a> (<a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Mental_Health" title="Minister of Mental Health">Ministers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_policy" title="Pharmaceutical policy">Pharmaceutical policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil pollution">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">Radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_pollution" title="Light pollution">Light</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners%27_rights" title="Prisoners' rights">Prisoners' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_intervention" title="Public health intervention">Public health intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_laboratory" title="Public health laboratory">Public health laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_food" title="Right to food">Right to food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_health" title="Right to health">Right to health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_housing" title="Right to housing">Right to housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_rest_and_leisure" title="Right to rest and leisure">Right to rest and leisure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_of_person" title="Security of person">Security of person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_and_reproductive_health" title="Sexual and reproductive health">Sexual and reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_changing_rooms" title="Unisex changing rooms">Unisex changing rooms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unisex_public_toilets" class="mw-redirect" title="Unisex public toilets">Unisex public toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive healthcare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior_change_(public_health)" title="Behavior change (public health)">Behavior change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioural_change_theories" title="Behavioural change theories">Theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_planning" title="Family planning">Family planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_promotion" title="Health promotion">Health promotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_nutrition" title="Human nutrition">Human nutrition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthy_diet" title="Healthy diet">Healthy diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preventive_nutrition" title="Preventive nutrition">Preventive nutrition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Infection control">Infection control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_hygiene" title="Oral hygiene">Oral hygiene</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_and_ergonomics" class="mw-redirect" title="Human factors and ergonomics">Human factors and ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Controlled Drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injury_prevention" title="Injury prevention">Injury prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety" title="Patient safety">Patient safety</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_safety_organization" title="Patient safety organization">Organization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Pharmacovigilance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_sanitation" title="Emergency sanitation">Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Fecal–oral transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_defecation" title="Open defecation">Open defecation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterborne diseases">Waterborne diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_worker" title="Sanitation worker">Worker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_hygiene" title="School hygiene">School hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_cessation" title="Smoking cessation">Smoking cessation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_health" title="Population health">Population health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biostatistics" title="Biostatistics">Biostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_mortality" title="Child mortality">Child mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_health" title="Global health">Global health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_impact_assessment" title="Health impact assessment">Health impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_system" title="Health system">Health system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">Infant mortality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_open-source_health_software" title="List of open-source health software">Open-source healthcare software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimorbidity" title="Multimorbidity">Multimorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_informatics" title="Public health informatics">Public health informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Social determinants of health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_determinants_of_health" title="Commercial determinants of health">Commercial determinants of health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_equity" title="Health equity">Health equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health" title="Race and health">Race and health</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biological and epidemiological statistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_risk" title="Relative risk">Relative risk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_hypothesis_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical hypothesis testing">Statistical hypothesis testing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_variance" title="Analysis of variance">Analysis of variance (ANOVA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regression_analysis" title="Regression analysis">Regression analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROC_curve" class="mw-redirect" title="ROC curve">ROC curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student%27s_t-test" title="Student's t-test">Student's t-test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z-test" title="Z-test">Z-test</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_statistical_packages" class="mw-redirect" title="List of statistical packages">Statistical software</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Infectious and epidemic disease prevention</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epidemics_and_pandemics" title="List of epidemics and pandemics">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notifiable diseases</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health_surveillance" title="Public health surveillance">Public health surveillance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sexually transmitted infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">WASH</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Food hygiene and safety management</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Food <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_additive" title="Food additive">Additive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chemistry" title="Food chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_engineering" title="Food engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_microbiology" title="Food microbiology">Microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_processing" title="Food processing">Processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Food_safety_scandals" title="Category:Food safety scandals">Safety scandals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_agricultural_practice" title="Good agricultural practice">Good agricultural practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Good_manufacturing_practice" title="Good manufacturing practice">Good manufacturing practice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HACCP" class="mw-redirect" title="HACCP">HACCP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_22000" title="ISO 22000">ISO 22000</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health behavioral sciences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">Diffusion of innovations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_belief_model" title="Health belief model">Health belief model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_psychology" title="Health psychology">Health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deviance" title="Positive deviance">Positive deviance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PRECEDE%E2%80%93PROCEED_model" title="PRECEDE–PROCEED model">PRECEDE–PROCEED model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cognitive_theory" title="Social cognitive theory">Social cognitive theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norms_approach" title="Social norms approach">Social norms approach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_planned_behavior" title="Theory of planned behavior">Theory of planned behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheoretical_model" title="Transtheoretical model">Transtheoretical model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations, education and history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caribbean <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Public_Health_Agency" title="Caribbean Public Health Agency">Caribbean Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>China <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Center_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention">Center for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li></ul></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Parliament_Committee_on_the_Environment,_Public_Health_and_Food_Safety" title="European Parliament Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety">Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety</a></li></ul></li> <li>India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_and_Family_Welfare" title="Ministry of Health and Family Welfare">Ministry of Health and Family Welfare</a></li></ul></li> <li>Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_Canada" title="Health Canada">Health Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Health_Agency_of_Canada" title="Public Health Agency of Canada">Public Health Agency</a></li></ul></li> <li>U.S. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_departments_in_the_United_States" title="Health departments in the United States">Health departments in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_on_Education_for_Public_Health" title="Council on Education for Public Health">Council on Education for Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service" title="United States Public Health Service">Public Health Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Toilet_Organization" title="World Toilet Organization">World Toilet Organization</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_national_public_health_agencies" title="List of national public health agencies">Full list</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li> <li>Higher education <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Science_in_Public_Health" title="Bachelor of Science in Public Health">Bachelor of Science in Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor_of_Public_Health" title="Doctor of Public Health">Doctor of Public Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_degrees_of_public_health" title="Professional degrees of public health">Professional degrees of public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_of_public_health" title="Category:Schools of public health">Schools of public health</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Josephine_Baker" title="Sara Josephine Baker">Sara Josephine Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Jay_Crumbine" title="Samuel Jay Crumbine">Samuel Jay Crumbine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Rogers_Darnall" title="Carl Rogers Darnall">Carl Rogers Darnall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Sanger" title="Margaret Sanger">Margaret Sanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Snow_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Snow (physician)">John Snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Mallon" title="Mary Mallon">Typhoid Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_Girls" title="Radium Girls">Radium Girls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_hygiene_movement" title="Social hygiene movement">Social hygiene movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Public_health" title="Category:Public health">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Public_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Public health">Commons</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/16px-People_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/24px-People_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/People_icon.svg/32px-People_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="100" data-file-height="100" /> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Nursing" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Nursing">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Occupational_safety_and_health" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Template:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Template talk:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Occupational safety and health"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Occupational_safety_and_health" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational safety and health</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_disease" title="Occupational disease">Occupational diseases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_injury" title="Occupational injury">injuries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acrodynia" title="Acrodynia">Acrodynia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asbestosis" title="Asbestosis">Asbestosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_asthma" title="Occupational asthma">Asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berylliosis" title="Berylliosis">Berylliosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brucellosis" title="Brucellosis">Brucellosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">Burnout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byssinosis" title="Byssinosis">Byssinosis ("brown lung")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_cardiovascular_disease" title="Occupational cardiovascular disease">Cardiovascular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalicosis" title="Chalicosis">Chalicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_solvent-induced_encephalopathy" title="Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy">Chronic solvent-induced encephalopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_stress" title="Chronic stress">Chronic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimney_sweeps%27_carcinoma" title="Chimney sweeps' carcinoma">Chimney sweeps' carcinoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coalworker%27s_pneumoconiosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Coalworker's pneumoconiosis">Coalworker's pneumoconiosis ("black lung")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concussions_in_sport" title="Concussions in sport">Concussions in sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_Quervain_syndrome" title="De Quervain syndrome">De Quervain syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erethism" title="Erethism">Erethism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazards_associated_with_exposure_to_human_nail_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupational hazards associated with exposure to human nail dust">Exposure to human nail dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farmer%27s_lung" title="Farmer's lung">Farmer's lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiddler%27s_neck" title="Fiddler's neck">Fiddler's neck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flock_worker%27s_lung" title="Flock worker's lung">Flock worker's lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glassblower%27s_cataract" title="Glassblower's cataract">Glassblower's cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golfer%27s_elbow" title="Golfer's elbow">Golfer's elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_loss" title="Hearing loss">Hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Hospital-acquired infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indium_lung" title="Indium lung">Indium lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laboratory_animal_allergy" title="Laboratory animal allergy">Laboratory animal allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_poisoning#Occupational_exposure" title="Lead poisoning">Lead poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">Low back pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesothelioma" title="Mesothelioma">Mesothelioma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metal_fume_fever" title="Metal fume fever">Metal fume fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mule_spinners%27_cancer" title="Mule spinners' cancer">Mule spinners' cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise-induced_hearing_loss" title="Noise-induced hearing loss">Noise-induced hearing loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phossy_jaw" title="Phossy jaw">Phossy jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumoconiosis" title="Pneumoconiosis">Pneumoconiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radium_jaw" title="Radium jaw">Radium jaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repetitive_strain_injury" title="Repetitive strain injury">Repetitive strain injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">Silicosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silo-filler%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Silo-filler's disease">Silo-filler's disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_injury" title="Sports injury">Sports injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis_elbow" title="Tennis elbow">Tennis elbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinnitus" title="Tinnitus">Tinnitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writer%27s_cramp" title="Writer's cramp">Writer's cramp</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hygiene" title="Occupational hygiene">Occupational hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_hazard" title="Occupational hazard">Occupational hazard</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_hazard" title="Biological hazard">Biological hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_hazard" title="Chemical hazard">Chemical hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_hazard" title="Physical hazard">Physical hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychosocial_hazard" title="Psychosocial hazard">Psychosocial hazard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">Occupational stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevention_through_design" title="Prevention through design">Prevention through design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_assessment" title="Exposure assessment">Exposure assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_exposure_limit" title="Occupational exposure limit">Occupational exposure limit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_epidemiology" title="Occupational epidemiology">Occupational epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_surveillance" title="Workplace health surveillance">Workplace health surveillance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_health" title="Environmental health">Environmental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Occupational health nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_health_psychology" title="Occupational health psychology">Occupational health psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_therapist" title="Occupational therapist">Occupational therapist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_occupational_safety_and_health_agencies" title="List of occupational safety and health agencies">Agencies</a> and organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Agency_for_Safety_and_Health_at_Work" title="European Agency for Safety and Health at Work">European Agency for Safety and Health at Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Centre_for_Occupational_Health_and_Safety" title="Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety">Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety</a> (Canada)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_nazionale_per_l%27assicurazione_contro_gli_infortuni_sul_lavoro" title="Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro">Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro</a> (Italy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Safety_and_Health_at_Work" title="National Institute for Safety and Health at Work">National Institute for Safety and Health at Work</a> (Spain)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (UK)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (US)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accord_on_Fire_and_Building_Safety_in_Bangladesh" title="Accord on Fire and Building Safety in Bangladesh">Bangladesh Accord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_45001" title="ISO 45001">ISO 45001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Convention,_1981" title="Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981">Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worker_Protection_Standard" title="Worker Protection Standard">Worker Protection Standard</a> (US)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_Environment_(Air_Pollution,_Noise_and_Vibration)_Convention,_1977" title="Working Environment (Air Pollution, Noise and Vibration) Convention, 1977">Working Environment Convention, 1977</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_procedure" title="Emergency procedure">Emergency procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_evacuation" title="Emergency evacuation">Emergency evacuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard" title="Hazard">Hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_elimination" title="Hazard elimination">Hazard elimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_controls" title="Administrative controls">Administrative controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_controls" title="Engineering controls">Engineering controls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_substitution" title="Hazard substitution">Hazard substitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">Personal protective equipment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout-tagout" class="mw-redirect" title="Lockout-tagout">Lockout-tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy (engineering)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_culture" title="Safety culture">Safety culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immediately_dangerous_to_life_or_health" title="Immediately dangerous to life or health">Immediately dangerous to life or health</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Act_(United_States)" title="Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)">Occupational Safety and Health Act (United States)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potty_parity" title="Potty parity">Potty parity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Potty_parity_in_the_United_States" title="Potty parity in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit" title="Right to sit">Right to sit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Right_to_sit_in_the_United_States" title="Right to sit in the United States">United States</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_right_to_access_the_toilet" title="Workers' right to access the toilet">Workers' right to access the toilet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol" title="Aerosol">Aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_(work)" title="Break (work)">Break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Break_room" title="Break room">Break room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_policy" title="Drug policy">Drug policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_overtime" title="Effects of overtime">Effects of overtime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environment,_health_and_safety" title="Environment, health and safety">Environment, health and safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_toxicology" title="Environmental toxicology">Environmental toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ergonomics" title="Ergonomics">Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_Fighter_Fatality_Investigation_and_Prevention_Program" title="Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program">Fire Fighter Fatality Investigation and Prevention Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawks_Nest_Tunnel_disaster" title="Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster">Hawks Nest Tunnel disaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_physics" title="Health physics">Health physics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hostile_work_environment" title="Hostile work environment">Hostile work environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Chemical_Safety_Card" class="mw-redirect" title="International Chemical Safety Card">International Chemical Safety Card</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_strain" title="Job strain">Job strain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Day_of_Mourning_(Canadian_observance)" title="National Day of Mourning (Canadian observance)">National Day of Mourning (Canada)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIOSH_air_filtration_rating" title="NIOSH air filtration rating">NIOSH air filtration rating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overwork" title="Overwork">Overwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_safety" title="Process safety">Process safety</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_of_working_life" title="Quality of working life">Quality of working life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Source control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_tort" title="Toxic tort">Toxic tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_workplace" title="Toxic workplace">Toxic workplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workers%27_compensation" title="Workers' compensation">Workers' compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_hazard_controls_for_COVID-19" title="Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19">Workplace hazard controls for COVID-19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Workplace_health_promotion" title="Workplace health promotion">Workplace health promotion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Category:Occupational safety and health">Category</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_diseases" title="Category:Occupational diseases">Occupational diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health_journals" title="Category:Occupational safety and health journals">Journals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health_organizations" title="Category:Occupational safety and health organizations">Organizations</a></li></ul></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Occupational_safety_and_health" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Occupational safety and health">Commons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Social_sciences" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ecology" title="Political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" title="Zoonosis">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection#Pathophysiology" title="Infection">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a> /Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment- to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease" title="Waterborne disease">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention and Control measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non- pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_glove" title="Medical glove">Gloves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_nursing" title="Barrier nursing">Barrier nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay-at-home_order" title="Stay-at-home order">Lockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">Protective sequestration</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a> services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreak_response" title="Outbreak response">Outbreak response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Respiratory source control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">Surgical mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">Screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic 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