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class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Origins of the Regal period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_of_the_Regal_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roman_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roman_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Roman Republic</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Roman_Republic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Roman Republic subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Roman_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Election_and_number" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Election_and_number"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Election and number</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Election_and_number-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraordinary_appointment_of_dictators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraordinary_appointment_of_dictators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Extraordinary appointment of dictators</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraordinary_appointment_of_dictators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Roman_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Roman_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>The Roman Empire</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The Roman Empire subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_Roman_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_Antiquity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Antiquity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Late Antiquity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Antiquity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pontifex_inclytus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pontifex_inclytus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span><i>Pontifex inclytus</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pontifex_inclytus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Middle Ages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Catholic_Church_use_of_the_title" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Catholic_Church_use_of_the_title"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Catholic Church use of the title</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Catholic_Church_use_of_the_title-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Pontifex maximus</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 45 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-45" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">45 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%B9%D8%B8%D9%85" title="الحبر الأعظم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الحبر الأعظم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C5%9F_pontifik" title="Baş pontifik – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Baş pontifik" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Вялікі пантыфік – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вялікі пантыфік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8F%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%96_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D1%84%D1%96%D0%BA" title="Вялікі пантыфік – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вялікі пантыфік" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Понтифекс максимус – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Понтифекс максимус" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont%C3%ADfex_m%C3%A0xim" title="Pontífex màxim – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pontífex màxim" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont%C3%ADfice_m%C3%A1ximo" title="Pontífice máximo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pontífice máximo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%81%DA%A9%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B3" title="پونتیفکس ماکسیموس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پونتیفکس ماکسیموس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%8F%B0%ED%8B%B0%ED%8E%99%EC%8A%A4_%EB%A7%89%EC%8B%9C%EB%AC%B4%EC%8A%A4" title="폰티펙스 막시무스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="폰티펙스 막시무스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontefice_massimo" title="Pontefice massimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pontefice massimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%A1_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A1" title="פונטיפקס מקסימוס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פונטיפקס מקסימוס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%94%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="პონტიფექს მაქსიმუსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პონტიფექს მაქსიმუსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81" title="Понтифекс максимус – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Понтифекс максимус" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E7%A5%9E%E7%A5%87%E5%AE%98" title="最高神祇官 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="最高神祇官" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pont%C3%ADfice_m%C3%A1ximo" title="Pontífice máximo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pontífice máximo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Великий понтифик – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Великий понтифик" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pontifex maximus" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" title="Pontifex Maximus – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Pontifex Maximus" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%A5%AD%E5%8F%B8_(%E5%8F%A4%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC)" title="大祭司 (古罗马) – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="大祭司 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chief high priest in ancient Rome</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg/170px-August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="367" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg/255px-August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg/340px-August_Labicana_Massimo_Inv56230.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="2754" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> as pontifex maximus<i> (<a href="/wiki/Via_Labicana_Augustus" title="Via Labicana Augustus">Via Labicana Augustus</a>) <-</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">pontifex maximus</i></span></b> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> for "supreme <a href="/wiki/Pontiff" title="Pontiff">pontiff</a>"<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) was the chief <a href="/wiki/High_priest" title="High priest">high priest</a> of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">Collegium</a> Pontificum</i>) in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">ancient Rome</a>. This was the most important position in the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">ancient Roman religion</a>, open only to <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> until 254 BC, when a <a href="/wiki/Plebeian" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian">plebeian</a> first held this position. Although in fact the most powerful office in the Roman priesthood, the <i>pontifex maximus</i> was officially ranked fifth in the <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#ordo_sacerdotum" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">ranking of the highest Roman priests</a> (<i>Ordo Sacerdotum</i>), behind the <i><a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">Rex Sacrorum</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Flamen#Flamines_maiores" title="Flamen">flamines maiores</a></i> (<i><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">Flamen Dialis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Martialis" title="Flamen Martialis">Flamen Martialis</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Quirinalis" title="Flamen Quirinalis">Flamen Quirinalis</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A distinctly religious office under the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, it gradually became politicized until, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, it was subsumed into the position of <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_period_(chronology)" title="Roman imperial period (chronology)">Roman imperial period</a>. Subsequent emperors were styled <i>pontifex maximus</i> well into <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 367–383</span>), but during Gratian's reign the phrase was replaced in imperial titulature with the Latin phrase: <i lang="la">pontifex inclytus</i> ("honourable pontiff"), an example followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius the Great">Theodosius the Great</a> and which was used by emperors thereafter including the <i>co</i>-<i><a href="/wiki/Augusti" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusti">augusti</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 425–455</span>), <a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 450–457</span>) and the <i>augustus</i> <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_Dicorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anastasius Dicorus">Anastasius Dicorus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 491–518</span>). The first to adopt the <i>inclytus</i> alternative to <i>maximus</i> may have been the rebel <i>augustus</i> <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 383–388</span>). </p><p>The word <i>pontifex</i> and its derivative "<a href="/wiki/Pontiff" title="Pontiff">pontiff</a>" became terms used for Christian <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishops</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the Bishop of <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The title of <i>pontifex maximus</i> was applied to the Roman <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">pope</a> as its chief bishop and appears on buildings, monuments and coins of popes of <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> and modern times. The official list of titles of the pope given in the <i><a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a></i> includes "supreme pontiff" (<a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <i lang="la">summus pontifex</i>) as the fourth title, the first being "bishop of Rome".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;background:ivory; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; width:190px; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#b23938"><span style="color:white">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_religious_titles" title="Category:Ancient Roman religious titles"> <span style="color:White;">a series</span></a> on the</span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#b23938"><span style="color:white">Priesthoods<br />of ancient Rome</span></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_flamen,_Louvre_museum,_Paris,_Ma431.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/169px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg" decoding="async" width="169" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/254px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/338px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="1784" /></a></span><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamen</a> <i>(AD 250–260)</i></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b23938;background:#F0ACAC"> Major <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">colleges</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">Pontifices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">Augures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epulones" title="Epulones">Septemviri epulonum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quindecimviri_sacris_faciundis" title="Quindecimviri sacris faciundis">Quindecimviri sacris faciundis</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b23938;background:#F0ACAC"> Other colleges or <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#sodalitas" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">sodalities</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fetial" title="Fetial">Fetiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arval_Brethren" title="Arval Brethren">Fratres Arvales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titii" title="Titii">Titii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#Luperci" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Luperci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodales_Augustales" title="Sodales Augustales">Sodales Augustales</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b23938;background:#F0ACAC"> Priests</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">Rex Sacrorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">Flamen Dialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Martialis" title="Flamen Martialis">Flamen Martialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Quirinalis" title="Flamen Quirinalis">Flamen Quirinalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_Nemorensis" title="Rex Nemorensis">Rex Nemorensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curio_maximus" title="Curio maximus">Curio maximus</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b23938;background:#F0ACAC"> Priestesses</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin#Vestalis_Maxima" title="Vestal Virgin">Virgo Vestalis Maxima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis#Flaminica_dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">Flaminica Dialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regina_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Regina sacrorum">Regina sacrorum</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#b23938;background:#F0ACAC"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman religion</a> <a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Glossary of ancient Roman religion</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Priesthoods_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Priesthoods of ancient Rome"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Priesthoods_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template talk:Priesthoods of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Priesthoods_of_ancient_Rome" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Priesthoods of ancient Rome"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The etymology of "pontifex" is uncertain, but the word has been used since Roman times. The word appears to consist of the Latin word for "bridge" and the suffix for "maker". However, there is a possibility that this definition is a <a href="/wiki/Folk_etymology" title="Folk etymology">folk etymology</a> for an <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> term,<sup id="cite_ref-livius_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> since Roman religion was heavily influenced by Etruscan religion, and little is known about the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a>, which is not <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> and thus has different origins from Latin.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to the common interpretation, the term <i>pontifex</i> means "bridge-builder" (<i>pons</i> + <i>facere</i>); "maximus" means "greatest". This was perhaps originally meant in a literal sense: the position of bridge-builder was indeed an important one in Rome, where the major bridges were over the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>, the sacred river (and a deity): only prestigious authorities with sacral functions could be allowed to "disturb" it with mechanical additions. However, it was always understood in its symbolic sense as well: the pontifices were the ones who smoothed the "bridge" between gods and men.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Haeperen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The interpretation of the word <i>pontifex</i> as "bridge-builder" was that of <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a>. <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> pointed out that the term existed before there were any bridges in Rome and derived the word from <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> <i>pontis</i>  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>] meaning a powerful or absolute master, while others derived it from <i>potis facere</i> in the sense of "able to sacrifice".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last derivation is mentioned also by Varro, who rejected it,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was the view of <i>pontifex maximus</i> Quintus Scaevola.<sup id="cite_ref-Lanciani_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanciani-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others have held that the word was originally <i>pompifex</i> (leader of public processions).<sup id="cite_ref-Lanciani_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanciani-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word <i>pons</i> originally meant "way" and <i>pontifex</i> would thus mean "maker of roads and bridges."<sup id="cite_ref-Lanciani_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lanciani-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another opinion is that the word is a corruption of a similar-sounding but etymologically unrelated <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> word.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet another hypothesis<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> considers the word as a loan from the <a href="/wiki/Sabine_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabine language">Sabine language</a>, in which it would mean a member of a college of five, from <a href="/wiki/Osco-Umbrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Osco-Umbrian">Osco-Umbrian</a> <i>ponte</i>, five.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This explanation takes into account that the college was established by <a href="/wiki/Sabines" title="Sabines">Sabine</a> king <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a> and the institution is Italic: the expressions <i>pontis</i> and <i>pomperias</i> found in the <a href="/wiki/Iguvine_Tablets" title="Iguvine Tablets">Iguvine Tablets</a> may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thence be a member of a sacrificial college known as <i>pomperia</i> (Latin <i>quinio</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Roman title <i>pontifex maximus</i> was rendered in Greek inscriptions and literature of the time as <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">ἀρχιερεύς</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Koinē Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">archiereús</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'Archpriest'<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by a more literal translation and order of words as <a href="/wiki/Koin%C4%93_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinē Greek language">Koinē Greek</a>: <span lang="grc">ἀρχιερεὺς μέγιστος</span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Koinē Greek-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">archireús mégistos</i></span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'greatest archpriest'.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <span title="Koinē Greek-language text"><span lang="grc">ἀρχιερεύς</span></span> is used in the Greek <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> text of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> to refer to the <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priest of Israel</a>, including in <a href="/wiki/2_Maccabees" title="2 Maccabees">2 Maccabees</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=2+Maccabees+4:7&version=lxx">2 Maccabees 4:7</a>). </p><p>The word <i>pontifex</i>, Latin for "<a href="/wiki/Pontiff" title="Pontiff">pontiff</a>," was used in ancient Rome to designate a member of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>. In the Latin <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a> translation of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>, it is sometimes used to designate the Jewish high priest, as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Epistle to the Hebrews</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+11:49&version=vulgate">John 11:49</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Hebrews+5:1&version=vulgate">Hebrews 5:1</a>). From perhaps as early as the 3rd century, it has been used to denote a Christian bishop. In the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, the term <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">summus pontifex</i></span> was originally applied to the <a href="/wiki/High_Priest_of_Israel" title="High Priest of Israel">High Priest of Israel</a>, as in the <i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Judith" title="Book of Judith">Book of Judith</a></i> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Judith+15:19&version=vulgate">Judith 15:19</a>), whose place, each in his own <a href="/wiki/Diocese" title="Diocese">diocese</a>, the Christian bishops were regarded as holding, based on an interpretation of the <i><a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Clement" title="First Epistle of Clement">First Epistle of Clement</a></i> (I Clement 40).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_of_the_Regal_period">Origins of the Regal period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins of the Regal period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i><a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">Collegium Pontificum</a></i> (College of Pontiffs) was the most important priesthood of ancient Rome. The foundation of this sacred college and the office of <i>pontifex maximus</i> is attributed to the second <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king of Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of what is known about the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rome">Regal period in Roman history</a> is semi-legendary or mythical. The <i><a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">Collegium</a></i> presumably acted as advisers to the <i><a href="/wiki/King" title="King">rex</a></i> (king) in religious matters. The <i>collegium</i> was headed by the <i>pontifex maximus</i>, and all the <i>pontifices</i> held their office for life. But the pontifical records of early Rome were most likely destroyed when the city was sacked by the Gauls in 387 BC, and the earliest accounts of Archaic Rome come from the literature of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, most of it from the 1st century BC and later.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a>-era <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sabine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabine">Sabine</a>, devised Rome's system of religious rites, including the manner and timing of sacrifices, the supervision of religious funds, authority over all public and private religious institutions, instruction of the populace in the celestial and funerary rites including appeasing the dead, and expiation of prodigies. Numa is said to have founded Roman religion after dedicating an altar on the <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Hill" title="Aventine Hill">Aventine Hill</a> to <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)#Epithets_of_Jupiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter Elicius</a> and consulting the gods by means of <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augury</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Livy_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Livy-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numa wrote down and sealed these religious instructions, and gave them to the first <i>pontifex maximus</i>, <a href="/wiki/Numa_Marcius" title="Numa Marcius">Numa Marcius</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roman_Republic">Roman Republic</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Pontifices_Maximi" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Pontifices Maximi">List of Pontifices Maximi</a> and <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a>, the <i>pontifex maximus</i> was the highest office in the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">state religion of ancient Rome</a> and directed the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>. According to Livy, after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Romans created the priesthood of the <i><a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a></i>, or "king of sacred rites," to carry out certain religious duties and rituals previously performed by the king. The <i>rex sacrorum</i> was explicitly deprived of military and political power, but the <i>pontifices</i> were permitted to hold both <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistracies</a> and military commands.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The official residence of the <i>pontifex maximus</i> was the <i><a href="/wiki/Domus_Publica" class="mw-redirect" title="Domus Publica">Domus Publica</a></i> ("State House") which stood between the House of the <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestal Virgins</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Via_Sacra" title="Via Sacra">Via Sacra</a>, close to the <a href="/wiki/Regia" title="Regia">Regia</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Forum" title="Roman Forum">Roman Forum</a>. His religious duties were carried out from the Regia. Unless the <i>pontifex maximus</i> was also a magistrate, he was not allowed to wear the <i><a href="/wiki/Toga_praetexta" class="mw-redirect" title="Toga praetexta">toga praetexta</a></i>, i.e. toga with the purple border. In artistic representations, he can be recognized by his holding an iron knife <i>(<a href="/wiki/Secespita" title="Secespita">secespita</a>)</i><sup id="cite_ref-livius_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <i><a href="/wiki/Patera" title="Patera">patera</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the distinctive robes or toga with part of the mantle covering the head <i>(<a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#capite_velato" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">capite velato</a>)</i>, in keeping with Roman practice. </p><p>In practice, particularly during the late Republic, the office of <i>pontifex maximus</i> was generally held by a member of a politically prominent family. It was a coveted position mainly for the great prestige it conferred on the holder. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> became pontifex in 73 BC and <i>pontifex maximus</i> in 63 BC. </p><p>The major Republican source on the pontiffs would have been the theological writings of <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, which survive only in fragments preserved by later authors such as <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a>. Other sources are <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a>'s <i>Life of Numa Pompilius</i>, <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>'s summaries of <a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a>, and in later writers, including several of the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>. Some of these sources present an extensive list of everyday prohibitions for the <i>pontifex maximus</i>; it seems difficult to reconcile these lists with evidence that many <i>pontifices maximi</i> were prominent members of society who lived normal lives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Election_and_number">Election and number</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Election and number"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The number of Pontifices, elected by <i>co-optatio</i> (i.e. the remaining members nominate their new colleague) for life, was originally five, including the <i>pontifex maximus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-lacus_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lacus-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-livius_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>pontifices</i>, moreover, could only come from the old nobility. In effect, this was only members of the patrician class. However, in 300–299 BC the <i><a href="/wiki/Lex_Ogulnia" title="Lex Ogulnia">lex Ogulnia</a></i> opened the office of <i>pontifex maximus</i> to public election and permitted the <i><a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebs</a></i> (plebeians) to be co-opted as priests, so that part of the exclusivity of the title was lost. But it was only in 254 BC that <a href="/wiki/Tiberius_Coruncanius" title="Tiberius Coruncanius">Tiberius Coruncanius</a> became the first plebeian <i>pontifex maximus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>lex Ogulnia</i> also increased the number of pontiffs to nine (the <i>pontifex maximus</i> included). In 104 BC the <i>lex Domitia</i> prescribed that the election of all pontiffs would henceforward be voted by the <i>comitia tributa</i> (an assembly of the people divided into voting districts); by the same law only 17 tribes, chosen by lot from the 35 tribes of the city, could vote. The law's promulgator, L[ucius] Domitius Ahenobarbus, was shortly afterwards elected pontifex maximus after the death of the incumbent <a href="/wiki/Metellus_Dalmaticus" class="mw-redirect" title="Metellus Dalmaticus">Metellus Dalmaticus</a>: Something of a personal revenge because, the previous year, he had expected to be co-opted as a pontiff to replace his late father, but the pontifical college had appointed another candidate in his place. The office's next holder, <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Mucius_Scaevola_Pontifex" title="Quintus Mucius Scaevola Pontifex">Q[uintus] Mucius Scaevola</a>, was also elected under the same law, though without controversy or opposition since he was a former consul and long-serving pontiff. </p><p>This law was abolished in 81 BC by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Cornelius_Sulla" class="mw-redirect" title="Lucius Cornelius Sulla">Sulla</a> in his dictatorship, in the <i>lex Cornelia de Sacerdotiis</i>, which restored to the great priestly colleges their full right of <i>co-optatio</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also under Sulla, the number of pontifices was increased to fifteen, the <i>pontifex maximus</i> included, and Sulla appointed <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Caecilius_Metellus_Pius" title="Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius">Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius</a> as the next holder of the office – the only truly unelected <i>pontifex maximus</i> in history, since even the other pontiffs did not get a vote in the matter. </p><p>In 63 BC, the law of Sulla was abolished by the tribune <a href="/wiki/Titus_Labienus" title="Titus Labienus">Titus Labienus</a>, and a modified form of the <i>lex Domitia</i> was reinstated providing for election by <i>comitia tributa</i> once again: <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Gaius Julius Caesar</a> followed Ahenobarbus's precedent by being elected by public vote, although Caesar at least had previously been a pontiff. Marcus Antonius later restored the right of <i>co-optatio</i> to the college,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in time for the election of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(triumvir)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (triumvir)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a>. Also under <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>, the number of pontifices were increased to sixteen, the <i>pontifex maximus</i> included. (Possibly because Caesar's own long absences from Rome necessitated the appointment of a deputy pontiff for those occasions when fifteen needed to be present.) The number of pontifices varied during the Empire but is believed to have been regular at fifteen.<sup id="cite_ref-lacus_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lacus-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extraordinary_appointment_of_dictators">Extraordinary appointment of dictators</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Extraordinary appointment of dictators"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The office came into its own with the abolition of the monarchy, when most sacral powers previously vested in the King were transferred either to the <i>pontifex maximus</i> or to the <a href="/wiki/Rex_Sacrorum" title="Rex Sacrorum">Rex Sacrorum</a>, though traditionally a (non-political) <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was formally mandated by the Senate for one day, to perform a specific rite. </p><p>According to Livy in his "History of Rome," an ancient instruction written in archaic letters commands: "Let him who is the <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Praetor Maximus</a> fasten a nail on the Ides of September." This notice was fastened on the right side of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus, next to the chapel of Minerva. This nail is said to have marked the number of the year. </p><p>It was in accordance with this direction that the consul Horatius dedicated the Temple of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a> in the year following the expulsion of the kings; from the Consuls the ceremony of fastening the nails passed to the Dictators, because they possessed greater authority. As the custom had been subsequently dropped, it was felt to be of sufficient importance to require the appointment of a dictator. L[ucius] Manlius was accordingly nominated but his appointment was due to political rather than religious reasons. He was eager to command in the war with the Hernici. He caused an anger among the men liable to serve by the inconsiderate way in which he conducted the enrolment. In consequence of the unanimous resistance offered by the tribunes of the plebs, he gave way, either voluntarily or through compulsion, and laid down his dictatorship. Since then, this rite was performed by the Rex Sacrorum.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Duties">Duties</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Duties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The main duty of the Pontifices was to maintain the <i><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#pax_deorum" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">pax deorum</a></i> or "peace of the gods."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The immense authority of the sacred college of <a href="/wiki/Pontiff" title="Pontiff">pontiffs</a> was centered on the <i>pontifex maximus</i>, the other pontifices forming his <i>consilium</i> or advising body. His functions were partly sacrificial or ritualistic, but these were the least important. His real power lay in the administration of <i>ius divinum</i> or divine law;<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the information collected by the pontifices related to the Roman religious tradition was bound in a <i>corpus</i> which summarized <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogma</a> and other concepts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coin_Julius_Caesar_Pontifex_Maximus.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Coin_Julius_Caesar_Pontifex_Maximus.PNG/220px-Coin_Julius_Caesar_Pontifex_Maximus.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="94" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Coin_Julius_Caesar_Pontifex_Maximus.PNG 1.5x" data-file-width="252" data-file-height="108" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Denarius" title="Denarius">Denarius</a> depicting Julius Caesar as <i>pontifex maximus</i></figcaption></figure> <p>The chief departments of <i>jus divinum</i> may be described as follows: </p> <ol><li>The regulation of all expiatory ceremonials needed as a result of pestilence, lightning, etc.</li> <li>The consecration of all temples and other sacred places and objects dedicated to the gods.</li> <li>The regulation of the calendar; both astronomically and in detailed application to the public life of the state.</li> <li>The administration of the law relating to burials and burying-places, and the worship of the <i><a href="/wiki/Manes" title="Manes">manes</a></i> or dead ancestors.</li> <li>The superintendence of all marriages by <i><a href="/wiki/Confarreatio" title="Confarreatio">confarreatio</a></i>, i.e. originally of all legal patrician marriages.</li> <li>The administration of the law of adoption and of testamentary succession.</li> <li>The regulation of the public morals, and fining and punishing offending parties.</li> <li>The selection of <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgins" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestal Virgins">Vestal Virgins</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The pontifices had many relevant and prestigious functions such as being in charge of caring for the state archives, the keeping the official minutes of elected magistrates,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the list of magistrates, and they kept the records of their own decisions (<i>commentarii</i>) and of the chief events of each year, the so-called "public diaries", the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Annales_maximi" title="Annales maximi">Annales maximi</a></i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>pontifex maximus</i> was also subject to several <a href="/wiki/Taboos" class="mw-redirect" title="Taboos">taboos</a>. Among them was the prohibition to leave Italy. Plutarch described <a href="/wiki/Publius_Cornelius_Scipio_Nasica_Serapio" title="Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio">Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio</a> (141–132 BC) as the first to leave Italy, after being forced by the Senate to do so, and thus break the sacred taboo. <a href="/wiki/Publius_Licinius_Crassus_Dives_Mucianus" title="Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus">Publius Licinius Crassus Dives Mucianus</a> (132–130 BC) was the first to leave Italy voluntarily. Afterwards it became common and no longer against the law for the <i>pontifex maximus</i> to leave Italy. Among the most notable of those who did was <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> (63–44 BC). </p><p>The Pontifices were in charge of the <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a> and determined when <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)" title="Intercalation (timekeeping)">intercalary months</a> needed to be added to synchronize the calendar to the seasons. Since the Pontifices were often politicians, and because a Roman magistrate's term of office corresponded with a calendar year, this power was prone to abuse: a Pontifex could lengthen a year in which he or one of his political allies was in office, or refuse to lengthen one in which his opponents were in power. A Pontifex with other political responsibilities, especially away from Rome, might also have been simply distracted from his calendrical duties as chief priest. This caused the calendar to become out of step with the seasons; for example, Caesar's crossing of the <a href="/wiki/Rubicon" title="Rubicon">Rubicon</a> in January 49 BC actually took place in mid-autumn. </p><p>Under his authority as <i>pontifex maximus</i>, Julius Caesar introduced the calendar reform that created the entirely <a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">solar</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>, with a fault of less than a day per century. This calendar remained the standard calendar of the Roman Empire until its collapse, and was used by the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</a> after the adoption of Christianity as the Roman state religion. The Julian calendar, established by Caesar in his capacity as <i>pontifex maximus</i>, thus became the standard calendar in all of Europe, and continued in use in Western Europe until the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a> reform in the 16th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_(7358499854).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg/220px-IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg/330px-IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg/440px-IMG_0028_-_Relief_of_Marcus_Aurelius_%287358499854%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><i>Pontifex maximus</i> and <i>Augustus</i> <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 161–180</span>) performing sacrifice in a relief from the <a href="/wiki/Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_(Rome)" title="Arch of Marcus Aurelius (Rome)">Arch of Marcus Aurelius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Museums" title="Capitoline Museums">Capitoline Museums</a>)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_Roman_Empire">The Roman Empire</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Roman Empire"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After Julius Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, his ally <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aemilius_Lepidus_(49_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (49 BC)">Marcus Aemilius Lepidus</a> was selected as <i>pontifex maximus</i>. Though Lepidus eventually fell out of political favor and was sent into exile as <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> consolidated power, he retained the priestly office until his death in 13/12 BC, at which point Augustus was selected to succeed him and given the right to appoint other pontifices. Thus, from the time of Augustus, the election of pontifices ended and membership in the sacred college was deemed a sign of imperial favour.<sup id="cite_ref-livius_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Augustus took the title of <i>pontifex maximus</i> for political gain, in an attempt to restore traditional Roman values. With this attribution, the new office of Emperor was given a religious dignity and the responsibility for the entire Roman state cult. Most authors contend that the power of naming the Pontifices was not really used as an <i><a href="/wiki/Instrumentum_regni" title="Instrumentum regni">instrumentum regni</a></i>, an enforcing power.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>From this point on, <i>pontifex maximus</i> was one of the many titles of the Emperor, slowly losing its specific and historical powers and becoming simply a referent for the sacral aspect of imperial duties and powers. During the Imperial period, a <i>promagister</i> (vice-master) performed the duties of the <i>pontifex maximus</i> in lieu of the emperors whenever they were absent.<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Haeperen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In post-Severan times (after 235 AD), the small number of pagan senators interested in becoming pontiffs led to a change in the pattern of office holding. In Republican and Imperial times no more than one family member of a gens was member of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>, nor did one person hold more than one priesthood in this collegium. However, these rules were loosened in the later part of the 3rd century A.D. In periods of joint rule, at first only one of the emperors bore this title, as it occurred for the first time during the joint reign of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Verus" title="Lucius Verus">Lucius Verus</a> (161–169 AD), when only Marcus Aurelius was <i>pontifex maximus</i>, but later two <i>pontifices maximi</i> could serve together, as <a href="/wiki/Pupienus" title="Pupienus">Pupienus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Balbinus" title="Balbinus">Balbinus</a> did in 238 AD—a situation unthinkable in Republican times.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Antiquity">Late Antiquity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Late Antiquity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanist</a>, furiously applied the term to a bishop with whom he was at odds (either <a href="/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_I" title="Pope Callixtus I">Pope Callixtus I</a> or <a href="/wiki/Agrippinus_of_Carthage" title="Agrippinus of Carthage">Agrippinus</a> of Carthage),<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ca. 220, over a relaxation of the Church's penitential discipline allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, it was in bitter irony: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In opposition to this [modesty], could I not have acted the dissembler? I hear that there has even been an edict sent forth, and a peremptory one too. The "Pontifex Maximus," that is the "bishop of bishops," issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged [the requirements of] repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, "Good deed!"... Far, far from Christ's betrothed be such a proclamation!</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Tertullian, <i>On Modesty</i> ch. 1</cite></div></blockquote> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, emperors continued to assume the title <i>pontifex maximus</i>. The early Christian emperors, including <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 306–337</span>) and the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Constantinian_dynasty" title="Constantinian dynasty">Constantinian dynasty</a>, continued to use it; it was only relinquished by <a href="/wiki/Gratian" title="Gratian">Gratian</a>, possibly in 376 at the time of his visit to Rome,<sup id="cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_Haeperen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or more probably in 383 when a delegation of pagan senators implored him to restore the <a href="/wiki/Altar_of_Victory" title="Altar of Victory">Altar of Victory</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Roman Senate</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its last use with reference to the emperors is in inscriptions of Gratian.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-lacus_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lacus-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-livius_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-livius-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Thessalonica" title="Edict of Thessalonica">Edict of Thessalonica</a> of 27 February 380 was enacted in Thessalonica (<a href="/wiki/Thessaloniki" title="Thessaloniki">Thessaloniki</a>) and published in <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (<a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>) for the whole empire. By it, Theodosius I established <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene Christianity</a> as the <a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">state church of the Roman Empire</a>. The Latin text refers to the bishop of Rome, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Damasus</a>, as a <i>pontifex</i>, and the bishop of Alexandria, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Peter_II_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Peter II of Alexandria">Peter</a>, as an <i>episcopus</i>:<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>... the profession of that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter, as it has been preserved by faithful tradition and which is now professed by the <i>Pontiff</i> Damasus and by Peter, <i>Bishop</i> of Alexandria ... We authorize the followers of this law to assume the title Catholic Christians ...<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p>Various forms of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">summus pontifex</i></span> ('highest pontiff' or bishop) were for centuries used not only of the Bishop of Rome but of other bishops also.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_of_Arles" title="Hilary of Arles">Hilary of Arles</a> (d. 449) is styled <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">summus pontifex</i></span> by <a href="/wiki/Eucherius_of_Lyon" title="Eucherius of Lyon">Eucherius of Lyon</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">P. L.</a></i>, vol. L, col. 773). </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pontifex_inclytus"><i>Pontifex inclytus</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Pontifex inclytus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During Gratian's reign or immediately afterwards the phrase <i>pontifex maximus</i> – which had unwelcome associations with traditional Roman religion during the <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire">Christianization of the Roman Empire</a> – was replaced in imperial titulature with the phrase: <i lang="la">pontifex inclytus</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first to adopt the <i>inclytus</i> alternative to <i>maximus</i> may have been the rebel <i>augustus</i> and devout Christian close to bishop <a href="/wiki/Martin_of_Tours" title="Martin of Tours">Martin of Tours</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magnus_Maximus" title="Magnus Maximus">Magnus Maximus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 383–388</span>), who killed Gratian in August 383.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This practice was followed by Gratian's junior co-emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodosius the Great">Theodosius the Great</a> and was used by emperors thereafter, including the <i>co</i>-<i><a href="/wiki/Augusti" class="mw-redirect" title="Augusti">augusti</a></i> <a href="/wiki/Valentinian_III" title="Valentinian III">Valentinian III</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 425–455</span>), <a href="/wiki/Marcian" title="Marcian">Marcian</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 450–457</span>) and the <i>augustus</i> <a href="/wiki/Anastasius_Dicorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Anastasius Dicorus">Anastasius Dicorus</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 491–518</span>), for whom examples of official usage survive.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another inscription dedicated to <a href="/wiki/Justin_II" title="Justin II">Justin II</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 565–574</span>) and naming him <i>pontifex</i> has long been recognized as a forgery, though there is no evidence to suggest the title could not have been used by <a href="/wiki/Justinian_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian the Great">Justinian the Great</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 527–565</span>) or even by <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IV" title="Constantine IV">Constantine IV</a> (<span style="white-space:nowrap;"><abbr title="reigned">r.</abbr> 654–685</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-:1_44-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Lanfranc" title="Lanfranc">Lanfranc</a> is termed <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">primas et pontifex summus</i></span> by his biographer, <a href="/wiki/Milo_Crispin" title="Milo Crispin">Milo Crispin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Patrologia_Latina" title="Patrologia Latina">P. L.</a>, vol. CL, 10), but from the 11th century it appears to be applied only to the Pope.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg/220px-Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg/330px-Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg/440px-Welt-Galleria_T001_bn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1615" data-file-height="2476" /></a><figcaption>Engraving by <a href="/wiki/Christoph_Weigel_the_Elder" title="Christoph Weigel the Elder">Christoph Weigel the Elder</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_XI" title="Pope Clement XI">Pope Clement XI</a>, giving him the title <i>pontifex maximus</i></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Catholic_Church_use_of_the_title">Catholic Church use of the title</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Catholic Church use of the title"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Pontiff#Catholicism" title="Pontiff">Pontiff § Catholicism</a></div><p>In the 15th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> drove new interest in ancient Rome, <i>pontifex maximus</i> became a regular title of honour for Popes.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Eastern_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire">Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the death of the final <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_XI" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine XI">Constantine XI</a> in 1453, <i>pontifex maximus</i> became part of the <a href="/wiki/Papacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Papacy">papacy</a>'s official titulature of the Bishop of Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The name given to the book containing the liturgical rites to be performed by any bishop, the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_Pontifical" title="Roman Pontifical">Roman Pontifical</a></i>, and to the form of liturgy known as <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_High_Mass" title="Pontifical High Mass">Pontifical High Mass</a> witness to the continued use of <i>pontifex</i> to refer to bishops in general.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 155</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 220 AD</span>), in his work "De Pudicitia" (On Modesty), criticized <a href="/wiki/Pope_Callixtus_I" title="Pope Callixtus I">Pope Callixtus I</a> for allowing repentant adulterers and fornicators back into the Church, even if they were repeat offenders, sarcastically referring to him as "Pontifex Maximus."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Pontifex Maximus — that is, the bishop of bishops — issues an edict: "I remit, to such as have discharged (the requirements of) repentance, the sins both of adultery and of fornication." O edict, on which cannot be inscribed, Good deed!</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Tertullian, On Modesty, Chapter I</cite></div></blockquote> <p>While the title <i>pontifex maximus</i> has for some centuries been used in inscriptions referring to the Popes, it has never been included in the official list of <a href="/wiki/Papal_titles" title="Papal titles">papal titles</a> published in the <i><a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a></i>. The official list of titles of the Pope given in the <span title="Italian-language text"><i lang="it"><a href="/wiki/Annuario_Pontificio" title="Annuario Pontificio">Annuario Pontificio</a></i></span> includes "Supreme Pontiff of the whole Church" (in Latin, <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Summus Pontifex Ecclesiae Universalis</i></span>) as the fourth title, the first being "Bishop of Rome." The title <i>pontifex maximus</i> appears in inscriptions on buildings and on coins and medallions.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In December 2012, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a> adopted <i>@pontifex</i> as his <a href="/wiki/Twitter" title="Twitter">X (formerly known as Twitter)</a> <a href="/wiki/Pseudonym" title="Pseudonym">handle</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> prompting users to pose questions with the <i>#askpontifex</i> <a href="/wiki/Hashtag" title="Hashtag">hashtag</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has been maintained by his successor <a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a>, who now uses it as his X handle.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pontifices_maximi" title="List of pontifices maximi">List of <i>pontifices maximi</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katechon" title="Katechon">Katechon</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_titles" title="Papal titles">Papal titles</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFPeck1896" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Thurston_Peck" title="Harry Thurston Peck">Peck, Harry Thurston</a> (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/cu31924027019482#page/n1319/mode/2up">"s. v. Pontifex"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Dictionary_of_Classical_Antiquities" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities">Harper's Dictionary of Classical Antiquities</a></i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Harper_%26_Brothers" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper & Brothers">Harper & Brothers</a>. p. 1299.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=s.+v.+Pontifex&rft.btitle=Harper%27s+Dictionary+of+Classical+Antiquities&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=1299&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Peck&rft.aufirst=Harry+Thurston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fcu31924027019482%23page%2Fn1319%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisShort1879" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charlton_T._Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Charlton T. Lewis">Lewis, Chartlon T.</a>; Short, Charles (1879). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=pontifex">"s. v. pontifex"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Latin_Dictionary" title="A Latin Dictionary">A Latin Dictionary</a></i>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Clarendon_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarendon Press">Clarendon Press</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=s.+v.+pontifex&rft.btitle=A+Latin+Dictionary&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1879&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Chartlon+T.&rft.au=Short%2C+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dpontifex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=pontifex">"s. v. pontifex"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/American_Heritage_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="American Heritage Dictionary">American Heritage Dictionary</a></i> (5th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company</a>. 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=s.+v.+pontifex&rft.btitle=American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dpontifex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForsythe2006" class="citation book cs1">Forsythe, Gary (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEfvR1Qcd0gC&pg=PA136"><i>A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24991-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24991-2"><bdi>978-0-520-24991-2</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 2,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Critical+History+of+Early+Rome%3A+From+Prehistory+to+the+First+Punic+War&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24991-2&rft.aulast=Forsythe&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaEfvR1Qcd0gC%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPascal1966" class="citation journal cs1">Pascal, Paul (February 1966). "Medieval Uses of Antiquity". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Classical_Journal" title="The Classical Journal">The Classical Journal</a></i>. <b>61</b> (5). <a href="/wiki/The_Classical_Association_of_the_Middle_West_and_South" class="mw-redirect" title="The Classical Association of the Middle West and South">The Classical Association of the Middle West and South</a>, Inc.: 193–197. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3294702">3294702</a>. <q>In the matter of hierarchical nomenclature, one of the most striking instances is the adoption of the term pontifex for a bishop</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Classical+Journal&rft.atitle=Medieval+Uses+of+Antiquity&rft.volume=61&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=193-197&rft.date=1966-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3294702%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pascal&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://droitromain.upmf-grenoble.fr/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm"><i>Edictum Gratiani, Valentiani et Theodosii de fide catholica</i></a>. The Roman Law Library. February 27, 380. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140427144439/http://droitromain.upmf-grenoble.fr/Constitutiones/Thessalonique.htm">Archived</a> from the original on April 27, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 6,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edictum+Gratiani%2C+Valentiani+et+Theodosii+de+fide+catholica&rft.series=The+Roman+Law+Library&rft.date=380&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdroitromain.upmf-grenoble.fr%2FConstitutiones%2FThessalonique.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=pontiff">"Pontiff: 1a. The pope. b. A bishop. 2. A pontifex."</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_American_Heritage_Dictionary_of_the_English_Language" title="The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language">The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language</a></i> (4th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Harcourt_Publishing_Company" class="mw-redirect" title="Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company">Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company</a>. 2000<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pontiff%3A+1a.+The+pope.+b.+A+bishop.+2.+A+pontifex.&rft.btitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary+of+the+English+Language&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Harcourt+Publishing+Company&rft.date=2000&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dpontiff&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Annuario Pontificio</i>. <a href="/wiki/Libreria_Editrice_Vaticana" class="mw-redirect" title="Libreria Editrice Vaticana">Libreria Editrice Vaticana</a>. 2012. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-209-8722-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-209-8722-0"><bdi>978-88-209-8722-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Annuario+Pontificio&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Libreria+Editrice+Vaticana&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-88-209-8722-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-livius-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-livius_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_9-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_9-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-livius_9-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLendering" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jona_Lendering" title="Jona Lendering">Lendering, Jona</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html">"Pontifex Maximus"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120112143929/https://www.livius.org/pn-po/pontifex/maximus.html">Archived</a> from the original on January 12, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 21,</span> 2011</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Livius.org" class="mw-redirect" title="Livius.org">Livius.org</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Pontifex+Maximus&rft.aulast=Lendering&rft.aufirst=Jona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livius.org%2Fpn-po%2Fpontifex%2Fmaximus.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Cite journal requires <code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#missing_periodical" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Haeperen-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Haeperen_10-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Haeperen2003" class="citation journal cs1">Van Haeperen, Françoise (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2003_num_81_1_4718">"Des pontifes païens aux pontifes chrétiens"</a>. <i>Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire</i>. <b>81</b> (1): 137–159. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Frbph.2003.4718">10.3406/rbph.2003.4718</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 March</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Revue+belge+de+Philologie+et+d%27Histoire&rft.atitle=Des+pontifes+pa%C3%AFens+aux+pontifes+chr%C3%A9tiens&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=137-159&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Frbph.2003.4718&rft.aulast=Van+Haeperen&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.persee.fr%2Fdoc%2Frbph_0035-0818_2003_num_81_1_4718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHooke1830" class="citation book cs1">Hooke, Nathaniel (1830). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/romanhistoryfro00hookgoog/page/n90"><i>The Roman History, from the Building of Rome to the Ruin of the Commonwealth</i></a>. Vol. 5. London: Thomas Davison. p. 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Roman+History%2C+from+the+Building+of+Rome+to+the+Ruin+of+the+Commonwealth&rft.place=London&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Thomas+Davison&rft.date=1830&rft.aulast=Hooke&rft.aufirst=Nathaniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fromanhistoryfro00hookgoog%2Fpage%2Fn90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeard,_MaryNorth,_JohnPrice,_Simon1998" class="citation book cs1">Beard, Mary; North, John; Price, Simon, eds. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQd82l39KX4C&pg=PA195"><i>Religions of Rome</i></a>. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-52145646-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-52145646-3"><bdi>978-0-52145646-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+of+Rome&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-52145646-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxQd82l39KX4C%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lanciani-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lanciani_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lanciani_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lanciani_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLanciani2005" class="citation book cs1">Lanciani, Rodolfo (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hcQETIDrjBwC&pg=PA54"><i>New Tales of Ancient Rome</i></a> (reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-41790821-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-41790821-9"><bdi>978-1-41790821-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Tales+of+Ancient+Rome&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Kessinger+Publishing&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-41790821-9&rft.aulast=Lanciani&rft.aufirst=Rodolfo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhcQETIDrjBwC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Harper2020" class="citation web cs1">Douglas Harper (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/pontifex">"Pontifex (n.)"</a>. <i>Online Etymology Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Pontifex+%28n.%29&rft.date=2020&rft.au=Douglas+Harper&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2Fpontifex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores'", <i>Rivista Indo-Greco-Italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità</i> <b>15</b> 1931 p. 56.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cf. Greek πέντε</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in <i>Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association</i> <b>101</b> 1970 p. 219 ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a> 23.1.2 and 32.22.5; <i>Corpus Inscriptionum Atticarum</i> 3.43, 3.428 und 3.458</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum</i> 2.2696 and 3.346; <a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a> <i>Numa</i> 9.4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Joyce, George Hayward (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope#(1) Titles"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pope#(1)_Titles">"Pope § Titles" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pope+%C2%A7+Titles&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=George+Hayward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Livy-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Livy_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab urbe condita</a></i>, 1:20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/public.relig.htm">Roman Public Religion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110318050320/http://abacus.bates.edu/~mimber/Rciv/public.relig.htm">Archived</a> March 18, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Roman Civilization, bates.edu retrieved August 17, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/ARTH200/politics/aurelian_panels.html">"Panel Relief of Marcus Aurelius and Roman Imperial Iconography"</a>. <i>College at Oneonta</i>. State University of New York<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=College+at+Oneonta&rft.atitle=Panel+Relief+of+Marcus+Aurelius+and+Roman+Imperial+Iconography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Femployees.oneonta.edu%2Ffarberas%2Farth%2FARTH200%2Fpolitics%2Faurelian_panels.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-lacus-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-lacus_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lacus_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-lacus_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1875" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Smith_(lexicographer)" title="William Smith (lexicographer)">Smith, William</a> (1875). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Pontifex.html">"Pontifex Maximus"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Greek_and_Roman_Antiquities" title="A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities">A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a></i>. London: <a href="/wiki/John_Murray_(publishing_house)" title="John Murray (publishing house)">John Murray</a>. pp. 939–942<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 15,</span> 2006</span> – via <a href="/wiki/LacusCurtius" title="LacusCurtius">LacusCurtius</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pontifex+Maximus&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Greek+and+Roman+Antiquities&rft.place=London&rft.pages=939-942&rft.pub=John+Murray&rft.date=1875&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpenelope.uchicago.edu%2FThayer%2FE%2FRoman%2FTexts%2Fsecondary%2FSMIGRA%2A%2FPontifex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/periochae/periochae016.html">Titus Livius. <i>Ex Libro</i> XVIII</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180819095111/http://www.livius.org/li-ln/livy/periochae/periochae016.html">Archived</a> August 19, 2018, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Periochae, from livius.org retrieved August 16, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Liv. Epit. 89</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pseudo-Ascon. in Divinat. p 102, ed. Orelli</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dion Cass. xxxvii. 37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dion Cass. xliv. 53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">see also: <a href="/wiki/Basileus" title="Basileus">basileus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">interrex</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLivy_(Titus_Livius)" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy (Titus Livius)</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/romrelig3.html#Livy">"History of Rome"</a>. <i>Ancient History Sourcebook: Accounts of Roman State Religion, c. 200 BC – 250 AD</i>. Paul Halsall © August 1998 (public domain), Fordham University; halsall@murray.fordham.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 23,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ancient+History+Sourcebook%3A+Accounts+of+Roman+State+Religion%2C+c.+200+BC+%E2%80%93+250+AD&rft.atitle=History+of+Rome&rft.au=Livy+%28Titus+Livius%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fancient%2Fromrelig3.html%23Livy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761568005">"Roman Mythology"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060521103412/http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761568005">Archived</a> May 21, 2006, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Microsoft <a href="/w/index.php?title=Encarta_Online&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encarta Online (page does not exist)">Encarta Online</a> Encyclopedia 2006. Retrieved August 17, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/jus+divinum">"Definition of JUS DIVINUM"</a>. <i>Merriam–Webster Online Dictionary</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Merriam%E2%80%93Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Definition+of+JUS+DIVINUM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fjus%2Bdivinum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroppenberg,_Inge2010" class="citation journal cs1">Kroppenberg, Inge (2010). "Law, Religion and Constitution of the Vestal Virgins". <i>Law and Literature</i>. <b>22</b> (3): 426–427. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1525%2Flal.2010.22.3.418">10.1525/lal.2010.22.3.418</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144805147">144805147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+Literature&rft.atitle=Law%2C+Religion+and+Constitution+of+the+Vestal+Virgins&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=426-427&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1525%2Flal.2010.22.3.418&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144805147%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Kroppenberg%2C+Inge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Fowler, William Warde (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Pontifex"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pontifex">"Pontifex" </a></span>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pontifex&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=66&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=William+Warde&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChrister_Bruun,_J._C._Edmondson2015" class="citation book cs1">Christer Bruun, J. C. Edmondson (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2bDBAAAQBAJ&dq=Pupienus+Balbinus+pontifex+maximus+shared&pg=PA191"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Roman Epigraphy</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533646-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-533646-7"><bdi>978-0-19-533646-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Roman+Epigraphy&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-533646-7&rft.au=Christer+Bruun%2C+J.+C.+Edmondson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ2bDBAAAQBAJ%26dq%3DPupienus%2BBalbinus%2Bpontifex%2Bmaximus%2Bshared%26pg%3DPA191&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Francis Aloysius Sullivan, <i>From Apostles to Bishops</i> (Paulist Press 2001 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0534-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-0534-2">978-0-8091-0534-2</a>), p. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David E. Wilhite, <i>Tertullian the African</i> (De Gruyter, Walter 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019453-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-019453-1">978-3-11-019453-1</a>), p. 174</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. Cameron, A. (1969). Gratian's repudiation of the pontifical robe. <i>The Journal of Roman Studies</i>, 58: 96–102. The confusion in dates arises from Zosimus, who writes that it was repudiated at Gratian's accession, impossible from epigraphic and literary references</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTikkanen2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tikkanen, Amy (February 3, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gratian-Roman-emperor">"Gratian"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Inc." title="Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.">Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.</a><span class="reference-accessdate"> Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 27,</span> 2019</span> – via <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Online" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Online">Encyclopædia Britannica Online</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gratian&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pub=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2008-02-03&rft.aulast=Tikkanen&rft.aufirst=Amy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FGratian-Roman-emperor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Unlike <i>episcopus</i> (from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἐπίσκοπος</span></span>), the word used for the bishop from the Greek-speaking East, <i>pontifex</i> is a word of purely <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> derivation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodosian Code XVI.1.2; and Sozomen, "Ecclesiastical History", VII, iv. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmperor_Theodosius_I" class="citation web cs1">Emperor Theodosius I. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientrome.ru/ius/library/codex/theod/liber16.htm">"IMPERATORIS THEODOSIANI CODEX Liber Decimus Sextus"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(web)</span>. ancientrome.ru<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 4,</span> 2006</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IMPERATORIS+THEODOSIANI+CODEX+Liber+Decimus+Sextus&rft.pub=ancientrome.ru&rft.au=Emperor+Theodosius+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fancientrome.ru%2Fius%2Flibrary%2Fcodex%2Ftheod%2Fliber16.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_44-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2007" class="citation journal cs1">Cameron, Alan (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30032227">"The Imperial Pontifex"</a>. <i>Harvard Studies in Classical Philology</i>. <b>103</b>: 341–384. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0073-0688">0073-0688</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/30032227">30032227</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Harvard+Studies+in+Classical+Philology&rft.atitle=The+Imperial+Pontifex&rft.volume=103&rft.pages=341-384&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30032227%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0073-0688&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F30032227&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i> (Oxford University Press 2005 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-280290-3">978-0-19-280290-3</a>), article <i>Pontifex Maximus</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholsonGwynn2018" class="citation cs2">Nicholson, Oliver; Gwynn, David (2018), Nicholson, Oliver (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001/acref-9780198662778-e-3782">"Pontifex Maximus"</a>, <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-866277-8"><bdi>978-0-19-866277-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 1,</span> 2020</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Late+Antiquity&rft.atitle=Pontifex+Maximus&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-866277-8&rft.aulast=Nicholson&rft.aufirst=Oliver&rft.au=Gwynn%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780198662778.001.0001%2Facref-9780198662778-e-3782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm">"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: The Pope"</a>. <i>www.newadvent.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CATHOLIC+ENCYCLOPEDIA%3A+The+Pope&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F12260a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0407.htm#:~:text=">"CHURCH FATHERS: On Modesty (Tertullian)"</a>. <i>www.newadvent.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 12,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.newadvent.org&rft.atitle=CHURCH+FATHERS%3A+On+Modesty+%28Tertullian%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F0407.htm%23%3A~%3Atext%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nypost.com/2012/12/03/pope-joins-tweeting-masses-with-pontifex-handle/">"Pope joins tweeting masses with Pontifex handle"</a>. <i>New York Post</i>. December 3, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 3,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Post&rft.atitle=Pope+joins+tweeting+masses+with+Pontifex+handle&rft.date=2012-12-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnypost.com%2F2012%2F12%2F03%2Fpope-joins-tweeting-masses-with-pontifex-handle%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoorstein2012" class="citation news cs1">Boorstein, Michelle (December 4, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/local/ask-the-pope-atpontifex-with-twitter-account-benedict-xvi-just-a-tweet-away/2012/12/04/4b91f1f4-3e4c-11e2-a2d9-822f58ac9fd5_story.html">"Ask the pope @pontifex: With Twitter account, Benedict XVI just a tweet away"</a>. <i>Washington Post</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0190-8286">0190-8286</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Ask+the+pope+%40pontifex%3A+With+Twitter+account%2C+Benedict+XVI+just+a+tweet+away&rft.date=2012-12-04&rft.issn=0190-8286&rft.aulast=Boorstein&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Flocal%2Fask-the-pope-atpontifex-with-twitter-account-benedict-xvi-just-a-tweet-away%2F2012%2F12%2F04%2F4b91f1f4-3e4c-11e2-a2d9-822f58ac9fd5_story.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news.va/en/news/pope-benedict-to-launch-new-twitter-account">Pope Benedict to launch new Twitter account</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Radio" title="Vatican Radio">Vatican Radio</a>, December 3, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://twitter.com/Pontifex">"@pontifex on Twitter"</a>. <i>Twitter</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 17,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Twitter&rft.atitle=%40pontifex+on+Twitter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.com%2FPontifex&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCameron2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cameron, Alan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/33741107.pdf">"Pontifex Maximus: from Augustus to Gratian – and Beyond"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Collegium</i>: 139–159.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Collegium&rft.atitle=Pontifex+Maximus%3A+from+Augustus+to+Gratian+%E2%80%93+and+Beyond&rft.pages=139-159&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Cameron&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F33741107.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDijkstraEspelo2017" class="citation journal cs1">Dijkstra, Roald; Espelo, Dorine Van (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9809.12400">"Anchoring Pontifical Authority: A Reconsideration of the Papal Employment of the Title Pontifex Maximus"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Religious_History" title="Journal of Religious History">Journal of Religious History</a></i>. <b>41</b> (3): 312–325. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-9809.12400">10.1111/1467-9809.12400</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F160382">2066/160382</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religious+History&rft.atitle=Anchoring+Pontifical+Authority%3A+A+Reconsideration+of+the+Papal+Employment+of+the+Title+Pontifex+Maximus&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=312-325&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2066%2F160382&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-9809.12400&rft.aulast=Dijkstra&rft.aufirst=Roald&rft.au=Espelo%2C+Dorine+Van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1111%252F1467-9809.12400&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pontifex_maximus&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Pontifex.html">article <i>Pontifex</i> in Smith's Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unrv.com/culture/pontifex-maximus-list.php">Annotated pontifex maximus list</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060622111704/http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/roman/roman_consuls.htm">List of roman consuls (<b>Fasti consulares</b>) 300 BC – 60 AD</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/chronology.htm">http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/chronology.htm</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111227013136/http://www.tyndale.cam.ac.uk/Egypt/ptolemies/chron/chronology.htm">Archived</a> December 27, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – in the list of consuls the column on the right (pontifex maximus) lists those that are known in the period.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoyce1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Joyce, George Hayward (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pope#V. Primacy of Honour: Titles and Insignia"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia_(1913)/Pope#V._Primacy_of_Honour:_Titles_and_Insignia">"Pope § V. Primacy of Honour: Titles and Insignia" </a></span>. In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>. Vol. 12. New York: Robert Appleton Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pope+%C2%A7+V.+Primacy+of+Honour%3A+Titles+and+Insignia&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Joyce&rft.aufirst=George+Hayward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APontifex+maximus" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #F0ACAC;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_religion" title="Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_religion" title="Template talk:Roman religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Ancient Roman religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a><br />(<i><a href="/wiki/Dii_Consentes" title="Dii Consentes">Dii Consentes</a></i>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenoria_(mythology)" title="Agenoria (mythology)">Agenoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angerona" title="Angerona">Angerona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Perenna" title="Anna Perenna">Anna Perenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_(mythology)" title="Aurora (mythology)">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellona_(goddess)" title="Bellona (goddess)">Bellona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Dea" title="Bona Dea">Bona Dea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmenta" title="Carmenta">Carmenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloacina" title="Cloacina">Cloacina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid">Cupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dea_Dia" title="Dea Dia">Dea Dia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dies_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dies (deity)">Dies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABs_Pater" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīs Pater">Dīs Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egeria_(mythology)" title="Egeria (mythology)">Egeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_(deity)" title="Fauna (deity)">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunus" title="Faunus">Faunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (deity)">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_in_ancient_Rome" title="Hercules in ancient Rome">Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus" title="Janus">Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lares" title="Lares">Lares</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lares_Familiares" title="Lares Familiares">Lares Familiares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber" title="Liber">Liber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">Libertas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nox_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nox (goddess)">Nox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ops" title="Ops">Ops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus" title="Orcus">Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_Penates" title="Di Penates">Penates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona_(mythology)" title="Pomona (mythology)">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapus" title="Priapus">Priapus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proserpina" title="Proserpina">Proserpina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinus" title="Quirinus">Quirinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salacia" title="Salacia">Salacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summanus" title="Summanus">Summanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertumnus" title="Vertumnus">Vertumnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #F0ACAC;">Abstract deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundantia" title="Abundantia">Abundantia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aequitas" title="Aequitas">Aequitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeternitas" title="Aeternitas">Aeternitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(goddess)" title="Africa (goddess)">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annona_(mythology)" title="Annona (mythology)">Annona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averruncus" title="Averruncus">Averruncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelus" title="Caelus">Caelus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_(mythology)" title="Concordia (mythology)">Concordia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feronia_(mythology)" title="Feronia (mythology)">Feronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontus" title="Fontus">Fontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laverna" title="Laverna">Laverna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_(goddess)" title="Pax (goddess)">Pax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitas" title="Securitas">Securitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spes" title="Spes">Spes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillitas" title="Tranquillitas">Tranquillitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_(mythology)" title="Terra (mythology)">Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lupa_Capitolina,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/100px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/150px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/200px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7489" data-file-height="4876" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">Rhea Silvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancus_Marcius" title="Ancus Marcius">Ancus Marcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Alba_Longa" title="Kings of Alba Longa">Kings of Alba Longa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersilia" title="Hersilia">Hersilia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">She-wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose_myth" title="Barnacle goose myth">Barnacle goose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Antiquitates_rerum_humanarum_et_divinarum" title="Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum">Res divinae</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Concepts<br />and practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Interpretatio graeca</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Charity" title="Roman Charity">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium_(classical_antiquity)" title="Palladium (classical antiquity)">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theology_of_victory" title="Roman theology of victory">Theology of victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">Pomerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitolium" title="Capitolium">Capitolium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">Cella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Celtic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripateticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Bough_(mythology)" title="Golden Bough (mythology)">Golden Bough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Sabine Women">Rape of the Sabine Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lacus_Curtius" title="Battle of Lacus Curtius">Battle of Lacus Curtius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gubernaculum_(classical)" title="Gubernaculum (classical)">Gubernaculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabiago_Plate" title="Parabiago Plate">Parabiago Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pignora_imperii" title="Pignora imperii">Pignora imperii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Classical mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="Glossary of ancient Roman religion">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Rome_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ancient_Rome" title="Outline of ancient Rome">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Roman_history" title="Timeline of Roman history">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rome" title="History of Rome">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overthrow_of_the_Roman_monarchy" title="Overthrow of the Roman monarchy">overthrow</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Roman Empire">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_Romana" title="Pax Romana">Pax Romana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principate" title="Principate">Principate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominate" title="Dominate">Dominate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_the_fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Historiography of the fall of the Western Roman Empire">historiography of the fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Decline of the Byzantine Empire">decline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Later_Roman_Empire" title="History of the Later Roman Empire">History</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_Constitution" title="Roman Constitution">Constitution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Constitution" title="History of the Roman Constitution">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" title="Constitution of the Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Republic" title="Constitution of the Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Constitution of the Roman Empire">Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Late_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Constitution of the Late Roman Empire">Late Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Senate" title="Roman Senate">Senate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">Legislative assemblies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curiate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Curiate Assembly">Curiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuriate_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Centuriate Assembly">Centuriate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Tribal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Council">Plebeian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Executive magistrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">SPQR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">Mos maiorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auctoritas" title="Auctoritas">Auctoritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">Imperium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_in_Roman_legal_system" title="Status in Roman legal system">Status</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">Litigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forum_(Roman)" title="Forum (Roman)">Forum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursus_honorum" title="Cursus honorum">Cursus honorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collegiality#In_the_Roman_Republic" title="Collegiality">Collegiality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Legatus">Legatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">Dux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Officium (ancient Rome)">Officium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praefectus" title="Praefectus">Praefectus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicarius" title="Vicarius">Vicarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vigintisexviri" title="Vigintisexviri">Vigintisexviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lictor" title="Lictor">Lictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">Magister militum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">Imperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeps_senatus" title="Princeps senatus">Princeps senatus</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pontifex maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_(title)" title="Augustus (title)">Augustus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrarchy" title="Tetrarchy">Tetrarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimates_and_populares" title="Optimates and populares">Optimates and populares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Province</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Magistrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Ordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">Consul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">Censor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">Praetor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">Tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">Tribune of the plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tribune" title="Military tribune">Military tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaestor" title="Quaestor">Quaestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">Aedile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Promagistrate" title="Promagistrate">Promagistrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_governor" title="Roman governor">Governor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Extraordinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">Rex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrex" title="Interrex">Interrex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">Dictator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">Magister equitum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decemviri" title="Decemviri">Decemviri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribuni_militum_consulari_potestate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribuni militum consulari potestate">Consular tribune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triumvirate_(ancient_Rome)" title="Triumvirate (ancient Rome)">Triumvir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military history of ancient Rome">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Borders of the Roman Empire">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_establishment_of_the_Roman_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military establishment of the Roman Republic">Establishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">castra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Personal equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_(Roman_history)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege (Roman history)">Siege in Ancient Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxiliaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippika_gymnasia" title="Hippika gymnasia">Hippika gymnasia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Roman_economy" title="Roman economy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_ancient_Rome" title="Agriculture in ancient Rome">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_during_the_Roman_period" title="Deforestation during the Roman period">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_commerce" title="Roman commerce">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_finance" title="Roman finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republican_currency" title="Roman Republican currency">Republican currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Imperial_currency" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Imperial currency">Imperial currency</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_architecture" title="Ancient Roman architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_art" title="Roman art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_bathing" title="Ancient Roman bathing">Bathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clothing_in_ancient_Rome" title="Clothing in ancient Rome">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_in_ancient_Rome" title="Cosmetics in ancient Rome">Cosmetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_cuisine" title="Ancient Roman cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_ancient_Rome" title="Education in ancient Rome">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_folklore" title="Roman folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_hairstyles" title="Roman hairstyles">Hairstyles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_ancient_Rome" title="Music of ancient Rome">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_people" title="Roman people">Romans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectacles_in_ancient_Rome" title="Spectacles in ancient Rome">Spectacles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_ancient_Rome" title="Theatre of ancient Rome">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toys_and_games_in_ancient_Rome" title="Toys and games in ancient Rome">Toys and games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome_and_wine" title="Ancient Rome and wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Patricians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_the_Orders" title="Conflict of the Orders">Conflict of the Orders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secessio_plebis" title="Secessio plebis">Secessio plebis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equites" title="Equites">Equites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">Gens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">Tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal Assembly">Assembly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">Patronage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_naming_conventions" title="Roman naming conventions">Naming conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography_of_the_Roman_Empire" title="Demography of the Roman Empire">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_ancient_Rome" title="Women in ancient Rome">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">Adoption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagaudae" title="Bagaudae">Bagaudae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_amphitheatre" title="Roman amphitheatre">Amphitheatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">Aqueducts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_bridge" title="Roman bridge">Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_circus" title="Roman circus">Circuses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_engineering" title="Ancient Roman engineering">Civil engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_domes" title="History of Roman and Byzantine domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_metallurgy" title="Roman metallurgy">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome" title="Sanitation in ancient Rome">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_of_ancient_Rome" title="Ships of ancient Rome">Ships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theatre_(structure)" title="Roman theatre (structure)">Theatres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermae" title="Thermae">Thermae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Latin" title="History of Latin">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li>Versions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgar_Latin" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Latin" title="Medieval Latin">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_Latin" title="Renaissance Latin">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Latin" title="Neo-Latin">Neo-Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Latin" title="Contemporary Latin">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">Ecclesiastical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aelius_Donatus" title="Aelius Donatus">Aelius Donatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Appuleius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Asconius_Pedianus" title="Quintus Asconius Pedianus">Asconius Pedianus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelius_Victor" title="Aurelius Victor">Aurelius Victor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boethius" title="Boethius">Boëthius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Caesar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudian" title="Claudian">Claudian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columella" title="Columella">Columella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Nepos" title="Cornelius Nepos">Cornelius Nepos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutropius_(historian)" title="Eutropius (historian)">Eutropius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Fabius_Pictor" title="Quintus Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Sextus Pompeius Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festus_(historian)" title="Festus (historian)">Rufus Festus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Works_attributed_to_Florus" class="mw-redirect" title="Works attributed to Florus">Florus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frontinus" title="Frontinus">Frontinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Cornelius_Fronto" title="Marcus Cornelius Fronto">Fronto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabius_Planciades_Fulgentius" title="Fabius Planciades Fulgentius">Fulgentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Gellius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydatius" title="Hydatius">Hydatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaius_Julius_Hyginus" title="Gaius Julius Hyginus">Hyginus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanes" title="Jordanes">Jordanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Paulus" title="Julius Paulus">Julius Paulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucan" title="Lucan">Lucan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcellus_Empiricus" title="Marcellus Empiricus">Marcellus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Manilius" title="Marcus Manilius">Manilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_of_Damascus" title="Nicolaus of Damascus">Nicolaus Damascenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonius_Marcellus" title="Nonius Marcellus">Nonius Marcellus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julius_Obsequens" title="Julius Obsequens">Obsequens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orosius" title="Orosius">Orosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phaedrus_(fabulist)" title="Phaedrus (fabulist)">Phaedrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Younger" title="Pliny the Younger">Pliny the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomponius_Mela" title="Pomponius Mela">Pomponius Mela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscian" title="Priscian">Priscian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Claudius_Quadrigarius" title="Quintus Claudius Quadrigarius">Quadrigarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Curtius_Rufus" title="Quintus Curtius Rufus">Quintus Curtius Rufus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sallust" title="Sallust">Sallust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Elder" title="Seneca the Elder">Seneca the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidonius_Apollinaris" title="Sidonius Apollinaris">Sidonius Apollinaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silius_Italicus" title="Silius Italicus">Silius Italicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statius" title="Statius">Statius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintus_Aurelius_Symmachus" title="Quintus Aurelius Symmachus">Symmachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terence" title="Terence">Terence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibullus" title="Tibullus">Tibullus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Antias" title="Valerius Antias">Valerius Antias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velleius_Paterculus" title="Velleius Paterculus">Velleius Paterculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Vergil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_literature" title="Ancient Greek literature">Greek</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Claudius_Aelianus" title="Claudius Aelianus">Aelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%ABtius_of_Amida" title="Aëtius of Amida">Aëtius of Amida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appian" title="Appian">Appian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arrian" title="Arrian">Arrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diogenes_La%C3%ABrtius" class="mw-redirect" title="Diogenes Laërtius">Diogenes Laërtius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedanius_Dioscorides" title="Pedanius Dioscorides">Dioscorides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius of Caesaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian" title="Herodian">Herodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephus" title="Josephus">Josephus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libanius" title="Libanius">Libanius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philostratus" title="Philostratus">Philostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlegon_of_Tralles" title="Phlegon of Tralles">Phlegon of Tralles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plutarch" title="Plutarch">Plutarch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyaenus" title="Polyaenus">Polyaenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polybius" title="Polybius">Polybius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyrius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priscus" title="Priscus">Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procopius" title="Procopius">Procopius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius of Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sozomen" title="Sozomen">Sozomen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanus_of_Byzantium" title="Stephanus of Byzantium">Stephanus Byzantinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Themistius" title="Themistius">Themistius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodoret" title="Theodoret">Theodoret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joannes_Zonaras" title="Joannes Zonaras">Zonaras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Major cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquileia" title="Aquileia">Aquileia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berytus" title="Berytus">Berytus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bononia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eboracum" title="Eboracum">Eboracum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptis_Magna" title="Leptis Magna">Leptis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Londinium" title="Londinium">Londinium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugdunum" title="Lugdunum">Lugdunum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutetia" title="Lutetia">Lutetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediolanum" title="Mediolanum">Mediolanum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vindobona" title="Vindobona">Vindobona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists <span class="nobold">and other<br />topics</span></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_founded_by_the_Romans" title="List of cities founded by the Romans">Cities and towns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_ancient_Rome" title="Climate of ancient Rome">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_consuls" title="List of Roman consuls">Consuls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dictators" title="List of Roman dictators">Dictators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman women">Distinguished women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_dynasties" title="List of Roman dynasties">Dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_emperors" title="List of Roman emperors">Emperors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_and_Byzantine_empresses" title="List of Roman and Byzantine empresses">Empresses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction_set_in_ancient_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiction set in ancient Rome">Fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_set_in_ancient_Rome" title="List of films set in ancient Rome">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_gentes" title="List of Roman gentes">Gentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Graeco-Roman_geographers" title="List of Graeco-Roman geographers">Geographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_institutions_of_ancient_Rome" title="Political institutions of ancient Rome">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_laws" title="List of Roman laws">Laws</a></li> 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