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vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relationship_to_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Relationship to conservation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relationship_to_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_perspective_in_political_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_perspective_in_political_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Power perspective in political ecology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Power_perspective_in_political_ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Power perspective in political ecology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Power_perspective_in_political_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Actor-oriented_power_perspectives:" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Actor-oriented_power_perspectives:"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span><i>Actor-oriented power perspectives:</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Actor-oriented_power_perspectives:-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_ecologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_ecologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Political ecologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_ecologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_journals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_journals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Related journals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_journals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Political ecology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politick%C3%A1_ekologie" title="Politická ekologie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Politická ekologie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_%C3%B8kologi" title="Politisk økologi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Politisk økologi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politische_%C3%96kologie" title="Politische Ökologie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Politische Ökologie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poliitiline_%C3%B6koloogia" title="Poliitiline ökoloogia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Poliitiline ökoloogia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Πολιτική οικολογία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πολιτική οικολογία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolog%C3%ADa_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Ecología política – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ecología política" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politika_ekologio" title="Politika ekologio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Politika ekologio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D9%88%D9%85%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="بوم‌شناسی سیاسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بوم‌شناسی سیاسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%95%EC%B9%98%EC%83%9D%ED%83%9C%ED%95%99" title="정치생태학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="정치생태학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B0%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Բնապահպանական քաղաքականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բնապահպանական քաղաքականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politi%C4%8Dka_ekologija" title="Politička ekologija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Politička ekologija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_politica" title="Ecologia politica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ecologia politica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekoloji_politik" title="Ekoloji politik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Ekoloji politik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politieke_ecologie" title="Politieke ecologie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Politieke ecologie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%82%B3%E3%83%AD%E3%82%B8%E3%83%BC" title="エコロジー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エコロジー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_%C3%B8kologi" title="Politisk økologi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Politisk økologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politisk_%C3%B8kologi" title="Politisk økologi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Politisk økologi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecologia_pol%C3%ADtica" title="Ecologia política – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ecologia política" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%8D%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Политическая экология – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Политическая экология" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekolohiyang_pampolitika" title="Ekolohiyang pampolitika – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Ekolohiyang pampolitika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siyasi_ekoloji" title="Siyasi ekoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Siyasi ekoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Політична екологія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg/400px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg/600px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg/800px-Terrace_field_yunnan_china_denoised.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1295" /></a><figcaption>Political ecology studies the complex interaction between economics, politics, technology, social tradition and the biological environment. 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style="padding-top:0.2em;"><i>Part of a series on</i></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Anthropology#Nature,_science,_and_technology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology of nature,<br /> science, and technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Basic concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecogovernmentality" title="Ecogovernmentality">Ecogovernmentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature%E2%80%93culture_divide" title="Nature–culture divide">Nature–culture divide</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Major theorists</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Boellstorff" title="Tom Boellstorff">Tom Boellstorff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Brassier" title="Ray Brassier">Ray Brassier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_H._Bratton" title="Benjamin H. Bratton">Benjamin H. Bratton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriella_Coleman" title="Gabriella Coleman">Gabriella Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Gilles Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Ellen" title="Roy Ellen">Roy Ellen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Fisher" title="Mark Fisher">Mark Fisher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donna_Haraway" title="Donna Haraway">Donna Haraway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizuko_Ito" title="Mizuko Ito">Mizuko Ito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nick_Land" title="Nick Land">Nick Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Miller_(anthropologist)" title="Daniel Miller (anthropologist)">Daniel Miller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Nelson" title="Ted Nelson">Ted Nelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reza_Negarestani" title="Reza Negarestani">Reza Negarestani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadie_Plant" title="Sadie Plant">Sadie Plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Virilio" title="Paul Virilio">Paul Virilio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mike_Wesch" class="mw-redirect" title="Mike Wesch">Mike Wesch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leslie_White" title="Leslie White">Leslie White</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align: center;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_Realism" title="Capitalist Realism">Capitalist Realism</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(2009)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cybernetic_Culture_Research_Unit" title="Cybernetic Culture Research Unit">Cybernetic Culture Research Unit</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(CCRU)</span></i></li> 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Machines</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rave" title="Rave">Rave culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science,_technology_and_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Science, technology and society">Science, technology and society</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">Social</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural anthropology</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Politics series</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="border-top:1px #fafafa solid; border-bottom:1px #fafafa solid; background:#efefef; background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); padding:0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">Politics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="display:block; margin-bottom:0.5em; background:transparent;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics" title="Category:Politics">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Primary topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_political_science" title="Outline of political science">Outline of political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_politics_articles" title="Index of politics articles">Index of politics articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_by_country" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics by country">Politics by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_country_subdivisions" title="Politics of country subdivisions">Politics by subdivision</a></li> <li><a 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<ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchy" title="Anarchy">Anarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">City-state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_leadership" title="Collective leadership">Collective leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confessional_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Confessional system">Confessional system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dictatorship" title="Dictatorship">Dictatorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directorial_system" title="Directorial system">Directorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federacy" title="Federacy">Federacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_regime" title="Hybrid regime">Hybrid regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">Meritocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parliamentary_system" title="Parliamentary system">Parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_system" title="Presidential system">Presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic" title="Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-parliamentary_system" title="Semi-parliamentary system">Semi-parliamentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semi-presidential_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-presidential system">Semi-presidential</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Academic disciplines</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content 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#aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related topics</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">Sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polity" title="Polity">Polity</a> / <a href="/wiki/State_(polity)" title="State (polity)">State</a> / <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">Country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" title="Theories of political behavior">Theories of political behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" title="Biology and political orientation">Biology and political orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_organisation" title="Political organisation">Political organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_political_economy" title="Critique of political economy">Critique of political economy</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align:left;text-align:center;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#efefef; border-top:1px solid;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000); border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Subseries</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_system" title="Electoral system">Electoral systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Election" title="Election">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Voting" title="Voting">voting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_unitarism" title="Political unitarism">Unitarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalism" title="Federalism">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a> <ul><li>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_forms_of_government" title="List of forms of government">forms</a> / <a href="/wiki/Governance" title="Governance">Governance</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_culture" title="Political culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_campaign" title="Political campaign">Political campaigning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_party" title="Political party">Political parties</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="background:#efefef;background: var(--background-color-interactive, #efefef); color: var(--color-base, #000);"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics_sidebar" title="Template talk:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Politics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Politics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Political ecology</b> is the study of the relationships between political, economic and social factors with environmental issues and changes. Political ecology differs from apolitical ecological studies by politicizing <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">environmental issues</a> and phenomena. </p><p>The academic discipline offers wide-ranging studies integrating ecological social sciences with <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in topics such as degradation and <a href="/wiki/Marginalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalization">marginalization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Environmental_conflict" title="Environmental conflict">environmental conflict</a>, conservation and control, and environmental identities and social movements.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "political ecology" was first coined by <a href="/wiki/Frank_Thone" title="Frank Thone">Frank Thone</a> in an article published in 1935.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has been widely used since then in the context of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">human ecology</a>, but with no systematic definition. Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Eric_R._Wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric R. Wolf">Eric R. Wolf</a> gave it a second life in 1972 in an article entitled "Ownership and Political Ecology", in which he discusses how local rules of ownership and inheritance "mediate between the pressures emanating from the larger society and the exigencies of the local ecosystem", but did not develop the concept further.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other origins include other early works of <a href="/wiki/Eric_R._Wolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Eric R. Wolf">Eric R. Wolf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michael_J._Watts" class="mw-redirect" title="Michael J. Watts">Michael J. Watts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hecht" title="Susanna Hecht">Susanna Hecht</a>, and others in the 1970s and 1980s. </p><p>The origins of the field in the 1970s and 1980s were a result of the development of <a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">development geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">cultural ecology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly the work of <a href="/wiki/Piers_Blaikie" title="Piers Blaikie">Piers Blaikie</a> on the sociopolitical origins of soil erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, political ecology has focused on phenomena in and affecting the developing world; since the field's inception, "research has sought primarily to understand the political dynamics surrounding material and discursive struggles over the environment in the third world".<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars in political ecology are drawn from a variety of academic disciplines, including geography, anthropology, development studies, political science, economics, sociology, forestry, and environmental history. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Political ecology's</b> broad scope and interdisciplinary nature lends itself to multiple definitions and understandings. However, common assumptions across the field give the term relevance. <a href="/wiki/Raymond_L._Bryant" title="Raymond L. Bryant">Raymond L. Bryant</a> and Sinéad Bailey developed three fundamental assumptions in practising political ecology: </p> <ul><li>First, changes in the environment do not affect society in a homogenous way: political, social, and economic differences account for uneven distribution of costs and benefits.</li> <li>Second, "any change in environmental conditions must affect the political and economic status quo."<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Third, the unequal distribution of costs and benefits and the reinforcing or reducing of pre-existing inequalities has political implications in terms of the altered power relationships that then result.</li></ul> <p>In addition, political ecology attempts to provide critiques and alternatives in the interplay of the environment and political, economic and social factors. Paul Robbins asserts that the discipline has a "normative understanding that there are very likely better, less coercive, less exploitative, and more sustainable ways of doing things".<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From these assumptions, political ecology can be used to: </p> <ul><li>inform policymakers and organizations of the complexities surrounding environment and development, thereby contributing to better environmental governance.</li> <li>understand the decisions that communities make about the natural environment in the context of their political environment, economic pressure, and societal regulations.</li> <li>look at how unequal relations in and among societies affect the natural environment, especially in context of government policy.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_and_influences">Scope and influences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Scope and influences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political ecology's movement as a field since its inception in the 1970s has complicated its scope and goals. Through the discipline's history, certain influences have grown more and less influential in determining the focus of study. Peter A. Walker traces the importance of the ecological sciences in political ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-Walker-2005-74_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-2005-74-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He points to the transition, for many critics, from a ‘structuralist’ approach through the 1970s and 1980s, in which ecology maintains a key position in the discipline, to a 'poststructuralist' approach with an emphasis on the 'politics' in political ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This turn has raised questions as to the differentiation with environmental politics as well as the field's use of the term of 'ecology'. Political ecological research has shifted from investigating political influence on the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_surface" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's surface">earth's surface</a> to the focus on spatial-ecological influences on politics and power—a scope reminiscent of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_politics" title="Environmental politics">environmental politics</a>. </p><p>Much has been drawn from cultural ecology, a form of analysis that showed how culture depends upon, and is influenced by, the material conditions of society (political ecology has largely eclipsed cultural ecology as a form of analysis according to Walker.)<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As Walker states, "whereas cultural ecology and systems theory emphasize[s] adaptation and homeostasis, political ecology emphasize[s] the role of political economy as a force of maladaptation and instability".<sup id="cite_ref-Walker-2005-74_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walker-2005-74-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political ecologists often use <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> frameworks to analyze environmental issues. Early and prominent examples of this were <i>Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria</i> by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Watts_(geographer)" title="Michael Watts (geographer)">Michael Watts</a> in 1983, which traced the famine in northern Nigeria during the 1970s to the effects of colonialism, rather than an inevitable consequence of the drought in the Sahel, and <i>The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries</i> by <a href="/wiki/Piers_Blaikie" title="Piers Blaikie">Piers Blaikie</a> in 1985, which traced <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">land degradation</a> in Africa to colonial policies of <a href="/wiki/Original_appropriation" title="Original appropriation">land appropriation</a>, rather than <a href="/wiki/Over-exploitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Over-exploitation">over-exploitation</a> by African farmers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_anthropology_and_geography">Relationship to anthropology and geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relationship to anthropology and geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Originating in the 18th and 19th centuries with philosophers such as Adam Smith, Karl Marx, and Thomas Malthus, <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> attempted to explain the relationships between economic production and political processes.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perry,_2003:_123_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry,_2003:_123-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It tended toward overly structuralist explanations, focusing on the role of individual economic relationships in the maintenance of social order.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eric Wolf used political economy in a neo-Marxist framework which began addressing the role of local cultures as a part of the world capitalist system, refusing to see those cultures as "primitive isolates".<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But environmental effects on political and economic processes were under-emphasised.<sup id="cite_ref-Perry,_2003:_123_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry,_2003:_123-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Conversely, <a href="/wiki/Julian_Steward" title="Julian Steward">Julian Steward</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roy_Rappaport" title="Roy Rappaport">Roy Rappaport</a>'s theories of cultural ecology are sometimes credited with shifting the functionalist-oriented anthropology of the 1950s and 1960s and incorporating ecology and environment into ethnographic study.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Geographers and anthropologists worked with the strengths of both to form the basis of political ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> PE focuses on issues of power, recognizing the importance of explaining environmental impacts on cultural processes without separating out political and economic contexts. </p><p>The application of political ecology in the work of anthropologists and geographers differs. While any approach will take both the political/economic and the ecological into account, the emphasis can be unequal. Some, such as geographer Michael Watts, focus on how the assertion of power impacts on access to environmental resources. His approach tends to see environmental harm as both a cause and an effect of “social <a href="/wiki/Marginalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginalization">marginalization</a>”.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Political ecology has strengths and weaknesses. At its core, it contextualizes political and ecological explanations of human behavior. But as Walker<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> points out, it has failed to offer “compelling counter-narratives” to “widely influential and popular yet deeply flawed and unapologetic neo-Malthusian rants such as <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Kaplan" title="Robert D. Kaplan">Robert Kaplan</a>'s (1994) 'The coming anarchy' and <a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a>'s (2005) <i>Collapse</i> (385). Ultimately, applying political ecology to policy decisions – especially in the US and Western Europe – will remain problematic as long as there is a resistance to Marxist and neo-Marxist theory.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Andrew_P._Vayda" title="Andrew P. Vayda">Andrew Vayda</a> and Bradley Walters (1999) criticize political ecologists for presupposing “the importance ... of certain kinds of political factors in the explanation of environmental changes” (167). Vayda and Walter's response to overly political approaches in political ecology is to encourage what they call “event ecology”,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> focusing on human responses to environmental events without presupposing the impact of political processes on environmental events. The critique has not been taken up widely. One example of work that builds on event ecology, in order to add a more explicit focus on the role of power dynamics and the need for including local peoples' voices is Penna-Firme (2013) "Political and Event Ecology: critiques and opportunities for collaboration". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relationship_to_conservation">Relationship to conservation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Relationship to conservation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is a divergence of ideas between conservation science and political ecology. With conservationists establishing <a href="/wiki/Protected_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Protected areas">protected areas</a> to conserve <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, "political ecologists have devoted some energy to the study of protected areas, which is unsurprising given political ecology's overall interest in forms of access to, and control over resources".<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The arguments against enclosure of land for conservation is that it harms local people and their livelihood systems, by denying them access. As Dove and Carpenter state, "indigenous people have important environmental knowledge which could contribute to conservation".<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The objection by political ecologists is that land use regulations are made by <a href="/wiki/NGOs" class="mw-redirect" title="NGOs">NGOs</a> and the government, denying access, denying the ability of local people to conserve species and areas themselves, and rendering them more vulnerable through dispossession. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In a few cases, perhaps especially tragic local groups have been displaced to create national parks and reserves to ‘conserve’ the forest. Fortunately, most conservation bodies are now aware that, if a group has been using and managing a forest for several thousand years, throwing it off the land is more apt to destroy the forest ecosystem than to preserve it. (Sutton 2004: 302)</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Power_perspective_in_political_ecology">Power perspective in political ecology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Power perspective in political ecology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Power_(social_and_political)" title="Power (social and political)">Power</a> is inevitable at the core of political ecology. Political ecology in the view Greenberg and Park is a way of creating a synergy between a political economy that aligns <i>power</i> distribution with ecological analysis and economic activities in a wider version of bio-environmental relations.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Political ecology explained by Bryant is the dynamic in politics that is associated with "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/2076-0760/7/10/177/htm">discursive struggle</a>" and material in the environment of less developed nations, showing how unequal relation in <i>power</i> makes up a political environment.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the view of Robbins, empirical exploration that shows the changes occurring in an environment in clear connection to <i>power</i> is termed political ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With power taking the central role in political ecology, there is a need to clarify the perspectives of power and the contributors to these perspectives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Actor-oriented_power_perspectives:"><i>Actor-oriented power perspectives:</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Actor-oriented power perspectives:"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the actor-oriented power perspectives, power is exercised by actors which are contrary to the presumption of power being perceived as a force likely to pass individuals with no consciousness. <a href="/wiki/Fredrik_Engelstad" title="Fredrik Engelstad">Fredrick Engelstad</a>, a Norwegian sociologist explained the concept of power as the combination of <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199680856.001.0001/acref-9780199680856-e-3606">relationality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">intentionality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The implication of this is that actors are perceived as power carriers in a significant way by which through action a certain intention (intentionality) is achieved, action occurs between at least two actors (relationality), and intended results are produced by action (causality). Viewing the power perspective from the angle of actor-oriented, Dowding submitted that power is linked to the agency, and this does not take away the importance of structure.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, while seen actor's use of power as a constraint, it is also propelled by structures. </p><p>The contributions made by actor-oriented power theory are given by <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber (1964)</a> where he explained power to be people’s ability to the realization of their wills irrespective of the resistance posed by others. An instance given by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Dahl" title="Robert Dahl">Robert Dahl</a> is the case where actor A exercises power over actor B by getting actor B to execute a task that actor B will otherwise not do.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The extreme case of this is when some group of individuals is mandated to carry out the task contrary to their thought or will. </p><p>Svarstad, Benjaminsen, and Overå held that the theory of actor-oriented power help in providing conceptual distinctions with useful insight into the theoretical elements that are vital in studying political ecology.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While there are actors who either exercise or try to put power into use in diverse ways, there are also actors who encounter resistance from their oppositions and other forces. An instance of these forces is resisting the fulfilment of actors' intentions by other opposition who are more powerful. It can also come in the form of institutional structural constraints emanating from the outcome of intended actions. </p><p>The use of power by actors who exercise <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3068206/">environmental interventions</a> and actors who resist such interventions are oftentimes the emphasis of scholars of political ecology. However, when environmental interventions result in <a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">environmental degradations</a>, scholars of political ecology throw their support to actors who resist such exercise of environmental interventions. Actors exercising environmental interventions include corporate organizations, governmental and non-governmental organizations<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while actors that resist them include groups such as peasants, fishermen, or pastoralists, by exercising counter-power using various kinds of resistance, or active involvement.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>Neo-Marxist power perspectives</b></i> </p><p>Amongst the foundations of political ecology is the <a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">political economy</a> thought of <a href="/wiki/Marxist_schools_of_thought" title="Marxist schools of thought">Marxist</a> which centered on the inequalities that emerged from global capitalism. However, the power perspectives of Marx are most likely highlighted even though there are several perspectives of power in political ecology influenced directly or indirectly by Marx.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Marxist main focus under capitalism is in relation to class and the stability of reproducing this class relation.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marx also placed human agency as the most important of his power concept with the human agency being socially conditioned as seen in his quote below: </p><p><i>"Men make their history, but they do not make it as they please; they do not make it under self-selected circumstances, but under circumstances existing already, given and transmitted from the past (Marx 1852:5)".</i><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Thus, Marx's power theory which formed his perspective of power is the understanding of human agency as being constrained by social structure. As structure produces the potential and extent for power exertion, the human agency is reproducing the structure. This is illustrated by Isaac (1987) using the powerful David Rockefeller (1915 to 2017)<sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as quoted below: </p><p><i>"But a social theory of power must explain what kinds of social relations exist and how power is distributed by these relations, such that it is possible for <a href="/wiki/David_Rockefeller" title="David Rockefeller">David Rockefeller</a> to have the power that he has. To do this is not to deny that it is he who possesses this power, nor to deny those personal attributes determining the particular manner in which he exercises it. It is simply to insist that the power individuals possess has social conditions of existence and that it is these conditions that should be the primary focus of theoretical analysis".</i><sup id="cite_ref-:1_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><i><b>Poststructuralist power perspectives</b></i> </p><p>The poststructuralist power perspective is the domain of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a>’s work with its application in political ecology. The poststructuralist power perspectives can be in three dimensions such as; <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">biopower</a>, governmentality, and <a href="/wiki/Discursive_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Discursive power">discursive power</a>. </p><p>Biopower indicates that to secure life, governments are concerned with the improvement of health and quality of life among populations. Foucault in his work explained how through the knowledge of power, people have learned how they should behave. In so doing, Foucault separates sovereign power from bio-power. Where sovereign power is termed "take life or let live", the bio-power "make life or let die".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While human as specie is continuously elaboration in conformity to nature, the superior one will intervene, acting on the environmental condition if the species of human are to be altered. Therefore, <a href="/wiki/Biopower" title="Biopower">bio-power</a> aim in terms of governance and knowledge is to ascertain environmental issues as core concerns. </p><p>Political ecology emphasized that understanding how power works in environmental governance follows Foucault’s notion of “governmentality”.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foucault sees governmentality as the means employed by the government to make its citizens behave in line with the priorities of government.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fletcher separates governmentality into four kinds. First is "<a href="/wiki/Discipline" title="Discipline">discipline</a>" which ensures that the citizens internalize specific manners like ethical standards and social norms.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The second is the "<a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>" which is a way of governing citizens using truth-defining standards like religion. The third is "<a href="//doi.org/10.1080/15295036.2019.1658883" class="extiw" title="doi:10.1080/15295036.2019.1658883">Neoliberal rationality</a>" which is a motivational structure formed and used to improve outcomes. The fourth is "Sovereign power" used to govern based on rules and punishment for faulting the rules. According to Fletcher, these governmentalities may conflict, work alone, or overlap. Also, the first two are dependent on humans believing government priorities, the second two do not but are seen as of importance.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Lastly, "discursive power" manifest when actors (corporate organization, governmental, and non-governmental organizations) make people or groups imbibe and add to the reproduction of the discourses they produce. Unlike in other fields, in political ecology, discourses are studied in line with a critical realist epistemology.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are instances where the formation of discursive power is traced to a state’s colonial era when efforts are made in the appropriation of new territories. Going by the basis of Foucault's political-ecological discursive power, it becomes imperative to mention that, there exist various perspectives to those of Foucault with wider space for human agency. </p><p>Comparing between bio-power, governmentality, and discursive power, both governmentality, and discursive power can be regarded as a theoretical perspective with significant importance while bio-power can be regarded as a topical concern identified by Foucault as the core of modern-day governments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_ecologists">Political ecologists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Political ecologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some prominent contemporary scholars include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Bebbington" title="Anthony Bebbington">Anthony Bebbington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piers_Blaikie" title="Piers Blaikie">Piers Blaikie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murray_Bookchin" title="Murray Bookchin">Murray Bookchin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harold_Brookfield" title="Harold Brookfield">Harold Brookfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_L._Bryant" title="Raymond L. Bryant">Raymond L. Bryant</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_R._Dove&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael R. Dove (page does not exist)">Michael R. Dove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robyn_Eckersley" title="Robyn Eckersley">Robyn Eckersley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arturo_Escobar_(anthropologist)" title="Arturo Escobar (anthropologist)">Arturo Escobar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gorz" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre Gorz">Andre Gorz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9lix_Guattari" title="Félix Guattari">Félix Guattari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susanna_Hecht" title="Susanna Hecht">Susanna Hecht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgos_Kallis" title="Giorgos Kallis">Giorgos Kallis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alain_Lipietz" title="Alain Lipietz">Alain Lipietz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Moseley" title="William G. Moseley">William Moseley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Peet" title="Richard Peet">Richard Peet</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Robbins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Robbins (page does not exist)">Paul Robbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariel_Salleh" title="Ariel Salleh">Ariel Salleh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farhana_Sultana" title="Farhana Sultana">Farhana Sultana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erik_Swyngedouw" title="Erik Swyngedouw">Erik Swyngedouw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaskar_Vira" title="Bhaskar Vira">Bhaskar Vira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Watts_(geographer)" title="Michael Watts (geographer)">Michael Watts</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Zimmerer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Zimmerer (page does not exist)">Karl Zimmerer</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Related_journals">Related journals</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Related journals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scholarly journals that have been key to the development (and critique) of this field include: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Annals_of_the_Association_of_American_Geographers" class="mw-redirect" title="Annals of the Association of American Geographers">Annals of the Association of American Geographers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Antipode_(journal)" title="Antipode (journal)">Antipode</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Capitalism_Nature_Socialism" title="Capitalism Nature Socialism">Capitalism Nature Socialism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Development_and_Change" title="Development and Change">Development and Change</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Peasant_Studies" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Peasant Studies">Journal of Peasant Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecological_Economics_(journal)" title="Ecological Economics (journal)">Ecological Economics</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ecology_(journal)" title="Ecology (journal)">Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Economic_Geography_(journal)" title="Economic Geography (journal)">Economic Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Environment_and_Planning" title="Environment and Planning">Environment and Planning</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Futures_(journal)" title="Futures (journal)">Futures</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gender,_Place_%26_Culture" title="Gender, Place & Culture">Gender, Place & Culture</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geoforum" title="Geoforum">Geoforum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Human_Ecology_(journal)" title="Human Ecology (journal)">Human Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Political_Ecology" title="Journal of Political Ecology">Journal of Political Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Left_Review" title="New Left Review">New Left Review</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Human_Geography" title="Progress in Human Geography">Progress in Human Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Physical_Geography" title="Progress in Physical Geography">Progress in Physical Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oryx_(journal)" title="Oryx (journal)">Oryx (journal)</a></i></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agroecology" title="Agroecology">Agroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_capitalism" title="Criticism of capitalism">Criticism of capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_ecology" title="Cultural ecology">Cultural ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-socialism" title="Eco-socialism">Eco-socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecogovernmentality" title="Ecogovernmentality">Ecogovernmentality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_justice" title="Environmental justice">Environmental justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_Politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Politics">Environmental Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_sociology" title="Environmental sociology">Environmental sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Feminist political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Green nationalism">Green nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_behavioral_ecology" title="Human behavioral ecology">Human behavioral ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ecology_topics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of ecology topics">List of ecology topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_Economy" class="mw-redirect" title="Political Economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (theory)">Social ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social-ecology" title="Social-ecology">Social-ecology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peet and Watts, 1996, p.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robbins, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Nature Rambling: We Fight for Grass," <i>The Science Newsletter</i> 27, 717, Jan. 5: 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, 1972, p.202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryant, 1998, p.80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Piers Blaikie, 1985</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryant, 1998, p.89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bryant and Bailey, 1997, p.28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Robbins, 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Walker-2005-74-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Walker-2005-74_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Walker-2005-74_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, 2005, p.74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, 2005, p.74-75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, 2005.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ritzer, 2008: 28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perry,_2003:_123-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perry,_2003:_123_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perry,_2003:_123_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry, 2003: 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, 1997: 7-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, 1997: 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perry, 2003: 154-157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wolf, 1972.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Watts, 1983.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blaikie, 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hecht & Cockburn, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peluso, 1992.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Greenberg & Park, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hershkovitz, 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paulson, 2003: 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walker, 2006: 388-389.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vayda & Walters, 1999: 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hanna, et al., 2004: 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dove & Carpenter, 2008: 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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Seattle: University of Washington Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Forest+guardians%2C+forest+destroyers%3A+the+politics+of+environmental+knowledge+in+Northern+Thailand&rft.place=Seattle&rft.pub=University+of+Washington+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Forsyth%2C+T.+J.+and+Walker%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+ecology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeach,_M._and_Mearns,_R.1996" class="citation book cs1">Leach, M. and Mearns, R. (1996). <i>The lie of the land: challenging received wisdom on the African environment</i>. Oxford: James Currey.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+lie+of+the+land%3A+challenging+received+wisdom+on+the+African+environment&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=James+Currey.&rft.date=1996&rft.au=Leach%2C+M.+and+Mearns%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APolitical+ecology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Blaikie, P., and Brookfield, H. <i>Land Degradation and Society</i>. Methuen: 1987.</li> <li>Blaikie, Piers. 1985. <i>The Political Economy of Soil Erosion in Developing Countries</i>. London; New York: Longman.</li> <li>Bryant, Raymond L. 1998. Power, knowledge and political ecology in the third world: a review, <i>Progress in Physical Geography</i> 22(1):79-94.</li> <li>Bryant, R. (ed.) 2015. <i>International Handbook of Political Ecology</i>. Edward Elgar</li> <li>Bryant, Raymond L. and Sinead Bailey. 1997. <i>Third World Political Ecology</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Dove, Michael R., and Carol Carpenter, eds. 2008. <i>Environmental Anthropology: A Historical Reader</i>. MA: Blackwell.</li> <li>Escobar, Arturo. 1996. “Construction Nature: elements for a post-structuralist political ecology”. <i>Futures</i> 28(4): 325-343.</li> <li>Garí, Josep A. 2000. <i>The Political Ecology of Biodiversity: Biodiversity conservation and rural development at the indigenous and peasant grassroots.</i> D.Phil. Dissertation, University of Oxford. British Library No. 011720099 (DSC D213318).</li> <li>Garí, Josep A. 2000. La ecología política de la biodiversidad. <i>Ecología Política</i> 20: 15-24.</li> <li>Greenberg, James B. and Thomas K. Park. 1994. Political Ecology, <i>Journal of Political Ecology</i> 1: 1-12.</li> <li>Hecht, Susanna & Alexander Cockburn. 1990 [Updated edition 2010]. <i>Fate of the Forest: Developers, Destroyers, and Defenders of the Amazon.</i> University of Chicago Press.</li> <li>Hershkovitz, Linda. 1993. Political Ecology and Environmental Management in the Loess Plateau, China, <i>Human Ecology</i> 21(4): 327-353.</li> <li>Martinez-Alier, Joan. 2002. <i>The Environmentalism of the Poor: A Study of Ecological Conflicts and Valuation</i>. Edward Elgar.</li> <li>Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. 2020. "Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity." London, UK: Routledge. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781351068840">10.4324/9781351068840</a></li> <li>Paulson, Susan, Lisa L. Gezon, and Michael Watts. 2003. Locating the Political in Political Ecology: An Introduction, <i>Human Organization</i> 62(3): 205-217.</li> <li>Peet, Richard and Michael Watts. 1993. Introduction: Development Theory and Environment in an Age of Market Triumphalism, <i>Economic Geography</i> 68(3): 227-253.</li> <li>Peet, Richard, Paul Robbins, and Michael Watts. (eds.) 2011. <i>Global Political Ecology</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Peet, Richard and Michael Watts. eds. 1996. <i>Liberation ecologies: environment, development, social movements</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Peluso, Nancy Lee. 1992. <i>Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java</i>. University of California Press.</li> <li>Peluso Nancy Lee & Michael Watts (eds.). 2001. <i>Violent Environments</i>. Cornell University Press.</li> <li>Perreault, T., G. Bridge and J. McCarthy (eds.). 2015. <i>Routledge Handbook of Political Ecology</i>. Routledge.</li> <li>Perry, Richard J. 2003. <i>Five Key Concepts in Anthropological Thinking</i>. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.</li> <li>Ritzer, George. 2008. <i>Modern Sociological Theory</i>. Boston: McGraw-Hill.</li> <li>Robbins, Paul. 2012. <i>Political Ecology: A Critical Introduction. 2nd ed</i>. Blackwell.</li> <li>Rocheleau, D. 1995. Gender and a Feminist Political Ecology Perspective, <i>IDS Institute for Development Studies</i> 26(1): 9-16.</li> <li>Salleh, Ariel (ed.) 2009. <i>Eco-Sufficiency & Global Justice: Women write Political Ecology</i>. London: Pluto Press.</li> <li>Salleh, Ariel. 2017. <i>Ecofeminism</i> in Clive Spash (ed.) <i>Routledge Handbook of Ecological Economics</i>. London: Routledge.</li> <li>Sayre, Nathan. 2002. <i>Species of Capital: Ranching, Endangered Species, and Urbanization in the Southwest</i>. University of Arizona Press.</li> <li>Sutton, Mark Q. and <a href="/wiki/E._N._Anderson" title="E. N. Anderson">E. N. Anderson</a>. 2004. <i>Introduction to Cultural Ecology</i>. Altamira.</li> <li>Vayda, Andrew P. and Bradley B. Walters. 1999. Against Political Ecology, <i>Human Ecology</i> 27(1): 167-179.</li> <li>Walker, Peter A. 2005. Political ecology: where is the ecology? <i>Progress in Human Geography</i> 29(1):73–82.</li> <li>Watts, Michael. 1983 [reprinted 2013]. <i>Silent Violence: Food, Famine and Peasantry in Northern Nigeria</i>. University of California Press.</li> <li>Watts, Michael. 2000. “Political Ecology.” In Sheppard, E. and T. Barnes (eds.), <i>A Companion to Economic Geography</i>. Blackwell.</li> <li>Walker, Peter A. 2006. Political ecology: where is the policy? <i>Progress in Human Geography</i> 30(3): 382-395.</li> <li>Wolf, Eric. 1972. Ownership and Political Ecology, <i>Anthropological Quarterly</i> 45(3): 201-205.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_ecology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://capeaag.wordpress.com/">Cultural and Political Ecology Specialty Group of the Association of American Geographers</a>. 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plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Social_sciences" title="Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Social_sciences" title="Template talk:Social sciences"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_sciences" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Social sciences"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Social_sciences" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">Social sciences</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_social_science" title="Outline of social science">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_sociology_articles" title="Index of sociology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical anthropology">physical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microeconomics" title="Microeconomics">microeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroeconomics" title="Macroeconomics">macroeconomics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Econometrics" title="Econometrics">econometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_economics" title="Mathematical economics">mathematical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography">physical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">integrated</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_history" title="Cultural history">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_sciences_of_history" title="Auxiliary sciences of history">auxiliary sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history" title="Economic history">economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_history_(field)" title="World history (field)">human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history" title="Political history">political</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history" title="Social history">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_history" title="Legal history">legal history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_legal_systems" title="List of national legal systems">legal systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_law" title="Public law">public law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_law" title="Private law">private law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">Political science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_politics" title="Comparative politics">comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abnormal_psychology" title="Abnormal psychology">abnormal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_psychology" title="Cognitive psychology">cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personality_psychology" title="Personality psychology">personality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demography" title="Demography">demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_Internet" title="Sociology of the Internet">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_sociology" title="Rural sociology">rural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sociology" title="Urban sociology">urban</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interdisciplinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Administration <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_administration" title="Business administration">business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthrozoology" title="Anthrozoology">Anthrozoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_studies" title="Area studies">Area studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Business_studies" title="Business studies">Business studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_studies" title="Communication studies">Communication studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_studies" title="Community studies">Community studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminology" title="Criminology">Criminology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_studies" title="Cultural studies">Cultural studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_studies" title="Development studies">Development studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a></li> <li>Environmental <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">studies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_studies" title="Food studies">Food studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_ecology" title="Human ecology">Human ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_science" title="Information science">Information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">International studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Management" title="Management">Management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li>Philosophies <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_economics" title="Philosophy and economics"> economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">social science</a></li></ul></li> <li>Planning <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_planning" title="Regional planning">regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_economy" title="Political economy">Political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">Political sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_science" title="Regional science">Regional science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_social_science" title="Quantum social science">Quantum social science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_work" title="Social work">Social work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegan_studies" title="Vegan studies">Vegan studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">List</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_social_science_journals" title="List of social science journals">List of social science journals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other categorizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">Behavioral sciences</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geisteswissenschaft" title="Geisteswissenschaft">Geisteswissenschaft</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_science" title="Human science">Human science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanities" title="Humanities">Humanities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" title="Category:Social sciences">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_sciences" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Social sciences">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wikiversity page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/16px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/24px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/32px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> <b><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Portal:Social_Sciences" class="extiw" title="wikiversity:Portal:Social Sciences">Wikiversity</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1554076#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" 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href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph1201887&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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