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li[data-v-59df77e1]{position:relative}.aside ul li .submenu[data-v-59df77e1]{display:none;position:absolute;background-color:white;left:0;min-width:100%;z-index:1}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu[data-v-59df77e1]{min-width:200px;display:flex;flex-direction:column;padding:3rem;gap:1rem;line-height:3rem;box-shadow:0 0 10px rgba(0,0,0,0.1)}.aside ul li:hover>.submenu a[data-v-59df77e1]:hover{color:#e10000}} @media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){#app[data-scrolldir="up"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(0)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header .wrap{transform:translateY(-100%)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-13em)}#app[data-scrolldir="down"] .page-header.has-double-subnav .wrap{transform:translateY(-17em)}} .search-term[data-v-6047d25e]{position:relative;display:inline-block}.search-term input[data-v-6047d25e]{font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.6em;line-height:1.5;color:#fff;padding:0.5rem 1rem;border:2px solid #fffdea;border-radius:2px;background:transparent}.search-term input[data-v-6047d25e]::placeholder{color:#fffdea;opacity:1}.search-term .iconSearch[data-v-6047d25e]{position:absolute;left:initial;right:0;top:50%;margin-top:-2rem;color:#fffdea;background:none;border:0}.search-term .iconSearch[data-v-6047d25e]:before{font-size:2em} .btn[data-v-cef5d6ac]{font-family:'Relative Bold', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;margin-left:1rem;text-align:center;line-height:2.4rem;border:0;background:none;padding:5px;display:inline-block;position:relative}.btn-share[data-v-cef5d6ac]{font-size:1.6rem}.btn-share img[data-v-cef5d6ac]{color:#fffdea}.qty[data-v-cef5d6ac]{background-color:#fffdea;color:#e10000;font-size:1.4rem;padding:0 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.aside[data-v-610bd61e]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;display:table-cell;vertical-align:top;width:27em;padding-left:2em}.news-detail .aside .track[data-v-610bd61e]{transition:top .2s ease-in .3s;transform:translate3d(0, 0, 0);position:-webkit-sticky;position:sticky;top:2rem}.news-detail .main[data-v-610bd61e]{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top}.news-detail .main .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{max-width:68em;margin:0 auto}}.title[data-v-610bd61e]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.title[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:2.2rem;margin-bottom:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em) and (max-width: 50em){.title[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:3.4rem;margin-bottom:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.title[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:4rem;margin-bottom:3rem}}.subTitle[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:1.7rem;line-height:1.6;font-style:italic;margin-bottom:0.5rem}.date[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:1.6em;line-height:1.4;color:#666;margin-bottom:3rem}.main-media[data-v-610bd61e]{width:100%}.caption[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:1.7rem;line-height:1.6;font-style:italic;margin-top:1.5rem}.share[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-bottom:1rem;margin-top:1rem}.content[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-bottom:5rem}.icr[data-v-610bd61e]{color:#e10000;display:inline-block;font-size:2em;left:0}.icr[data-v-610bd61e]:hover{color:#870000}.body[data-v-610bd61e] .intech-stats{font-size:0.5em}.testimonial-wrap[data-v-610bd61e]{max-width:117em;margin:0 auto;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0 2em}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.testimonial-wrap[data-v-610bd61e]{padding:0 1.5em}.testimonial-wrap .aside[data-v-610bd61e]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.testimonial-wrap[data-v-610bd61e]{padding:0 2em}.testimonial-wrap .aside[data-v-610bd61e]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}.testimonial-wrap .main .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{max-width:60em;margin:0 auto}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.testimonial-wrap .wrap[data-v-610bd61e]{display:table;width:100%}.testimonial-wrap .aside[data-v-610bd61e]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;display:table-cell;vertical-align:top;width:27em;padding-left:2em}.testimonial-wrap .aside .track[data-v-610bd61e]{transition:top .2s ease-in .3s;transform:translate3d(0, 0, 0);position:-webkit-sticky;position:sticky;top:2rem}.testimonial-wrap .main[data-v-610bd61e]{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top}.testimonial-wrap .main .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{max-width:68em;margin:0 auto}}.testimonial-wrap .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{border-top:1px solid #e10000}.side-block .title[data-v-610bd61e]{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;line-height:1.4;font-size:2.2em;padding-top:2rem;margin-bottom:2rem;border-top:1px solid #e10000;cursor:pointer}.side-block .list[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-bottom:3rem}.side-block .list .item[data-v-610bd61e]{color:#e10000;font-size:1.6rem;line-height:1.4;margin-bottom:1.5rem;display:block}.side-block .list .item[data-v-610bd61e]:hover{color:#870000}.side-block .list .item.router-link-exact-active[data-v-610bd61e]{color:#870000}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.cta-wrap .cta[data-v-610bd61e]{width:100%}.media-wrap[data-v-610bd61e]{margin:0 -2rem}.caption[data-v-610bd61e]{padding:0 2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.news-detail .main .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{max-width:initial}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.news-detail .main .inner[data-v-610bd61e]{margin:0;max-width:77rem}.title[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-bottom:2rem !important}.content[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-top:5rem}.share[data-v-610bd61e]{width:10rem;float:left;box-sizing:border-box;padding-left:1rem;margin:0}.icr[data-v-610bd61e]{display:block}.body[data-v-610bd61e]{width:calc(100% - 10rem);float:left}}.notice[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-bottom:5rem}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.notice[data-v-610bd61e]{margin-left:10rem}}.notice-text[data-v-610bd61e]{font-style:italic;font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-size:16px}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.notice-text[data-v-610bd61e]{font-size:18px}}.notice .mailto[data-v-610bd61e]{color:#e10000}.notice .mailto[data-v-610bd61e]:hover{color:#870000} .breadcrumbs[data-v-80d35b96]{max-width:117em;margin:3rem auto 0;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0 2em}.breadcrumbs p[data-v-80d35b96]{font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;font-size:1.5em}.breadcrumbs a[data-v-80d35b96]{color:#e10000}.breadcrumbs a[data-v-80d35b96]:hover{color:#870000}.breadcrumbs span[data-v-80d35b96]{color:#e10000}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.breadcrumbs[data-v-80d35b96]{padding:0 0 0 1.5em;position:relative}.breadcrumbs[data-v-80d35b96]:after{content:" ";position:absolute;top:0;right:0;bottom:0;width:2.5em;background-image:linear-gradient(to right, transparent, #fffdea)}.breadcrumbs .wrap[data-v-80d35b96]{overflow-x:scroll;padding-bottom:1.5rem;white-space:nowrap;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch}.breadcrumbs p span[data-v-80d35b96]{margin-right:3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em) and (max-width: 50em){.breadcrumbs[data-v-80d35b96]{margin-bottom:3em}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.breadcrumbs[data-v-80d35b96]{margin-bottom:4em}} .htmlText[data-v-51399daa]{max-width:77rem;margin:0 auto;font-size:2em;line-height:1.7;margin-bottom:3rem}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa]{font-size:1.7rem}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;line-height:1.5;text-align:center}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{font-size:2.2rem;margin-bottom:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em) and (max-width: 62.5em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{font-size:2.6rem;margin-bottom:3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{font-size:4.8rem;margin-bottom:4rem}}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{margin-top:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em) and (max-width: 62.5em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{margin-top:3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h1{margin-top:4rem}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{font-size:2.2rem;margin-bottom:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em) and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{font-size:2.4rem;margin-bottom:3rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{font-size:2.6rem;margin-bottom:4rem}}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{margin-top:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h2{margin-top:3rem}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h3{font-family:'FSBrabo', serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;margin-bottom:2rem;margin-top:2rem}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h3{font-size:2rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 50.0625em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] h3{font-size:2.2rem}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] p{margin-bottom:3rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] a{color:#e10000}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] a:hover{color:#870000}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul{line-height:1.7;margin-bottom:3rem;margin-top:3rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul li{position:relative;padding-left:3rem;margin-bottom:1rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul li:before{content:'';position:absolute;left:10px;top:12px;width:6px;height:6px;background:#e10000}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul li{padding-left:2rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul li:before{left:0}}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul{line-height:1.4}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ul li:before{top:8px}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ol{line-height:1.7;margin-bottom:3rem;margin-top:3rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ol li{list-style:decimal inside;padding-left:1rem;margin-bottom:1rem}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ol li:before{content:"";margin-right:1rem}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ol li{line-height:1.4;padding-left:0}}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] ol{line-height:1.4}}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] table{width:100%;margin-bottom:4em;border:0;border-collapse:collapse}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] table th{font-size:1.2rem;vertical-align:middle;padding:1rem;border:1px solid rgba(51,51,51,0.2)}.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] table td{font-size:1.2rem;vertical-align:middle;padding:0.5rem;border:1px solid rgba(51,51,51,0.2)}@media screen and (max-width: 50em){.htmlText[data-v-51399daa] table th{font-size:1.2rem}} .footer[data-v-8693b6c8]{background:#000;color:#fffad2}.inner[data-v-8693b6c8]{max-width:117em;margin:0 auto;box-sizing:border-box;padding:0 2em}@media screen and (max-width: 34.375em){.inner[data-v-8693b6c8]{padding:0 1.5em}.inner .aside[data-v-8693b6c8]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}}@media screen and (min-width: 34.4375em){.inner[data-v-8693b6c8]{padding:0 2em}.inner .aside[data-v-8693b6c8]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:5rem}.inner .main .inner[data-v-8693b6c8]{max-width:60em;margin:0 auto}}@media screen and (min-width: 62.5625em){.inner .wrap[data-v-8693b6c8]{display:table;width:100%}.inner .aside[data-v-8693b6c8]{display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:center;display:table-cell;vertical-align:top;width:27em;padding-left:2em}.inner .aside .track[data-v-8693b6c8]{transition:top .2s ease-in .3s;transform:translate3d(0, 0, 0);position:-webkit-sticky;position:sticky;top:2rem}.inner .main[data-v-8693b6c8]{display:table-cell;vertical-align:top}.inner .main .inner[data-v-8693b6c8]{max-width:68em;margin:0 auto}}.title[data-v-8693b6c8]{font-family:'Relative Faux', sans-serif;font-weight:400;font-style:normal;-webkit-font-smoothing:auto;-webkit-text-size-adjust:none;color:#fffdea;font-size:1.4em;line-height:1.3;display:block;margin-bottom:1.5rem}.title[data-v-8693b6c8]:hover{text-decoration:underline}.link[data-v-8693b6c8]{font-family:'Relative Faux', 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To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.</p></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-59df77e1><a href="/institutions" class="drop-item" data-v-59df77e1>Authors, Editors and Institutions</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.</p></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-59df77e1><a href="/page/content-alerts" class="drop-item" data-v-59df77e1>Content Alerts</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>Brief introduction to this section that descibes Open Access especially from an IntechOpen perspective</p> <a href="/how-open-access-publishing-with-intechopen-works" class="nav-item" data-v-59df77e1>How it Works</a> <a href="#" class="nav-item" data-v-59df77e1>Manage preferences</a></div> <div class="drop-box" data-v-59df77e1><a href="/page/contact-us" class="drop-item" data-v-59df77e1>Contact</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>Want to get in touch? Contact our London head office or <a href="#" data-v-59df77e1>media team here</a></p> <a href="/page/careers-at-intechopen" class="drop-item" data-v-59df77e1>Careers</a> <p data-v-59df77e1>Our team is growing all the time, so we’re always on the lookout for smart people who want to help us reshape the world of scientific publishing.</p></div></div></div></div></header> <section data-v-610bd61e data-v-895ba178><div class="breadcrumbs" data-v-80d35b96 data-v-610bd61e><div class="wrap" data-v-80d35b96><p data-v-80d35b96><a href="/" class="router-link-active" data-v-610bd61e>Home</a> > <a href="/news" class="router-link-active" data-v-610bd61e>News</a></p></div></div> <div class="news-detail" data-v-610bd61e><div class="wrap" data-v-610bd61e><div class="main" data-v-610bd61e><div class="inner" data-v-610bd61e><h1 class="title" data-v-610bd61e>IntechOpen Signs Open Access Institutional Agreement with Iowa State University</h1>  <p class="date" data-v-610bd61e>11 March 2024</p> <div class="content cf" data-v-610bd61e><div class="share" data-v-610bd61e><a href="https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=https://www.intechopen.com/news/intechopen-signs-open-access-institutional-agreement-with-iowa-state-university-20240311" data-type="facebook" target="_blank" class="icr iconTwitter" data-v-610bd61e>Share on Twitter</a> <a href="https://www.facebook.com/sharer/sharer.php?u=https://www.intechopen.com/news/intechopen-signs-open-access-institutional-agreement-with-iowa-state-university-20240311" data-type="facebook" target="_blank" class="icr iconFb" data-v-610bd61e>Share on Facebook</a> <a href="http://www.linkedin.com/shareArticle?mini=true&url=https://www.intechopen.com/news/intechopen-signs-open-access-institutional-agreement-with-iowa-state-university-20240311" data-type="facebook" target="_blank" class="icr iconLinkedIn" data-v-610bd61e>Share on LinkedIn</a></div> <div class="body" data-v-5ea9fa9c data-v-610bd61e><div class="htmlText" data-v-51399daa data-v-5ea9fa9c><p>IntechOpen signs an institutional agreement with Iowa State University of Science and Technology to support open access and cover open access publishing fees for their faculty.</p> <p>Founded in 1858, Iowa State University of Science and Technology (ISU) is the first coeducational land-grant institution in the United States. ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. </p> <p>IntechOpen is a pioneer in the open access books movement, having published over 6,900 open access books, many from leading scholars in their field.</p> <p>The funding for this deal is provided by Iowa State University Library with the goals to both promote open access and openness for ISU’s research publications, and to support author choice by making open access publishing an affordable option. This multipayer cost-sharing model, and publisher discount is designed to enable Iowa State University Library to stretch its open access funds to help as many authors as possible and ensure that lack of research funds is not a barrier for authors who choose to publish in IntechOpen's Open Access Books and Journals.</p> <p>IntechOpen is proud to enter this agreement with Iowa State University to encourage open access publishing across all formats and fields of science. With a particular focus on open access books, IntechOpen and Iowa State University are also both supporting and actively involved with the OA Switchboard initiative for books and strive to provide a way for authors to access available funds for OA book initiatives and cover book and chapter publication costs.</p> <p>For more information on the agreement details, visit the landing page<a href="https://www.intechopen.com/institution/1528"> here.</a></p> <p><strong>About Iowa State University</strong></p> <p>Iowa State University of Science and Technology (ISU) was founded in 1858 as the land-grant institution for the State of Iowa (the first coeducational land-grant institution in the United States). ISU is one of the three state-supported universities in Iowa administered by the State Board of Regents. ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. </p> <p>Visit the university's website at <a href="http://www.iastate.edu">www.iastate.edu</a> for more information.</p> <p><strong>About IntechOpen</strong></p> <p>Born from a desire to make publishing more relevant for the digital age, IntechOpen has grown to become the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books, specialising in science, technology and medicine. 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ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EVisit the university's website at \u003Ca href=\\\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.iastate.edu\\\"\u003Ewww.iastate.edu\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for more information.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAbout IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EBorn from a desire to make publishing more relevant for the digital age, IntechOpen has grown to become the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books, specialising in science, technology and medicine. 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With a particular focus on open access books, IntechOpen and Iowa State University are also both supporting and actively involved with the OA Switchboard initiative for books and strive to provide a way for authors to access available funds for OA book initiatives and cover book and chapter publication costs.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EFor more information on the agreement details, visit the landing page\u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002Finstitution\u002F1528\"\u003E here.\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAbout Iowa State University\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIowa State University of Science and Technology (ISU) was founded in 1858 as the land-grant institution for the State of Iowa (the first coeducational land-grant institution in the United States). ISU is one of the three state-supported universities in Iowa administered by the State Board of Regents. ISU has seven colleges: Agriculture and Life Sciences, Business, Design, Engineering, Human Sciences, Liberal Arts and Sciences, and Veterinary Medicine. \u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EVisit the university's website at \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.iastate.edu\"\u003Ewww.iastate.edu\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for more information.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003EAbout IntechOpen\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EBorn from a desire to make publishing more relevant for the digital age, IntechOpen has grown to become the world’s leading publisher of Open Access books, specialising in science, technology and medicine. In 2022, IntechOpen introduced a portfolio of Open Science journals, representing a new publishing venue for academics in areas of rapid interdisciplinary growth at the cutting edge of technology, environmental sciences, and human health.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIntechOpen is built on the belief that scientific progress is generated by collaboration and is committed to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003ELearn more at \u003Ca href=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\"\u003Ewww.intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n"}],"latestNews":[{"slug":"new-intechopen-book-series-annual-volumes-published-in-2024-20250120","title":"New IntechOpen Book Series Annual Volumes Published in 2024"},{"slug":"third-environmental-social-and-governance-esg-report-published-20241230","title":"Third Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) Report Published"},{"slug":"intechopen-books-now-indexed-in-ebsco-s-open-access-collection-20241219","title":"IntechOpen Books Now Indexed in EBSCO’s Open Access Collection"},{"slug":"intechopen-journals-inaugural-best-reviewer-award-for-2024-20241217","title":"Inaugural Best Reviewer Award for 2024 - IntechOpen Journals"},{"slug":"green-energy-and-environmental-technology-journal-supporting-the-un-sustainable-development-goals-20241105","title":"Green Energy and Environmental Technology Journal: Supporting the UN Sustainable Development Goals"},{"slug":"intechopen-signs-research4life-publishers-recommitment-20241029","title":"IntechOpen Signs Research4Life Publishers Recommitment"},{"slug":"intechopen-launches-open-science-hub-20241028","title":"IntechOpen Launches Open Science Hub"},{"slug":"2024-best-paper-award-from-the-ai-computer-science-and-robotics-technology-journal-20241004","title":"2024 Best Paper Award From the AI, Computer Science, and Robotics Technology Journal"}]},"book":{"item":{"type":"book","id":"5108","leadTitle":null,"fullTitle":"Scope of Selective Heterocycles from Organic and Pharmaceutical Perspective","title":"Scope of Selective Heterocycles from Organic and Pharmaceutical Perspective","subtitle":null,"reviewType":"peer-reviewed","abstract":"Scope of Selective Heterocycles from Organic and Pharmaceutical Perspective is a compilation of bioactive-chosen heterocyclic scaffolds intended for postgraduates, research scholars, pharmaceutical scientists, and others interested in an appreciation of the title subject. It is an edited book and is not comprehensive as well in the mentioned field. Few synthetic strategies along with bioactivity are presented, and some limitations were raised in order to arouse curiosity of the reader.","isbn":"978-953-51-2504-4","printIsbn":"978-953-51-2503-7","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-5073-2","doi":"10.5772\u002F60890","price":119,"priceEur":129,"priceUsd":155,"priceCbs":125,"slug":"scope-of-selective-heterocycles-from-organic-and-pharmaceutical-perspective","numberOfPages":168,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isInWos":null,"isInBkci":false,"hash":"c56460cd5b7949a62cf3aa4a2ea84377","bookSignature":"Ravi Varala","publishedDate":"June 30th 2016","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F5108.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F5108\u002F1718272339-1257005301\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F5108\u002F1718272339-1257005301\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","numberOfDownloads":15537,"numberOfViews":3457,"numberOfWosCitations":16,"numberOfCrossrefCitations":27,"numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook":5,"numberOfDimensionsCitations":50,"numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook":12,"hasAltmetrics":0,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"numberOfTotalCitations":93,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"dateEndFirstStepPublish":"May 26th 2015","dateEndSecondStepPublish":"June 16th 2015","dateEndThirdStepPublish":"September 20th 2015","dateEndFourthStepPublish":"December 19th 2015","dateEndFifthStepPublish":"January 18th 2016","currentStepOfPublishingProcess":5,"indexedIn":"1,2,3,4,5,6,7","editedByType":"Edited by","kuFlag":false,"sdgRelated":null,"featuredMarkup":null,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":true,"cbsWebsiteURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcbspd.com\u002Fproduct\u002Fscope-of-selective-heterocycles-from-organic-and-pharmaceutical-perspective-hb-2017","noAds":0,"editors":[{"id":"176984","title":"Dr.","name":"Ravi","middleName":null,"surname":"Varala","slug":"ravi-varala","fullName":"Ravi Varala","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F176984\u002F1604448294\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Ravi Varala received his PhD from the Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR), India, and was awarded the degree in 2006. Later on, he moved for postdoctoral research in the FCT University of New Lisbon, Portugal, during 2007–2009. He worked as scientist for a year (2010) in pharmaceutical industry, before joining the present organization - Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Technologies (RGUKT), Basar campus, Telangana. He has been working as faculty member there since 2011 onward. Dr. Varala has served as the head of department of chemistry and R&D Cell for more than 3 years. He also got experience as a visiting scientist in the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, for a period of 1 year (March 2015–2016) and then resumedhis work in RGUKT. His research interests include catalysis, green chemistry, and organic synthesis. Currently he is guiding two students for doctoral degree. He has collaborations in several state and central universities.","institutionString":"RGUKT Basar, India","position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"1","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"1","institution":null,"countryString":null}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"497","title":"Green Chemistry","slug":"organic-chemistry-green-chemistry"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"series":null,"subseries":null,"tags":null,"_preview":0,"chapters":[{"id":"49951","title":"Significance of Thiazole-based Heterocycles for Bioactive Systems","doi":"10.5772\u002F62077","slug":"significance-of-thiazole-based-heterocycles-for-bioactive-systems","totalDownloads":4154,"totalCrossrefCites":19,"totalDimensionsCites":32,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":1,"abstract":"Monocyclic and Bicyclic aromatic heterocycles such as imidazoles, thiazoles, thiadiazoles, oxazoles, oxadiazoles quinazolines, indoles, benzimidazoles, purines pyrido[4,3-d]pyrimidines, thiazolo[5,4-d]pyrimidines, thiazolo[4,5-d]pyrimidines, oxazolo[5,4-d]pyrimidines and thieno[2,3-d]pyrimidines are renowned pharmacophores in drug discovery. These special structures are well explained and exemplified in chemical compound libraries. In this chapter, several types of thiazole based heterocyclic scaffolds such as monocyclic or bicyclic systems synthesis and their biological activities studies are presented, which are not frequently present in books and reviews. We mention the first importance of synthetic route of various thiazole based compounds and their applications in medicinal chemistry in this chapter.","signatures":"Someshwar Pola","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F49951","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F49951","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"177037","title":"Dr.","name":"Someshwar","surname":"Pola","slug":"someshwar-pola","fullName":"Someshwar Pola"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"50037","title":"Recent Advances in the Biological Importance of Rhodanine Derivatives","doi":"10.5772\u002F62835","slug":"recent-advances-in-the-biological-importance-of-rhodanine-derivatives","totalDownloads":2390,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":2,"abstract":"Heterocyclic compounds are an important part of the synthetic medicinal chemistry. They offer a high degree of structural variety and have proven to be widely useful as therapeutic agents. Heterocyclic compounds play an important role in the biological processes. They are widespread as natural products. Heterocyclic compounds are widely found in nature categorically in plant alkaloids, nucleic acids, anthocyanins, and flavones. They are also present as in chlorophyll and hemoglobin. Additionally, some proteins, hormones, and vitamins also contain aromatic heterocyclic system. Heterocycles have huge potential as the most promising molecules as lead structures for the design of new drugs. About one half of over 6 million compounds recorded so far in chemical abstracts are heterocyclic. The proposed book chapter entitled, Recent Advances in the Biological Importance of Rhodanine Derivatives gives an outline of importance and applications of the various rhodanine derivatives in medicinal chemistry from 2004 to 2014.","signatures":"Amit B. Patel and Premlata Kumari","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F50037","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F50037","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"177041","title":"Dr.","name":"Premlata","surname":"Kumari","slug":"premlata-kumari","fullName":"Premlata Kumari"},{"id":"183416","title":"Dr.","name":"Amit B.","surname":"Patel","slug":"amit-b.-patel","fullName":"Amit B. Patel"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"49616","title":"Symmetrical Pyridinium-Phanes and –Diazacyclophanes — Promising Heterocyclic Scaffolds for the Development of Anti-Leishmanial Agents","doi":"10.5772\u002F61863","slug":"symmetrical-pyridinium-phanes-and-diazacyclophanes-promising-heterocyclic-scaffolds-for-the-developm","totalDownloads":1335,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":0,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":3,"abstract":"There is an urgent need for better drugs for a more successful fight against leishmaniasis, one of the most important neglected diseases caused by the parasite Leishmania. We have recently synthesized several symmetrical pyridinium compounds belonging to two different series: bis-pyridinium and bis-quinolinium acyclic structures and bis-pyridinium diazacyclophanes derivatives. The first series of bis-pyridinium derivatives have been found to display activity against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of Leishmania donovani and Leishmania major, with EC50 values lower than 1 μM. The majority of compounds show a similar behavior in both Leishmania species, being slightly more active against intracellular amastigotes of L. major. The series of bis-pyridinium diazacyclophanes can be considered as rigid analogues of the previous bis-cationic ones. The activity of these compounds has also been evaluated against promastigotes and intracellular amastigotes of L. donovani and L. major. All the diazacyclophanes are more active against L. major, with EC50 values of between 1 and 17 μM in intracellular amastigotes, and in some cases they present a higher selectivity index than the reference anti-leishmanial drugs such as amphotericin B and miltefosine. In conclusion, these bis-quaternary compounds represent promising candidates as potential therapeutic agents against leishmaniasis.","signatures":"Joaquín M. Campos, Verónica Gómez-Pérez, Santiago Castanys and\nFrancisco Gamarro","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F49616","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F49616","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"40607","title":"Prof.","name":"Joaquín","surname":"Campos","slug":"joaquin-campos","fullName":"Joaquín Campos"},{"id":"178486","title":"Dr.","name":"Verónica","surname":"Gómez-Pérez","slug":"veronica-gomez-perez","fullName":"Verónica Gómez-Pérez"},{"id":"178488","title":"Dr.","name":"Santiago","surname":"Castanys","slug":"santiago-castanys","fullName":"Santiago Castanys"},{"id":"178489","title":"Dr.","name":"Francisco","surname":"Gamarro","slug":"francisco-gamarro","fullName":"Francisco Gamarro"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"51265","title":"Strategies Towards the Synthesis of Staurosporine Indolocarbazole Alkaloid and Its Analogues","doi":"10.5772\u002F63832","slug":"strategies-towards-the-synthesis-of-staurosporine-indolocarbazole-alkaloid-and-its-analogues","totalDownloads":1937,"totalCrossrefCites":2,"totalDimensionsCites":2,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":4,"abstract":"In this Chapter we revisit the main strategies used for years in synthesizing staurosporine indolocarbazole alkaloid and its analogues, which are promising compounds for treating cancer. In addition to describing the details of the synthesis strategies, including the key challenges that had to be faced, we offer a historical perspective of the development in the field.","signatures":"B. Purna Chandra Rao, Osvaldo N. Oliveira Jr. and Ravi Varala","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F51265","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F51265","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"132598","title":"Prof.","name":"Osvaldo","surname":"Oliveira Jr","slug":"osvaldo-oliveira-jr","fullName":"Osvaldo Oliveira Jr"},{"id":"176984","title":"Dr.","name":"Ravi","surname":"Varala","slug":"ravi-varala","fullName":"Ravi Varala"},{"id":"177234","title":"Dr.","name":"Purna","surname":"Bhavnari","slug":"purna-bhavnari","fullName":"Purna Bhavnari"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"49733","title":"Breakthroughs in Indole and Indolizine Chemistry – New Synthetic Pathways, New Applications","doi":"10.5772\u002F62079","slug":"breakthroughs-in-indole-and-indolizine-chemistry-new-synthetic-pathways-new-applications","totalDownloads":3051,"totalCrossrefCites":5,"totalDimensionsCites":11,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":5,"abstract":"Indole and indolizines (heterocyclic aromatic compounds structurally and chemically isomeric with indoles) are an important class of N-fused heterocyclic compounds due to their interesting biological and optical properties. Different strategies for generating diverse collections of small molecules with indole and indolizine moieties have been developed. They can be synthesized by means of classical and nonclassical pathways. The present study discusses the versatile nature of indole\u002Findolizine derivatives, new green methods for their synthesis, their possible mechanism of action and also provides information about current\u002Ffuture prospects of the topics and different indole\u002Findolizine derivatives in pharmaceutical\u002Fclinical trials. With the remarkable number of approved indole-containing drugs as well as the importance of the indolizine moiety, it can be easily concluded that indole and indolizine derivatives offer perspectives on how pyrrole scaffolds might be exploited in the future as bioactive molecules against a broad range of diseases.","signatures":"Ioana Otilia Ghinea and Rodica Mihaela Dinica","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F49733","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F49733","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"177239","title":"Dr.","name":"Rodica Mihaela","surname":"Dinica","slug":"rodica-mihaela-dinica","fullName":"Rodica Mihaela Dinica"},{"id":"177240","title":"Dr.","name":"Ioana Otilia","surname":"Ghinea","slug":"ioana-otilia-ghinea","fullName":"Ioana Otilia Ghinea"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0},{"id":"51042","title":"Synthesis of Nitriles – Synthesis of 4-Cyano Pyrazole, 5-Aminopyrazole Derivatives and the Deamination of 5-Aminopyrazole Derivatives","doi":"10.5772\u002F64050","slug":"synthesis-of-nitriles-synthesis-of-4-cyano-pyrazole-5-aminopyrazole-derivatives-and-the-deamination-","totalDownloads":2670,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"totalDimensionsCites":1,"hasAltmetrics":0,"orderNumber":6,"abstract":"Chemoselective reaction on 3-dimethylamino-2-aroyl-propenenitrile and hydrazine in acidic medium yields 4-cyano pyrazole, where as in basic medium yields 5-amino pyrazoles as major product.","signatures":"Raghunath Toche","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F51042","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F51042","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"authors":[{"id":"177216","title":"Dr.","name":"Raghunath Baban","surname":"Toche","slug":"raghunath-baban-toche","fullName":"Raghunath Baban Toche"}],"corrections":null,"_preview":0}]},"relatedBooks":[{"type":"book","id":"5206","title":"Recent Advances in Organocatalysis","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"d06787ec7084c188686d860994f03abe","slug":"recent-advances-in-organocatalysis","bookSignature":"Iyad Karame and Hassan Srour","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F5206.jpg","editedByType":"Edited by","editors":[{"id":"145512","title":"Prof.","name":"Iyad","surname":"Karamé","slug":"iyad-karame","fullName":"Iyad Karamé"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"productType":{"id":"1","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},{"type":"book","id":"6067","title":"Green Chemistry","subtitle":null,"isOpenForSubmission":false,"isPublished":true,"hash":"f33464ef8bb9839d75b674a0f8409c77","slug":"green-chemistry","bookSignature":"Hosam El-Din M. 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He has served as an associate editor for a section of Heliyon, and he has also worked as a guest editor and peer reviewer for several SSCI, SCI, and Scopus journals. His research interests include the digitalization of vocational education, curriculum and teaching innovation, student psychological health and well-being, and interdisciplinary topics.","equalEditorOneBiosketch":null,"equalEditorTwoBiosketch":null,"equalEditorThreeBiosketch":null,"coeditorOneBiosketch":"Dr. Xu has presented at multiple international conferences and authored several papers. Dr. Xu has served as an anonymous reviewer for several leading international journals, including 6 SSCI Q1 journals. 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He graduated from the Department of Industrial Education at National Taiwan Normal University, where he also served as a postdoctoral researcher. Dr. Ye is an honorary member of the Phi Tau Phi Scholastic Honor Society (Taiwan) and an outstanding alumnus of the Department of Fashion Design at Tainan University of Technology. In recent years, Dr. Ye has served as an associate editor for a section of Heliyon, and he has also worked as a guest editor and peer reviewer for several SSCI, SCI, and Scopus journals. He enjoys conducting empirical research from a psychological perspective. 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He earned his Ph.D. from Dhurakij Pundit University, Thailand. Dr. Xu's research focuses on educational psychology and higher education, with publications in prestigious journals such as Frontiers of Psychology, Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, and Sage Open. He has presented at multiple international conferences, and authored 3 conference papers, 1 SCOPUS-indexed paper, 4 SSCI Q1 papers, and 3 SSCI Q2 papers, with 2 additional papers under review. Dr. Xu has served as an anonymous reviewer for several leading international journals, including 6 SSCI Q1 journals. Since November 2020, he has led or participated in various provincial and institutional research projects, earning recognition as an \"Outstanding Trainee\" in the 2021 Hunan Province Higher Education Teacher Pre-service Training Program, and an \"Advanced Individual\" in the 2023 Hunan Institute of Technology United Front.","institutionString":null,"countryString":null,"position":null,"outsideEditionCount":null,"totalCites":0,"totalAuthoredChapters":"0","totalChapterViews":"0","totalEditedBooks":"0","institution":{"name":"Hunan Institute of Technology","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"China"}}},"coeditorTwo":{"id":"625952","title":"Dr.","name":"Jun","middleName":null,"surname":"Chai","slug":"jun-chai","fullName":"Jun Chai","cdnProfilePictureURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fauthor\u002F625952\u002F1737973107\u002Fprofile\u002Fimage1.jpg","biography":"Dr. Chai Jun is a lecturer and information technology administrator in the Department of Public Physical Education at Ningbo University of Finance and Economics. 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Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P5\"\u003EResearch in the field of vector-borne diseases and zoonozes became a topic of interest in Serbia during the last decade. Impact of climate changes in the country is evident, compared to the weather conditions from 10 or more years ago, in terms of higher temperatures during the summer, higher humidity in summer, shorter spring and autumn periods, and shorter period of low temperature during winter. The influence of climate change has already been highlighted [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also, the frequency of human and animal movement and travel, especially of dogs, is significantly higher, not only in European countries but also in overseas countries. The importation of dogs is done on a pretty flexible basis with health status analysis only for rabies. The presence of vectors of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (mosquitoes) and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (sandfly) parasites has already been confirmed in the country. Current research in the domain of infectious diseases in dogs mostly includes diseases that drastically endanger health and population of dogs. Some of those infectious diseases, like dirofilariosis and leishmaniasis, which are found more or less often in dogs, cause clinical symptoms that are not so characteristic and expressed. These diseases are zoonozes, and therefore they represent a danger for public health with dogs acting as reservoir of the infection. For a transmission of vector-borne diseases among dogs and from dogs to humans, vectors are essential because a part of the pathogen’s life cycle takes place in vectors.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P6\"\u003EVectors of dirofilariosis are mosquitoes. Female mosquitoes which feed on mammals can transfer microfilaria from one infected organism to another non infected one. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is a nematode, intravascular parasite that lives in bloodstream of host, usually pulmonary vessels. Prepatent period is at least 6-7 months in definitive hosts. Maturation of organisms in mosquitoes is temperature dependant and over 14°C is needed.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P7\"\u003EDirofilariosis and leishmaniasis were earlier recognized as Mediterranean vector-borne diseases. They both have a zoonotic potential. Vectors necessary for the transmission of dirofilariosis are mosquitoes and for leishmaniasis are sandflies. Today there is evidence of dirofilariosis in different countries around the world and also evidence of presence of vectors for dirofilariosis and leishmaniasis in countries other than Mediterranean [\u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P8\"\u003EDirofilariosis is a vector-borne zoonosis mostly caused by \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Erepens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Even though dirofilariosis was primary known as a disease found in Mediterranean countries only, it has spread out to the North and West of Europe through the years, so now clinical cases of dirofilariosis can be found in middle Europe, including Serbia [\u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P9\"\u003EThe first published research on dirofilariosis in Serbia (previously known as part of Yugoslavia) was done during the 1990s, when the first cases were discovered in humans and dogs [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E– \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Since that time, there is a follow-up on dirofilariosis in several regions of Serbia. Diagnostics of dirofilariosis in Serbia has started approximately 10 years ago. Since 2004 until nowadays, veterinary services have started a regular, routine check up in dogs for dirofilariosis. Cases of dirofilariosis (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. repens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) in Serbia have been found so far both in humans and dogs. Several cases of dirofilariosis in humans have been represented, in different studies [\u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF1\"\u003EThe first cases of dirofilariosis in Serbia, in dogs, were discovered as a side finding during dissections [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The actual first case of canine dirofilariosis in Serbia was considered to be in a dog imported from USA. A number of studies were done on the outbreaks of dirofilariosis in dogs and seroprevalence in different regions [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In the northern part of Serbia, Vojvodina province, several studies have been done during the previous period on seroprevalence and diagnostic methods [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E–\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some research was also done on seroprevalence to dirofilariosis in working and military dogs and in pet dogs [\u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] after the first findings of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilara\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E as a side finding during dissections (\u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P11\"\u003E\u003Citalic\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E found in heart at dissection of a dog.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"posleF1\"\u003EVectors of dirofilariosis are mosquitoes. Female mosquitoes that feed on mammals can transfer microfilaria from infected to not infected organism. Over 70 mosquito species can be vectors of dirofilariosis out of 3500 mosquito species worldwide [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Female \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECulex pipiens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E mosquitoes are most important vectors that can be found in high numbers in Serbia during the warm period of the year, from May to October.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P13\"\u003EDirofilariosis can appear with different severity, from asymptomatic to mild, or it can also progress to fatal. Definitive hosts of the parasite can be domestic dogs and wild candies, such as wolfs, coyotes, and foxes. Reservoirs of dirofilariosis in wildlife are raccoons, wolverines, coyotes, dears, and bears. Dirofilariosis has a zoonotic potential. Humans are not definitive hosts for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, but occasionally the disease can occur, most usually under the skin or in the eye.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P14\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is a nematode, intravascular parasite that lives in bloodstream of host, usually pulmonary vessels. Prepatent period is at least 6–7 months in definitive hosts. The maturation of organisms in mosquitoes is temperature dependant, and over 14°C is needed. When mosquitoes feed on the blood of an infected dog, they ingest first-stage (L1) larvae (microfilariae), which are produced over many years by the mature heartworm in the dog. Within the mosquito, larvae mature from stage 1 to stage 3. Most of their development takes place in the Malphigian tubes of the mosquito. Once developed to the infective (L3) larval stage, they migrate through the body to the head cavities of the mosquito, where they wait to infect another host by leaving the mosquito during the blood meal. The prepatent period between initial infection of the dog and the maturation of the worms into adults living in the heart takes 6 to 7 months in dogs. The (L3) larvae of heartworms deposited by the mosquito into dog’s skin grow for a week or two and then molt to the next larval stage (L4) under the skin at the site of the mosquito bite. Then they migrate to the muscles of the chest and abdomen, and 45 to 60 days after infection, they molt to the next larval stage (L5). Between 75 and 120 days after infection, these immature heartworms then enter the bloodstream and are carried through the heart to reside in the pulmonary artery. Over the next 3 to 4 months, they increase in size. Seven months after infection, the adult worms have mated, which has a consequence of the appearance of microfilariae in the blood stream of the host. Microfilariae may circulate in the bloodstream for up to 2 years, and be taken by a bloodsucking mosquito. The extrinsic incubation period required to reach the stage when microfilariae become transmittable to another host can vary from 2 to 6 weeks, depending on the temperature. It is possible that there are no evident clinical symptoms in a host for even a year after infection. In humans, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Eimmitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E never reaches the adult stage, and they can never be found in the heart of humans because humans are accidental hosts [\u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (\u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF2\"\u003EDirofilariosis in dogs is most frequently located in the right side of the heart, pulmonal arteries, and rarely in the lungs. Clinical symptoms in dogs are unspecific: lethargy, weakness, fatigue, exercise intolerance, dyspnea, cough, anorexia, weight loss, vomiting, diarrhea, collapse, seizures, and sudden death.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P16\"\u003EAdults of \u003Citalic\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E taken out from the heart of a dog.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF3\"\u003EDiagnostic methods for dirofilariosis are many, but several are used most frequently: Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) and immunoenzyme “fast” or “snap” test for detection of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. antigens; then modified Knott test for direct microscopic detection of parasite in blood stream, as well as molecular methods like Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for detection and confirmation of the presence of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. genome. ELISA is a highly sensitive and specific serological diagnostic test (\u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). It is easy to perform diagnostic assay, but it has to be done in a laboratory. Besides ELISA high specificity and sensitivity, false-positive reaction can happened as a consequence of a cross reaction with antigens of another filarial species. Also, there can be a false-negative finding, if the analysis is performed too early after the infection and the dog still does not have a detectable level of antibodies.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage3.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P18\"\u003EELISA method for diagnostics—positive and negative control and positive and negative samples.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"posleF3\"\u003EAntigens of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sp. can also be detected by an immunoenzyme (immunochromatographic) test, usually called “fast” or “snap” tests. The “snap” test is an enzyme immunoassay for in vitro diagnostic for the semiquantitative detection of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis (D. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) antigen in canine and feline whole blood, serum or plasma.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF4\"\u003EIt is a user-friendly one- or two-step test that can be performed anywhere. No laboratory conditions are needed for the performance of the test, so it can be done at veterinary practice or even in the field. The results of the tests are ready to be read within 10–15 minutes, and the sensitivity and specificity of fast tests is good compared to the other available tests (\u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P21\"\u003EImmunoenzyme fast test—positive (two dots) and negative (one dot) findings.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"posleF5\"\u003EThe most “popular” and most used diagnostic test for dirofilariosis in veterinary labs is the modified Knott test. With this test, circulating microfilaria from the blood stream can be found, colored, and seen with a microscope. The procedure is not complex but requires some laboratory equipment; time and skills are also needed, with a good knowledge of microfilarial morphology. This method is highly specific and sensitive in dogs, and microfilariae belonging to different species can be determined [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The modified Knott test is the preferred method for observing morphology and measuring body dimensions to differentiate \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E from non-pathogenic filarial species, such as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAcanthocheilonema\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (formerly \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDipetalonema) reconditum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Although screening may be based entirely on antigen testing, antigen-positive dogs should also be tested for microfilariae, because a microfilaremia validates the serologic results and identifies the patient as a reservoir of infection [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P23\"\u003EPCR is a molecular method the can be used for highly sensitive and specific detection and characterization of Dirofilaria sp. genomic DNA. This method can be used to discriminate microfilariae from other different filarial worms in dogs. It is a good conformation test and a research tool. If dirofilariosis is detected by snap tests, ELISA, or modified Knott test, the presence of the DNA of pathogen can be confirmed by PCR method [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P24\"\u003ELeishmaniasis are vector-borne zoonotic diseases caused by a protozoan parasite belonging to genus \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Diseases are transmitted by the bite of infected female sand fly (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPsychodidae, Phlebotominae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) and most common hosts are mammals, including humans. Human and canine laishmaniasis caused by \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E present a threat to re-emerge in Europe. Since 2009, human cases of leishmaniasis were reported in Europe countries (Greece, Cyprus, France, Italy, Malta, Portugal, Spain, Former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia, Albania [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and Bulgaria [\u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Canine leishmaniasis is present worldwide, but recently clinical cases were reported in non endemic countries like Romania [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and Hungary [\u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P25\"\u003EThroughout the history, there is evidence of leishmaniasis in humans and in dogs in Serbia and first human cases were reported in 1945. During the ten year period (1945-1955) visceral leishmaniasis was spreading through south-east Serbia in epidemic waves recording over 930 cases [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The first autochthonous cases of visceral leishmaniasis were found in the southern part of Serbia (region around city of Nis) back in 1945. During the period of 1946–1949, there were 350 registered cases of human visceral leishmaniasis in Serbia, and some cases were even registered around city of Belgrade [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. At that same time, about 2% of dogs in the region around city of Nis were found to have asymptomatic leishmaniasis, and dogs were identified as main reservoir of infection [\u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. After this period sudden fail in number of cases was detected and leishmaniasis was soon considered eradicated. During the period from 1968 to 1969, rare cases of autochthonous visceral leishmaniasis were reported in the southern part of Serbia. After Second World War conditions for sandfly development in South-East Serbia were more favorable and sandfly fauna was rich in diversity. Abundance of vector species was high which affected rapid spread of the disease during the mentioned ten year period after the war [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. After application of control measures rapid decline in numbers of collected species and samples was recorded. Cases of leishmaniasis became rare and sporadic and finally in 1969 the last case was found. Soon after that all entomological research was neglected. As province of Vojvodina is the most northern part of Serbia, it is not a suitable region for sandfly development. During a short period of research (1948-1951) in this area only three species were detected \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E(Phlebotomus papatasi, Phlebotomus major and Phlebotonus perfiliewi\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) [\u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. With low diversity and abundance of the species, Vojvodina was never considered as potential ground for leishmaniasis spreading. First infections were the ones confirmed as introduced infections in humans (Montenegro, Former Yugoslavia Republic of Macedonia and Greece mostly during holiday season) [\u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and dogs [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and then recently, cases that could be described as autochthonous cases of canine leishmaniasis appeared (\u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigures 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E and \u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). Within the last 3 years, positive findings were identified in dogs that have never left their homes in Serbia. Three separate cases of dogs were found with clinical symptoms that could indicate leishmaniasis (epistaxis, cachexia, pale mucosa, skin problems, blindness, and lethargy), they were found seropositive for leishmaniasis and after therapy, their condition has improved [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P26\"\u003EDomestic and wild canines are the main host species for leishmaniasis, but the domestic dog is the only epidemiologically important reservoir. Causative organisms are protozoa \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania donovani\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (in Asia, Middle East, and Africa) and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (in Asia, Middle East, Europe, and South America). The transmission of the disease occurs via sandfly bites, and dogs are the reservoir hosts. Humans are accidental hosts. Transmission of the disease between dogs and humans directly is not possible.Presence of human autochthonous leishmaniasis in Vojvodina hasn’t been confirmed, but new cases of canine leishmaniasis are appearing. Clinical symptoms of leishmaniasis in dogs are nonspecific. They can be as fever, weakness, lethargy, weight loss, muscle wasting, lymphadenopathy, pallor, anemia, thrombocytopenia, conjunctivitis and eye problems, skin lesions and alopecia, etc.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P27\"\u003ENewly gathered entomological data indicate disease circulation since presence of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was detected in sandflies. This finding stressed out the need for further more detail research on potential hosts and reservoirs of the disease [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF5\"\u003EDiagnostic procedures for leishmaniasis are many. The most certain method is the demonstration of the parasite from bone marrow, splenic, or lymph node aspirates. Less invasive methods are serologic tests that are used for detection of anti-leishmania antibodies, like immunofluorescent test (IFAT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Immunochromatography-based assays are easy to use and provide rapid qualitative results on the spot, but their performance is still not optimal [\u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Detection of Leishmania DNA in tissues by PCR allows sensitive and specific diagnosis of infection. PCR can be performed on DNA extracted from tissues, blood, body fluids or even from histopathologic specimens [\u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Cytological or histological identification of Leishmania amastigotes, free or contained within macrophages, in stained specimens from lymph nodes, spleen, skin, bone marrow or other organs can provide a potentially quick diagnosis of infection. However, these are neither sensitive nor specific assays as dogs with overt clinical disease may have few or no demonstrable tissue parasites and because other objects viewed by light microscopy can be erroneously considered amastigotes [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage5.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P29\"\u003EBitch with skin lesions, positive serological finding for leishmaniasis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage6.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P30\"\u003EDog with skin lesions, positive serological finding for leishmaniasis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Materials and methods\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P31\"\u003EMaterials for the research were samples from dogs and samples of vectors. The research was planned as serological examination of dog blood samples for dirofilariosis and leishmaniasis. The vectors (mosquitoes) were collected, identified, and analyzed for the presence of causative agents of dirofilariosis in the northern part of Serbia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P32\"\u003EDuring spring and summer of 2014 (May–September), 292 samples of mosquitoes were collected and identified. Collecting was done with NS2 type preps baited with dry ice and without light. The morphological identification of mosquitoes was done at Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, according to the illustrated key [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Only specimens of the main vector species, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECx.pipiens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E were submitted to further analysis. The analysis of vectors for the presence of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria s\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003Ep. was done by conventional PCR. PCR analysis was performed at the Scientific Veterinary Institute of “Novi Sad.” Female specimens were randomly taken from samples collected at different locations in Vojvodina. The collected mosquitoes were tested in pools (20 mosquitoes were pooled as one sample). DNA extraction was done with commercial kit QIAmp DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), and PCR was performed by using HotStarTaq Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions and with primers described by Rishniw et al. 2006 [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Briefly, For the amplification of 302 bp fragment of part of 5.8S, internal transcribed spacer region 2 (ITS2) and 28S ribosomal DNA sequences regions of D. immitis, previously described as pan filarial oligonucleotide primers: forward DIDR-F1 5′-AGTGCGAATTGCAGACGCATTGAG-3′ and reverse DIDR-R1 5′-AGCGGGTAATCACGACTGAGTTGA-3′ were used [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].]. The amplification reaction was carried out in a volume of 25 μl containing 5 μl of DNA sample, 12.5 μl of master mix from \"HotStar Taq Master Mix Kit\" (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), and 25 µM of each primer. Amplification conditions were as follows: 950C 15 min, 40 cycles of 950C 30s, 600C 30s, 720C 30s, and a final extension at 720C for 10 minutes. PCR fragments were separated by electrophoresis on 1.5% agarose gel and were visualized on a transilluminator.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P33\"\u003EIn total, 170 of blood samples obtained by venous punctuation of dogs were examined for dirofilariosis and leishmaniasis. Samples were obtained by centrifugation and kept on –20°C until ELISA was performed (2-3 weeks at the most).The blood samples were divided into three groups, according to the way of life of the dogs:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cul\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P34\"\u003EGroup of hunting and military dogs (79 samples)—in this group, samples were analyzed from dogs that are actively used for hunting. They had their owners, and they mostly did not receive any preventive treatment against parasites. Not one of these dogs has ever left Serbia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P35\"\u003EGroup of dogs from asylum for homeless dogs (64 samples)—in this group were dogs kept in the asylum, but for a long time, and they have all received preventive treatment against parasites annually. Not one of these dogs has ever left Serbia since they were in asylum, but for many of them, the history of their previous life and origin is unknown.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003Cli\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P36\"\u003EGroup of pet dogs (27 samples)—in this group were dogs that came to veterinary practice for numerous reasons, with nonspecific clinical symptoms, or no clinical symptoms at all. Not one of the owners thought that their dog has dirofilariosis or leishmaniasis. Some of the dogs have received antiparasitic prevention and some did not. Even the ones which did receive preventive treatment did not receive it annually, only during spring and summer. Not one of these dogs has ever left Serbia.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fli\u003E\u003C\u002Ful\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P37\"\u003EMethods used in the study were the following: modified Knott test and PCR for dirofilariosis and ELISA test for leishmaniasis.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P38\"\u003EAnalysis for dirofilariosis was done with the modified Knott test for the detection of microfilaria in circulation. Analysis for all the samples was done on the same day of sampling or the next day. Samples were taken with anticoagulant. The procedure of the modified Knott test was performed according to the instructions of Genchi et al. [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The modified Knott test was done in all the samples—from dogs with clinical symptoms as well as from dogs without any clinical symptoms for dirofilariosis. Positive samples found by the modified Knott test were then selected for molecular analysis to be done by PCR. DNA extraction was done with commercial kit QIAmp Blood DNA Mini Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany), and PCR was performed by using HotStarTaq Master Mix Kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany) according to the manufacturer’s instructions and with same primers and protocol described for detection of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in vectors [\u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P39\"\u003EDetection for antibodies against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (IgG) was performed in same samples, by ELISA method using a commercial kit by Ingenasa and following the manufacturer’s instructions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Results and discussion\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.1. Dirofilariosis\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P40\"\u003EAnalysis of vectors for dirofilariosis: In total, 292 samples of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECx.pipiens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E mosquito females were collected and tested with conventional PCR method. In 292 mosquitoes randomly collected, the presence of DNA of causative agent for dirofilariosis (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) was not found.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P41\"\u003EThe presence of DNA of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED.immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was not found in any sample of this vector that feeds on dogs during the night. Prevalence of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECulex pipiens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E mosquitoes infested with \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in an endemic area of north-eastern Italy ranged from 0.21 to 1.11%, according to date and site [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In Turkey, an infestation rate of 0.12% was recorded in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECx. pipiens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These rather low vector infestation rates might explain our negative results. Another vector of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAe. albopictus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] is active throughout the whole day, especially in urban habitats. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAedes albopictus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E has been intercepted in the western and southwestern part of the Serbia. It has been present for the past five years (2011-2015) on the Croatian border, and on the Montenegro border since 2013 [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], Petrić unpublished data]. If \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAe.albopictus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E became established, the sympatric occurrence of both vectors, having diurnal and nocturnal biting activities, may enhance the risk of infestation to dogs and humans, thus increasing the vector-host contact and, eventually, the number of vectors which may carry filarioids in endemic areas throughout the day [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The factors enhancing the exposure of the host to the vector (i.e., the dog’s size, the age and the outside habitation) may further increase the risk of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E infestation [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E,\u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] as well as dog’s activities i.e., guard, hunting, stray dogs vs. pet dogs [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The number of dogs with no travel records infected with \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ED. immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Vojvodina is rising. This will, in the future, allow us to sample at the residence of positive dogs and not from randomly chosen locations as we did.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P42\"\u003EThe results of microscopic analysis of blood samples originating from three groups of dogs (170 samples in total) for the presence of microfilaria by modified Knott test are shown in \u003Ca href=\"#T1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"T1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable margin-left=\"0\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"94.75\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"95.25\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"93.6\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"84.9\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cthead\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EGroup of dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETotal number of examined dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ENumber of positive dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPercentage of positive dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EHunting and military dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E22.78\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EDogs from asylum for homeless dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E3.12\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EPet dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003ETotal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E170\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E15.29\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 1.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P43\"\u003EResults of the analysis of blood samples (modified Knott test) originating from three groups of dogs for presence of microfilaria\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P45\"\u003EIn the group of hunting and military dogs, prevalence for dirofilariosis was found to be 22.78%. In the group of dogs from asylum, a lower prevalence for dirofilariosis was found —3.12% and in the group of pet dogs, prevalence for dirofilariosis was found to be 22%. The prevalence of the infection in different groups was different. It depended on the received prevention treatment against parasites and the lifestyle of dogs. Prevalence was the lowest (3.12%) in dogs living in asylum with regular prevention care. These dogs received preventive treatment monthly during the whole period when mosquitoes can be found (March\u002FApril–October). It is important to highlight that even two positive dogs found in asylum were new dogs that came from another place, less than 1 month previously to the sampling. The highest prevalence (22.78%) was found in hunting dogs with no prevention treatment in most of the cases. Prevalence found in pet dogs was not much different than the one found in hunting dogs. This would refer to the fact that not many pet dogs are under preventive treatment, or even if they are, it is not being repeated enough times. Most of the pet owners are not aware enough of the existence of dirofilariosis as a disease in dogs, and so they believe that it is enough if they give the preventive treatment to their pet dogs once or rarely twice during the whole period of the year when mosquitoes are present (March\u002FApril–September). Also, the fact that there are no clinical symptoms in dogs usually for a long time after infection makes the owners believe that their dog is healthy.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P46\"\u003EDuring a 2-year period, 170 dog blood samples were analyzed. Most of the dogs did not have any clinical symptoms. Only several dogs had clinical symptoms such as cough, lethargy, tiredness, and heart failure symptoms. Modified Knott test gives us a direct overview into the existence of larvae of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (microfilaria) in dogs’ circulation. A total average prevalence for the whole three groups of dogs was found to be 15.29%, but the highest prevalence was found to be in hunting and military dogs, followed very closely by pet dogs. Hunting and military dogs live in most cases outside in backyards and are in constant contact with vectors. They have a long time of outside activities in the regions where vectors can be found. Also, quite a lot of dogs from this group is not protected constantly with preventive antiectoparasitic treatment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF7\"\u003EModified Knott test is a fast and reliable diagnostic tool recognized in the world as a method for the detection of microfilaria in circulation of dogs. In veterinary practices, fast tests can be used for routine checkup of patients. However, in the case of positive finding or if there are recognizable clinical symptoms in a dog, a confirmation of diagnosis has to be done with the modified Knott test. With this test, an identification of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E can be done with distinction between \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria repens\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (\u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage7.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P48\"\u003EDiagnostics of dirofilariosis by the modified Knott test.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F8\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage8.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 8.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P50\"\u003EPCR reaction for \u003Citalic\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E in blood samples of dogs positive to dirofilariosis, determination based on 302 bp – Samples 1-13; negative control (depc-treato water) – 14; DNA ladder 100bp – 15; positive control (dog blood positive for \u003Citalic\u003ED.immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E) - 16\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF8\"\u003EAfter positive samples were found by the modified Knott test, a PCR analysis was done for the conformation of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. PCR analysis was done from blood samples of dogs in which microfilariae were found (26 samples). PCR is a very sensitive, specific, and accurate method that could be used for the determination of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species. It is more a research tool than a diagnostic tool because it is a demanding procedure in equipment and skills. From 26 blood samples from dogs in which \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was detected by the modified Knott test, a positive result was confirmed by the PCR method in 24 samples (92.3%) (\u003Ca href=\"#F8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"posleF8\"\u003EThese data can be compared to the data collected during the last several years in the same region by the same authors, shown in \u003Ca href=\"#T2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. The first official acknowledgment of dirofilariosis in Serbia was published by Dimitrijevic in 1999 [\u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. After that time, several authors have been following the development of this disease in dogs in different regions of Serbia. For the northern part of Serbia, data have been collected for more than 10 years now.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"T2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable margin-left=\"0\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"184.25\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"184.25\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cthead\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EYear\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPercentage of positive dog samples\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2003–2004\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E5.9–7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2006–2007, dogs with no clinical symptoms\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E10–11\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2006–2007, dogs with clinical symptoms\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2010\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2010, only pet dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2011–2013\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E5 human cases\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E2013–2014 hunting and military dogs, dogs from asylum and pet dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E15.29\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 2.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P52\"\u003EAn overview of data collection during a 10-year period on the prevalence of dirofilariosis in dogs in northern Serbia\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P54\"\u003EBy comparing the data during the last decade, it can be stated that there is a constant increase of prevalence for dirofilariosis in dogs in Serbia over the years. After these findings were published, diagnostic methods for dirofilariosis were introduced into the routine checkup of dogs in veterinary practices—modified Knott test, fast test for detection of microfilariae, and ELISA test for antigen detection. Also, fast tests became available to the practitioners and became the mostly used diagnostic tool in veterinary practices. Preventive treatment is present and offered to the owners, but the awareness of the owners is not quite high enough. Further research on the presence of causative pathogen (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EDirofilaria immitis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E) must be done in vectors so that a risk estimation can be made.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P55\"\u003EDefinitely, dirofilariosis is present in the northern part of Serbia in the percentage that justifies the fact that this disease should always be considered during clinical examination of dogs in veterinary practice. Also, there are already human cases of dirofilariosis in the region, so attention should be paid to this disease in the meaning of “One Health” point of view.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"preF9\"\u003EClinical cases of canine dirofilariosis in Serbia are still often found after dissections, and still mostly as a side finding (\u003Ca href=\"#F9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F9\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002Fimage9.jpeg\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 9.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"P57\"\u003EDirofilariosis in one of the military dogs from the survey.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"posleF9\"\u003EIt appears that dirofilariosis is a disease more and more frequent in dogs, so lately there are more dog owner demands for testing dirofilaria presence in a routine health status checkup in dogs. The owners are not enough aware that disease can occur without any clinical symptoms for a certain period of time. During the period of our study, positive findings for dirofilariosis were present all the time in dogs, which makes therapy and prevention necessary in the region.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P59\"\u003EThe awareness of the fact that dirofilariosis is a zoonotic disease is higher over the time. Cases of human dirofilariosis are also present in the northern part of Serbia but are still neglected within diagnostic procedure. Medical doctors are still not completely aware of the diagnostics of dirofilariosis in humans, and there are still no reliable, noninvasive diagnostic methods on the market [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P60\"\u003EApart from the modified Knott test done from the blood samples of dogs, an identification of the pathogen has been confirmed by PCR method too. Positive finding were gained by PCR method, at the matching rate of 92.3% with the modified Knott test.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E3.2. Leishmaniasis\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P61\"\u003EDuring the same period of study, 170 blood samples were examined for antibodies against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Three of the examined dogs had skin lesions that would not heal and bad skin condition in general and all of the other dogs did not have any visible clinical symptoms. All blood samples derived from the dogs that never left their dwelling place.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P62\"\u003EFrom total number of dog’s sera, 18 dogs (10.59%), tested positive for the presence of specific antibodies against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania infantum.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P63\"\u003ESeroprevalence of antibodies against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeishmania infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E from three groups of dogs (170 samples in total) for leishmaniasis with ELISA test is shown in \u003Ca href=\"#T3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"table\"\u003ETable 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-wrap\" id=\"T3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-content\"\u003E\u003Ctable margin-left=\"0\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"94.75\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"95.25\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"93.6\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ccol width=\"84.9\"\u003E\n\t\t\u003Cthead\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EGroup of dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETotal number of examined dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ENumber of positive dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\"1\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\t\u003Cstrong\u003E\u003Cbold xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPercentage of positive dogs\u003C\u002Fbold\u003E\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\n\t\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Fthead\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EHunting and military dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E10.12\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EDogs from asylum for homeless dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E10.33\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003EPet dogs\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\".5\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E11.11\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\t\u003Ctr\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003ETotal\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E170\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\t\u003Ctd border-top=\".5\" border-bottom=\"1\" border-left=\"0\" border-right=\"0\" valign=\"center\" align=\"center\"\u003E10.59\u003C\u002Ftd\u003E\n\t\t\u003C\u002Ftr\u003E\n\t\u003C\u002Ftable\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"table-caption\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading\"\u003ETable 3.\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P64\"\u003ESeroprevalence of antibodies against \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL.infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E from three groups of dogs\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"text\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P66\"\u003EIn the group of hunting and military dogs, seroprevalence for leishmaniasis was found to be 10.12%. In the group of dogs from asylum, seroprevalence was found to be 10.33%, and in the group of pet dogs, seroprevalence for leishmaniasis was 11.11%. Total seroprevalence for leishmaniasis among whole tested dog population (170 animals) was 10.59%. There seems to be no difference in seroprevalence for leishmaniasis between different groups of dogs, unlike the prevalence to dirofilariosis. There is a constant presence of ethiological agent among dog population in the northern part of Serbia. In the near past, Vojvodina was considered as leishmaniasis free region of Serbia, since there were no reported cases of disease and fauna and abundance of sandflies was fairly low. Along with the first reported cases of canine leishmaniasis in Vojvodina, interest in entomological research of vectors has rised. After more than 60 years, in 2013 entomological research of sandflies in Vojvodina was resumed. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPhlebotomus tobbi,\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E a proven vector of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was recorded for the first time, and presence of the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in their non specific vectors \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPhlebotomus papatasi\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E was found [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. There is a reasonable doubt that canine leishmaniasis appears as a disease in the northern part of Serbia, in Vojvodina.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P67\"\u003ENowdays, as the presence of vectors has been identified, as well as the existing seroprevalence in dogs with and without clinical symptoms, it can be suggested that there is an existence of the reservoirs of infection and a possibility of disease reemergence in Vojvodina. Leishmaniasis in humans has been identified so far only in people who have traveled to Mediterranean countries and not as an autochthonous infection. Diversity and abundance of sandflies in Vojvodina is still relatively low, but due to climate changes and increased summer temperatures, conditions that favor sandfly development are more and more pronounced. With potential risk of the disease development, more research has to be done, especially on vectors and reservoirs of the infection, with a precise identification of the pathogen. High prevalence of asymptomatic human carriers of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in Europe has been previously confirmed [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Findings of a \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EL. infantum\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in sandflies, presence of a proven vector species, along with the findings of asymptomatic\u002Fsymptomatic autochthonous cases of seropositivity in dogs as reservoirs, suggest that leishmaniasis may become a question of veterinary and public health in Serbia in the close future.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P68\"\u003EToday, Serbia is surrounded with several countries that have leishmaniasis for sure (Croatia, Montenegro, and FYROM), countries where vectors are identified so far (Hungary), and countries in which there is also a reasonable doubt that leishmaniasis exists in dogs (Romania). More research has to be done, especially on vectors and reservoirs of the infection, with a precise identification of the pathogen.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003EAcknowledgments\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"P69\"\u003EThis study was supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia (grant TR31084) and also was done under the fram of EurNegVec COST Action TD1303.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"Dirofilariosis, leishmaniasis, diagnostics, dogs, mosquito, sandfly vectors","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F49481.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F49481.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F49481\u002F1671190562\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F49481","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F49481","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F49481\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":2289,"totalViews":1244,"totalCrossrefCites":3,"totalDimensionsCites":9,"totalAltmetricsMentions":0,"introChapter":false,"impactScore":4,"impactScorePercentile":92,"impactScoreQuartile":4,"hasAltmetrics":0,"dateSubmitted":"January 26th 2015","dateReviewed":"October 16th 2015","datePrePublished":null,"datePublished":"December 2nd 2015","dateFinished":"November 3rd 2015","readingETA":"0","abstract":"Research in the field of vector borne diseases and zoonozes became a topic of interest in Serbia, during the last decade. Climate changes as well as higher frequency of human and animal movement and travel, especially of dogs, is rising a threat of dirofilariosis and leismaniasis. The presence of native mosquito and sandfly vectors has already been confirmed in the country and some invasive\u002Fpreviously not detected were found. Dirofilariosis and leishmaniasis, which are found more or less often in dogs, cause clinical symptoms which are not obvious and therefore they represent a danger for public health with dogs acting as reservoirs of the infection.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F49481","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F49481","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"4585","type":"book","title":"An Overview of Tropical Diseases","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"An Overview of Tropical Diseases","slug":"an-overview-of-tropical-diseases","publishedDate":"December 2nd 2015","bookSignature":"Amidou 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by","isbn":null,"price":119,"printIsbn":"978-953-51-2224-1","pdfIsbn":"978-953-51-7270-3","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","numberOfWosCitations":41,"isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isPublished":true,"isPublisherCbs":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"67907","title":"Dr.","name":"Amidou","middleName":null,"surname":"Samie","slug":"amidou-samie","fullName":"Amidou Samie"}],"equalEditorOne":null,"equalEditorTwo":null,"equalEditorThree":null,"coeditorOne":null,"coeditorTwo":null,"coeditorThree":null,"coeditorFour":null,"coeditorFive":null,"topics":[{"id":"1046"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"},"chapters":[{"id":"49082","type":"chapter","title":"Emerging Public Health Issues in Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis","slug":"emerging-public-health-issues-in-drug-resistant-tuberculosis","totalDownloads":2126,"totalCrossrefCites":0,"signatures":"Adeola 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Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Materials and methods","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. Results and discussion","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3_2","title":"3.1. Dirofilariosis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_4_2","title":"3.2. Leishmaniasis","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6","title":"Acknowledgments","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EReady PD (2008) Leishmaniasis emergence and climate change. In: S de la Roque, ed‐ itor. Climate change: the impact on the epidemiology and control of animal diseases. Rev Sci Tech Off Int Epiz. 27(2):399–412.\u003C\u002Fmixed-citation\u003E\u003C\u002Fref\u003E"},{"id":"B2","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B2\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation\u003EJacsó O, Kiss G, Krassóvári D, Kiss HJ, Gyurkovszky M, Fok E. (2014) Epidemiologi‐ cal view about dirofilarioses in dogs of Hungary. Fourth European Dirofilaria and Angiostrongylus Days (FEDAD), 2–4 July, 2014, Budapest, Hungary. 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Cooper","slug":"robert-d.-cooper"}]},{"id":"43671","title":"Ecology of Larval Habitats","slug":"ecology-of-larval-habitats","signatures":"Eliška Rejmánková, John Grieco, Nicole Achee and Donald R.\nRoberts","authors":[{"id":"151632","title":"Prof.","name":"Nicole","middleName":null,"surname":"Achee","fullName":"Nicole Achee","slug":"nicole-achee"},{"id":"152601","title":"Prof.","name":"Eliska","middleName":null,"surname":"Rejmankova","fullName":"Eliska Rejmankova","slug":"eliska-rejmankova"},{"id":"169016","title":"Dr.","name":"John","middleName":null,"surname":"Grieco","fullName":"John Grieco","slug":"john-grieco"}]},{"id":"43954","title":"From Anopheles to Spatial Surveillance: A Roadmap Through a Multidisciplinary Challenge","slug":"from-anopheles-to-spatial-surveillance-a-roadmap-through-a-multidisciplinary-challenge","signatures":"Valérie Obsomer, Nicolas Titeux, Christelle Vancustem, Grégory\nDuveiller, Jean-François Pekel, Steve Connor, Pietro Ceccato and\nMarc Coosemans","authors":[{"id":"131417","title":"Dr.","name":"Valérie","middleName":null,"surname":"Obsomer","fullName":"Valérie Obsomer","slug":"valerie-obsomer"},{"id":"152754","title":"Prof.","name":"Marc","middleName":null,"surname":"Coosemans","fullName":"Marc Coosemans","slug":"marc-coosemans"},{"id":"153949","title":"Dr.","name":"Pietro","middleName":null,"surname":"Ceccato","fullName":"Pietro Ceccato","slug":"pietro-ceccato"},{"id":"153950","title":"Dr.","name":"Gregory","middleName":null,"surname":"Duveiller","fullName":"Gregory Duveiller","slug":"gregory-duveiller"},{"id":"153952","title":"Dr.","name":"Christelle","middleName":null,"surname":"Vancutsem","fullName":"Christelle Vancutsem","slug":"christelle-vancutsem"},{"id":"153980","title":"Dr.","name":"Nicolas","middleName":null,"surname":"Titeux","fullName":"Nicolas Titeux","slug":"nicolas-titeux"},{"id":"154158","title":"Dr.","name":"Steve J","middleName":null,"surname":"Connor","fullName":"Steve J Connor","slug":"steve-j-connor"},{"id":"167685","title":"MSc.","name":"Jean-Francois","middleName":null,"surname":"Pekel","fullName":"Jean-Francois Pekel","slug":"jean-francois-pekel"}]},{"id":"43960","title":"Simian Malaria Parasites: Special Emphasis on Plasmodium knowlesi and Their Anopheles Vectors in Southeast Asia","slug":"simian-malaria-parasites-special-emphasis-on-plasmodium-knowlesi-and-their-anopheles-vectors-in-sout","signatures":"Indra Vythilingam and Jeffery Hii","authors":[{"id":"151116","title":"Dr.","name":"Indra","middleName":null,"surname":"Vythilingam","fullName":"Indra Vythilingam","slug":"indra-vythilingam"},{"id":"169006","title":"Dr.","name":"Jeffery","middleName":null,"surname":"Hii","fullName":"Jeffery Hii","slug":"jeffery-hii"}]},{"id":"44039","title":"Thermal Stress and Thermoregulation During Feeding in Mosquitoes","slug":"thermal-stress-and-thermoregulation-during-feeding-in-mosquitoes","signatures":"Chloé Lahondère and Claudio R. Lazzari","authors":[{"id":"151619","title":"Prof.","name":"Claudio","middleName":null,"surname":"R. Lazzari","fullName":"Claudio R. Lazzari","slug":"claudio-r.-lazzari"},{"id":"151620","title":"Ms.","name":"Chloé","middleName":null,"surname":"Lahondère","fullName":"Chloé Lahondère","slug":"chloe-lahondere"}]},{"id":"43955","title":"The Anopheles Mosquito Microbiota and Their Impact on Pathogen Transmission","slug":"the-anopheles-mosquito-microbiota-and-their-impact-on-pathogen-transmission","signatures":"Mathilde Gendrin and George K. Christophides","authors":[{"id":"154007","title":"Dr.","name":"Mathilde","middleName":null,"surname":"Gendrin","fullName":"Mathilde Gendrin","slug":"mathilde-gendrin"},{"id":"154008","title":"Prof.","name":"George","middleName":"K","surname":"Christophides","fullName":"George Christophides","slug":"george-christophides"}]},{"id":"43829","title":"Bacterial Biodiversity in Midguts of Anopheles Mosquitoes, Malaria Vectors in Southeast Asia","slug":"bacterial-biodiversity-in-midguts-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-malaria-vectors-in-southeast-asia","signatures":"Sylvie Manguin, Chung Thuy Ngo, Krajana Tainchum, Waraporn\nJuntarajumnong, Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap, Anne-Laure\nMichon and Estelle Jumas-Bilak","authors":[{"id":"50017","title":"Prof.","name":"Sylvie","middleName":null,"surname":"Manguin","fullName":"Sylvie Manguin","slug":"sylvie-manguin"},{"id":"75315","title":"Prof.","name":"Theeraphap","middleName":null,"surname":"Chareonviriyaphap","fullName":"Theeraphap Chareonviriyaphap","slug":"theeraphap-chareonviriyaphap"},{"id":"88985","title":"Prof.","name":"Anne-Laure","middleName":null,"surname":"Michon","fullName":"Anne-Laure Michon","slug":"anne-laure-michon"},{"id":"88986","title":"Prof.","name":"Estelle","middleName":null,"surname":"Jumas-Bilak","fullName":"Estelle Jumas-Bilak","slug":"estelle-jumas-bilak"},{"id":"156016","title":"Dr.","name":"Chung Thuy","middleName":null,"surname":"Ngo","fullName":"Chung Thuy Ngo","slug":"chung-thuy-ngo"},{"id":"156018","title":"MSc.","name":"Krajana","middleName":null,"surname":"Tainchum","fullName":"Krajana Tainchum","slug":"krajana-tainchum"},{"id":"156019","title":"Dr.","name":"Waraporn","middleName":null,"surname":"Juntarajumnong","fullName":"Waraporn Juntarajumnong","slug":"waraporn-juntarajumnong"}]},{"id":"43899","title":"Distribution, Mechanisms, Impact and Management of Insecticide Resistance in Malaria Vectors: A Pragmatic Review","slug":"distribution-mechanisms-impact-and-management-of-insecticide-resistance-in-malaria-vectors-a-pragmat","signatures":"Vincent Corbel and Raphael N’Guessan","authors":[{"id":"152666","title":"Dr.","name":"Vincent","middleName":null,"surname":"Corbel","fullName":"Vincent Corbel","slug":"vincent-corbel"},{"id":"169017","title":"Dr.","name":"Raphael","middleName":null,"surname":"N'Guessan","fullName":"Raphael N'Guessan","slug":"raphael-n'guessan"}]},{"id":"43851","title":"Perspectives on Barriers to Control of Anopheles Mosquitoes and Malaria","slug":"perspectives-on-barriers-to-control-of-anopheles-mosquitoes-and-malaria","signatures":"Donald R. Roberts, Richard Tren and Kimberly Hess","authors":[{"id":"151439","title":"Prof.","name":"Donald","middleName":null,"surname":"R. Roberts","fullName":"Donald R. Roberts","slug":"donald-r.-roberts"},{"id":"151656","title":"Mr.","name":"Richard","middleName":null,"surname":"Tren","fullName":"Richard Tren","slug":"richard-tren"},{"id":"154152","title":"Ms.","name":"Kimberly","middleName":null,"surname":"Hess","fullName":"Kimberly Hess","slug":"kimberly-hess"}]},{"id":"43874","title":"Residual Transmission of Malaria: An Old Issue for New Approaches","slug":"residual-transmission-of-malaria-an-old-issue-for-new-approaches","signatures":"Lies Durnez and Marc Coosemans","authors":[{"id":"152754","title":"Prof.","name":"Marc","middleName":null,"surname":"Coosemans","fullName":"Marc Coosemans","slug":"marc-coosemans"},{"id":"169018","title":"Dr.","name":"Lies","middleName":null,"surname":"Durnez","fullName":"Lies Durnez","slug":"lies-durnez"}]},{"id":"44330","title":"Vector Control: Some New Paradigms and Approaches","slug":"vector-control-some-new-paradigms-and-approaches","signatures":"Claire Duchet, Richard Allan and Pierre Carnevale","authors":[{"id":"151662","title":"Dr.","name":"Pierre","middleName":null,"surname":"Carnevale","fullName":"Pierre Carnevale","slug":"pierre-carnevale"},{"id":"169000","title":"Dr.","name":"Richard","middleName":null,"surname":"Allan","fullName":"Richard Allan","slug":"richard-allan"},{"id":"169008","title":"Dr.","name":"Claire","middleName":null,"surname":"Duchet","fullName":"Claire Duchet","slug":"claire-duchet"}]},{"id":"43870","title":"New Salivary Biomarkers of Human Exposure to Malaria Vector Bites","slug":"new-salivary-biomarkers-of-human-exposure-to-malaria-vector-bites","signatures":"Papa M. Drame, Anne Poinsignon, Alexandra Marie, Herbert\nNoukpo, Souleymane Doucoure, Sylvie Cornelie and Franck\nRemoue","authors":[{"id":"151515","title":"Dr.","name":"Papa Makhtar","middleName":null,"surname":"Drame","fullName":"Papa Makhtar Drame","slug":"papa-makhtar-drame"},{"id":"151648","title":"Dr.","name":"Franck","middleName":null,"surname":"Remoué","fullName":"Franck Remoué","slug":"franck-remoue"},{"id":"154034","title":"Dr.","name":"Anne","middleName":null,"surname":"Poinsignon","fullName":"Anne Poinsignon","slug":"anne-poinsignon"},{"id":"154035","title":"Dr.","name":"Alexandra","middleName":null,"surname":"Marie","fullName":"Alexandra Marie","slug":"alexandra-marie"},{"id":"154037","title":"Dr.","name":"Souleymane","middleName":null,"surname":"Doucoure","fullName":"Souleymane Doucoure","slug":"souleymane-doucoure"},{"id":"154038","title":"MSc.","name":"Herbert","middleName":null,"surname":"Noukpo","fullName":"Herbert Noukpo","slug":"herbert-noukpo"},{"id":"154039","title":"Dr.","name":"Sylvie","middleName":null,"surname":"Cornélie","fullName":"Sylvie Cornélie","slug":"sylvie-cornelie"}]},{"id":"44149","title":"Transgenic Mosquitoes for Malaria Control: From the Bench to the Public Opinion Survey","slug":"transgenic-mosquitoes-for-malaria-control-from-the-bench-to-the-public-opinion-survey","signatures":"Christophe Boëte and Uli Beisel","authors":[{"id":"98400","title":"Dr.","name":"Christophe","middleName":null,"surname":"Boëte","fullName":"Christophe Boëte","slug":"christophe-boete"},{"id":"167749","title":"Dr.","name":"Uli","middleName":null,"surname":"Beisel","fullName":"Uli Beisel","slug":"uli-beisel"}]}]}],"publishedBooks":[],"publishedBooksByAuthor":[]},"onlineFirst":{"chapter":{"type":"chapter","id":"68314","title":"Scyllarid Lobster Biology and Ecology","doi":"10.5772\u002Fintechopen.88218","slug":"scyllarid-lobster-biology-and-ecology","body":"\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_1\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E1. Introduction\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p2\"\u003ESlipper lobsters, family Scyllaridae (Latreille, 1825) have been known and described since the late 1700s and are considered part of the superfamily Palinuroidea that consists of spiny lobsters (Palinuridae), furry lobsters (Synaxidae), blind claw-footed lobsters (Polychelidae), and slipper or shovel-nosed or bulldozer lobsters (Scyllaridae) [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The Scyllaridae are organized into four subfamilies (Ibacinae, Arctidiane, Scyllarinae, and Theninae) and comprise 20 genera with at least 89 extant species thus far recognized [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p3\"\u003EOnly four genera—\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Arctidinae), \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParribacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Ibacinae), and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Theninae)—form any kind of significant fishery because these individual species tend to be large in size [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Of these four genera, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Gill, 1898) has been studied extensively due to their large adult size, which makes them economically important; their worldwide geographical distribution in tropical and subtropical habitats; and their numerous species (14) [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Considerable knowledge is also available for species within the genus \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E because of some relevance in certain fisheries as well as the success in rearing these animals in aquaculture [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Research on other species generally arises with overfishing of and a shift away from sister species (generally palinurids) and thus always lags behind exploitation, which is problematic for the creation of sustainable fisheries. Although small in size, lobsters of the genus \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E often become a minor target for fisheries (e.g., [\u003Ca href=\"#B9\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E9\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p4\"\u003EThe present review is an attempt to summarize the somewhat patchy information available in the scientific literature on scyllarids. In addition, expanding our knowledge on slipper lobsters may prove beneficial to humans in ways beyond providing a food source, given that large proteins recently isolated from \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus novemdentatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E have displayed cytotoxic activity against human cancer cells [\u003Ca href=\"#B11\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E11\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_2\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E2. Taxonomy, phylogeny and evolution\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p5\"\u003ELobsters were significantly more diverse in the Mesozoic, especially during the Triassic and Jurassic, than in the Cenozoic and Holocene. The Achelata appeared 391–351 million years ago (MYA), but did not diverge into the palinurid and scyllarid lineages until the Permian (−250 MYA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B12\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E12\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Fossil remains of scyllarids date back to the mid-Cretaceous (100–120 MYA) [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but are not well-represented since their fossils come mostly from low energy (shale, clay, ironstone) or lithographic (limestone) deposits [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B15\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E15\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B16\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E16\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Today’s scyllarids live in different habitats (coral and sponge reefs, and medium to high energy environments) from fossil forms, but the sparse fossil record of this group makes it difficult to speculate on when their habitat shift occurred, although their major radiation began in the Late Jurassic and continued through the Holocene [\u003Ca href=\"#B14\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E14\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p6\"\u003ESlipper lobsters are closely related to the Palinuridae and Synaxidae, all of which comprise the Achelata; they share numerous characters, most notably their unique larval phase (i.e., phyllosoma) which separate the Achelata from all other Decapoda [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The plate-like antennal flagellum of slipper lobsters is a highly derived feature that is common to all 89 species and distinguishes them from the palinurids and synaxids which possess whip-like antennae. The Scyllaridae underwent considerable taxonomic revision from 1991 to 2002, mostly within the Scyllarinae, and now consist of 20 genera. The highest taxonomic diversity is among the smaller species [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B17\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E17\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p7\"\u003EThe subfamily Arctidinae consists of 2 genera and 17 species. These are some of the larger scyllarids. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EArctides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species typically have a highly vaulted carapace, a three-segmented mandibular palp, and a shallow cervical incision along the lateral margin of the carapace. The subfamily Ibacinae consists of 3 genera, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEvibacus, Ibacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParribacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, with a total of 15 species. In these species, the carapace is significantly dorso-ventrally compressed with a deep cervical incision along the lateral margin of the carapace. The mandibular palp is simple or two-segmented, in contrast to the Arctidinae. One genus, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, and five species are recognized presently in the subfamily Theninae [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The Theninae display extremes: the body is highly flattened and their eye orbits are found at the extreme antero-lateral extent of the carapace. In contrast, the 52 species of Scyllarinae found within 14 genera all have vaulted carapaces covered with tubercles and their eyes are more medial in placement. Yet both Theninae and Scyllarinae lack a flagellum on the exopod of the first and third maxillipeds [\u003Ca href=\"#B18\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E18\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. See \u003Ca href=\"#F1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for representatives of these species and \u003Ca href=\"#F2\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 2\u003C\u002Fa\u003E for examples of scyllarid mouthparts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F1\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF1.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 1.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p8\"\u003EDifferent forms of scyllarid lobsters. (A) \u003Citalic\u003EScyllarus arctus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E; (B) \u003Citalic\u003EThenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E; (C) \u003Citalic\u003EParribacus antarcticus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E. A and B from Cuvier G. Le Règne animal: D’Après son organization, pour Sevir de base a L’Histoire Naturelle des Animaux, et D’Introduction a L’Anatomie Comparèe. Accompagnée de planches Gravées. Imprime chez Paul Renouard, Paris, France, 1837; C from Dana JD. United States exploring expedition during the years 1838, 1839, 1840, 1841, 1842 under the command of Charles Wilkes, U.S.N., Vol. XIII. Crustacea. C. Sherman, Philadelphia, 1852.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F2\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF2.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 2.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p9\"\u003EScyllarid mouthparts. (1) Aboral\u002Fventral view of third maxilliped; (2) aboral\u002Fventral view of second maxilliped; (3) aboral\u002Fventral view of first maxilliped; (4) aboral\u002Fventral view of second maxilla; (5) aboral\u002Fventral view of first maxilla; (6) mouth; (7) aboral\u002Fventral view of mandible; (8) oral\u002Fdorsal view of third maxilliped; (9) oral\u002Fdorsal view of first maxilliped; (10) oral\u002Fdorsal view of mandible. From Savigny, J-Cés. Iconographie des Crustacés et des Arachnides de l’Égypte. De l’Imprimerie Royale, Paris, France; 1805.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p10\"\u003EThe taxonomy of Scyllaridae is based mainly on the morphology of the adults and to lesser extent of that of their pelagic larvae, the phylosomas. Recently molecular genetic tools have been used to assess taxonomic and phylogenetic issues, and the main clades found within Scyllaridae are in agreement [\u003Ca href=\"#B13\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E13\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] with current taxonomy based on adult morphology [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B20\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E20\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and recent molecular studies [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. All subfamilies (Arctidinae, Theninae and Scyllarinae) are now considered monophyletic, except for the Ibacinae [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; this contrasts with a more recent analysis [\u003Ca href=\"#B21\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E21\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] that concluded that the Scyllaridae are fully monophyletic. The Arctidinae appears to represent the earliest branching lineage during the evolution of this group [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], which corresponds to the fossil record. In addition, slipper lobsters have likely evolved from shallow (onshore) to deep water (offshore) species [\u003Ca href=\"#B5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These same molecular tools suggest that two Atlantic species, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus depressus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. subarctus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, are a strongly supported clade with low genetic differentiation, indicative of a recent split into sister taxa [\u003Ca href=\"#B22\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E22\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_3\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E3. Life history\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p11\"\u003EThe life history of scyllarids parallels that of palinurids and can be divided into a series of developmental phases. These lobsters typically begin their pelagic lives as phyllosoma larvae (\u003Ca href=\"#F3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), although some scyllarids (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides aequinoctialis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B23\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B24\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E24\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. herklotsi\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B25\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E25\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus alticrenatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B27\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E27\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. ciliates\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B28\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E28\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. novemdentatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B19\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E19\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]) hatch as a naupliosoma (pre-larva), a short-lived form lasting a few hours that bears only the first three pairs of cephalic appendages [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Abdominal appendages are typically absent or rudimentary in early phyllosomas, but appear in later stages [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Exopodites are found on all thoracic appendages of phyllosoma larvae until their metamorphic molt when they are lost from all but the first and second maxillipeds; here exopodites are retained and used for generating currents around the mouth region [\u003Ca href=\"#B31\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E31\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Scyllarid phyllosomas deviate from other decapod larvae in that they are missing a fully developed exopod on the third maxilliped and this may indicate a phylogenetic separation of feeding strategy [\u003Ca href=\"#B3\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E3\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F3\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF3.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 3.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p12\"\u003EVarious stages of scyllarid phyllosoma larvae. Top, early stages of \u003Citalic\u003EScyllarides astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E and \u003Citalic\u003EEvibacus princeps\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E. Bottom, later stages of \u003Citalic\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E, \u003Citalic\u003EE. princeps\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E, and \u003Citalic\u003EScyllarus martensii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E. From the Martin Wiggo Johnson Phyllosoma slide collection of the Scripps Institute of Oceanography Pelagic Invertebrate Collection website (\u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fscripps.ucsd.edu\u002Fcollections\u002Fpi\u002Foverview\u002Fcollection-databases-zooplankton-guide\u002Fm-w-johnson-lobster-phyllosoma-slide\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Fscripps.ucsd.edu\u002Fcollections\u002Fpi\u002Foverview\u002Fcollection-databases-zooplankton-guide\u002Fm-w-johnson-lobster-phyllosoma-slide\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E).\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p13\"\u003EThe dispersal of phyllosomas varies among species and depends largely on whether the parental stock is found within lagoons formed by coral island barrier reefs or in deeper waters [\u003Ca href=\"#B32\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E32\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B33\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E33\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B34\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E34\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B36\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E36\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Those hatched in coastal lagoons tend to remain there, while those hatched in deeper water gradually move shoreward, such that final-stage phyllosomas are found much closer to shore [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some phyllosomas undertake diel vertical migrations, but data are limited as to the extent of these migrations and the species-specific preferences for various depths [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B37\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E37\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] as well as the efficacy of their swimming behavior. It is likely that smaller instars vertically migrate less than later, larger instars [\u003Ca href=\"#B35\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E35\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and may use passive transport by occupying vertical strata that move them in specific directions [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some phyllosomas even travel attached to the aboral surface of jellyfish medusae or siphonophores [\u003Ca href=\"#B38\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E38\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B39\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E39\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B40\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E40\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], which may affect larval dispersal or allow them to remain relatively near shore [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Understanding of phyllosoma behavior and dispersion has been challenged by the ability to correctly identify species; however, recent use of molecular genetics and DNA barcoding is improving the ability to make species identification possible in the field [\u003Ca href=\"#B42\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E42\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B43\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E43\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p14\"\u003EPhyllosomas are raptorial feeders, using their pereiopods to grasp onto food items, which are then shredded by the maxillipeds and masticated by molar processes of the mandibles [\u003Ca href=\"#B44\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E44\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Mostly fleshy foods are ingested; such food types are more readily available in coastal waters than in offshore, oligotrophic waters [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B45\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E45\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some scyllarid phyllosomas have been observed clinging onto or “riding” the medusa stage of some gelatinous zooplankton. For example, a recent report of a videotaped scyllarid lobster phyllosoma swimming while dragging a prayid siphonophore behind it suggests that gelatinous forms may serve as a critical food and\u002For defense against predation (by ingestion of the nematocysts) and refutes the idea that hitching a ride on these organisms is energy-saving due to passive transportation [\u003Ca href=\"#B41\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E41\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Recently, molecular methods using the central domain of the 18SrDNA gene have identified food items of some species of scyllarid and palinurid phyllosomas and suggest that these forms feed on appendicularians, salps, and cnidarians [\u003Ca href=\"#B46\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E46\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Ctenophores fed to phyllosomas of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E are accepted readily and provide nutritional support [\u003Ca href=\"#B47\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E47\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and similar results were obtained with the phyllosomas of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. australiensis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus novemdentatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. ciliatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E fed on jellyfish [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B50\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E50\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B51\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E51\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some species of wild phyllosomas were found to contain cnidarian tissue in their hepatopancreas and feces, and these phyllosomas seem capable of encapsulating nematocysts [\u003Ca href=\"#B52\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E52\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] suggesting that these larvae utilize jellyfish as a food source. Few studies have examined exactly how phyllosomas consume jellyfish, but one possible mechanism is for phyllosomas to cling onto the exumbrella, feed on tentacles or oral arms first, and then consume the exumbrella [\u003Ca href=\"#B48\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E48\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B53\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E53\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Phyllosomas riding on jellyfish manage to groom and clear mucus extruded by jellyfish to dampen microbial growth on their bodies [\u003Ca href=\"#B54\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E54\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p15\"\u003EThe final-stage phyllosoma molts into the highly specialized nisto (see \u003Ca href=\"#F4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), or post-larval stage, which, like their spiny lobster (pueruli) and clawed lobster (post-larvae) counterparts, utilize surface waters to swim toward benthic habitats to settle. Nistos are neither completely planktonic nor completely benthic—they are caught in plankton tows demonstrating that they are pelagic at least part of the time [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In many species of scyllarids, the nisto appears to bury into soft substrates during the day and swim actively at night; some species even change coloration daily between these two habitats to remain cryptically colored in both environments [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Some scyllarid nistos are excellent swimmers (using their abdominal pleopods), while others are poor swimmers; some are also capable of executing tail flips (backward swimming) as a means of escape [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. These swimming differences may exist due to marked differences in the size of pleopods among different species [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, this suggestion has not been adequately tested.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F4\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF4.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 4.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p16\"\u003ENisto of \u003Citalic\u003EScyllarus americanus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E (Top). From Ref. [\u003Cxref ref-type=\"bibr\" rid=\"B23\"\u003E23\u003C\u002Fxref\u003E]. Open access: \u003Cext-link ext-link-type=\"uri\" xlink:href=\"https:\u002F\u002Farchive.org\u002Fdetails\u002Flarvaldevelopmen00robe\"\u003Ehttps:\u002F\u002Farchive.org\u002Fdetails\u002Flarvaldevelopmen00robe\u003C\u002Fext-link\u003E. Nisto of unidentified scyllarid species in Florida waters (Bottom). Photo by Casey Butler.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p17\"\u003EAs with spiny lobster pueruli, the nisto appears to rely on energy reserves, rather than to actively feed [\u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], although the structure of the proventriculus is transitional between the phyllosoma and the juvenile [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] which suggests that it can process and sort food particles at this stage of development. The nisto also bears a cardio-pyloric valve that divides the anterior and posterior cardiac chambers, but lacks a gastric mill. Thus, if food is consumed by the nisto, it is likely soft and processed mainly by the mouthparts prior to ingestion [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Nistos appear similar in form to juveniles and bear the derived feature of flattened antennae, but are transparent instead of being reddish-brown. Their abdominal pleopods still bear swimming (natatory) setae [\u003Ca href=\"#B58\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E58\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] to aid in transitioning them from the pelagic to the benthic realm.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p18\"\u003EJuvenile life history of scyllarids is lacking for all species except those that have been successfully reared in culture (e.g., \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species [\u003Ca href=\"#B59\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E59\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species [\u003Ca href=\"#B49\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E49\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B60\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E60\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). This primarily is the result of a problem in sampling and not knowing where juvenile grounds lay. For example, in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E no live juvenile or nisto of the commercially exploited Mediterranean slipper lobster, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Latreille, 1851), had ever been sampled despite ample information available on the ecology and behavior of adults of this species [\u003Ca href=\"#B62\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E62\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Museum surveys of invertebrate collections provided a small specimen of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (36 mm carapace length (CL)) collected in 1987 with a 20 mm mesh scientific trawl net at depth of 450–700 m on a soft and muddy bottom at least 40 km offshore of Livorno [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Another specimen, even smaller (11.7 mm CL), was collected in Reggio Calabria, southern Italy, in the early 1900s at a depth of >850 m and deposited in the Zoological Museum of Turin. This early scyllarid juvenile, likely a recent benthic recruit, suggests that the larvae drift large distances before settling as nistos in deeper waters with muddy habitats where they are possibly protected against the more numerous inshore predators. They then migrate as larger juveniles or sub-adults to inshore habitats [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Similar suggestions have been made for other scyllarids. A recent study [\u003Ca href=\"#B64\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E64\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] found \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sp. in the guts of deep sea fish which suggests that nistos are settling in deep waters. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E juveniles appear to migrate shoreward from offshore waters to recruit into adult grounds [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Juveniles appear to occupy a different spatial niche from adults and are far more cryptic than adults because few individuals are found that are smaller than 20 cm TL [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. To obtain sufficient numbers of small individuals, specific sampling techniques must be developed which target the juveniles, which may prove difficult if many of the species have juvenile development in deep, oceanic waters. The exceptional discovery of a juvenile form of scyllarid in the old museum collection of Turin [\u003Ca href=\"#B63\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E63\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] emphasizes the importance of comprehensive surveys of crustacean collections, even old ones, in search for scyllarid life stages.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p19\"\u003EGaps in life-history make growth rate determination difficult in most species, except for those that can be cultured with high survival rates or from grow-out studies when sufficient juveniles have been captured. Juveniles of reared \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. nodifer\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E take ~18 months and 9–10 molts to reach adult size [\u003Ca href=\"#B67\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E67\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Other fast growing species include \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. that reach sexual maturity after four to six molts [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Cultured \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E take about 400 days (19 molts) to grow to a size of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Ec.\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E 250 g. [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In contrast, 7–8 years are necessary for juvenile \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E to recruit fully into the adult population [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Hence, from what little data we have on juvenile life history, it appears that many, but not all, of the commercially important scyllarids are capable of rapid growth.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p20\"\u003EArctidinid adults (e.g. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) are typically large and tag–release studies suggest that adults molt annually (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]), although data from \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E populations suggest that molts occur every 18–24 months [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Molting typically occurs at night and in cooler to warmer months [\u003Ca href=\"#B71\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E71\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B73\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E73\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Softening of the old exoskeleton starts some 10–22 days pre-molt, with hardening being complete 3 weeks post-molt. The entire process takes approximately 7 hours, with lobsters remaining shelter-bound for 5–9 days post-molt [\u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Slipper lobsters do not appear to consume their exuviae since these are generally left outside of shelters [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Sex ratios are close to unity in those species that have been adequately sampled (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). In some species, mean CL is larger for females than for males (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]), while in others, males exceed females in size (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). Shortly after mating, females extrude a large number of eggs (conservative numbers range from 24,710 to 356,000), based on TL of the individual, with those eggs ranging from 0.6 to 0.7 mm diameter [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B75\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E75\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B77\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E77\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In some species, spawning occurs twice a year [\u003Ca href=\"#B76\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E76\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Such high fecundity rates may be an adaptation to oceanic loss of larvae and variable recruitment of nistos due to cyclic changes in oceanic climate [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Eggs are brooded for 2–8 weeks before release over a number of days (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B78\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E78\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). Ovigerous females are more commonly sampled in cooler months, but not warmer months [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. There is some evidence that females may return to inshore reefs in the autumn earlier than males and leave sooner after shedding eggs in the mid-summer, possibly to maximize thermal regimes for developing embryos [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Most species appear to move to colder, deeper waters when inshore water temperatures rise steeply in the summer or, for those species that remain in lagoons, stay at locations where thermal regimes are less than 25°C [\u003Ca href=\"#B65\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E65\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p21\"\u003E\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sp. adults rarely exceed 20 cm TL [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and are thus smaller than the adults of subfamily Arctidinidae. Sex ratios of all four Australian commercially caught species of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E are approximately 1:1. Males are smaller than females because they molt less frequently after attaining sexual maturity. Mating occurs when the female is hard-shelled. Fecundity is much lower than in members of the subfamily Arctidinidae and it is highly variable both within and among the four species of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. It increases with the size of the animal [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Egg incubation times have been estimated to vary between approximately 2–4 months and are likely to be temperature dependent with longer incubation in cooler water [\u003Ca href=\"#B61\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E61\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Molt frequencies of captive lobsters suggest seasonal molting but wild, tagged lobsters were caught repetitively in consecutive years without having increased in size [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Growth models for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. peronii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, suggest the potential for this species to live for more than 15 years with a maximum size reached after 5–8 years [\u003Ca href=\"#B80\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E80\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p22\"\u003EVery little information is available on adults of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParribacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. and what does exist is mainly focused on \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. antarcticus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E. Two captured females of this species bore evidence of reproductive activity during summer (July) [\u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p23\"\u003EIn \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. growth is quite rapid with 80% of maximum size reached by 2 years of age. Females appear to attain larger sizes than males as evidenced by fishery sampled size ranges in both Indian and Australian waters [\u003Ca href=\"#B82\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E82\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Increased abdominal dimensions likely explain the greater weight of females, while maximization of reproductive efficiency via larger size and the ability to carry more eggs explains the greater mean size of females [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, the two sexes eventually grow to a similar size [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Differences between Indian and Australian populations of thenids may reflect differences between sub-species or even between different species in view of the recent taxonomic revision of the genus [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p24\"\u003EIn the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E fisheries off India, sex ratios are 1:1 [\u003Ca href=\"#B85\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E85\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but off Australia they are skewed toward males [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] with a ratio of 0.57. In contrast, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. indicus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sex ratios are at 1:1 throughout the year [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. As with all scyllarids, fecundity of thenids scales with length. Various studies in India and Australia show at least two annual spawning periods [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; however, only a single spawning period was reported for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E off the Tokar delta in the Red Sea [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p25\"\u003EAdults of the subfamily Scyllarinae are usually small and information is very limited regarding growth and reproduction. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus arctus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E appears to have a continuous reproductive period where females can spawn up to three times per year [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The sex ratio is skewed toward females and mean size is larger in females.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_4\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E4. Genetics and population continuity\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p26\"\u003EThe developmental period for scyllarid phyllosomas is far more variable than that for palinurids, and can last from a few weeks to at least 9 months [\u003Ca href=\"#B29\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E29\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B30\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E30\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Lengthy duration of the larval period likely leads to wide oceanic dispersion and, ultimately, connectivity of geographically distant subpopulations resulting in panmixia in adults. Molecular tools are just starting to be used to examine population structure of individual species. In one such study, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E collected in 2 locations in the Western Mediterranean and 13 locations in four regions in the NE Atlantic, including Southern Portugal and the Macaronesian archipelagos, revealed genetic homogeneity in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E across all regions [\u003Ca href=\"#B86\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E86\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. More such studies in other species are needed to understand the population genetics of scyllarid species.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E5. Behavior\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p27\"\u003EExcept for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, both of which are readily held in laboratory settings, behavior of most slipper lobsters has not been well studied. In addition, the sensory modalities used for behaviors are not well understood as they are in nephropid and palinurid lobsters [\u003Ca href=\"#B87\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E87\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_5_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.1 Feeding behavior\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p28\"\u003EFeeding behavior of adults is dependent on the structures with which lobsters can capture, manipulate, and process their food and differs with life history stage as mouthparts, pereiopods, and the proventriculus gain substance and size. Feeding habits, primarily for the adults of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. peronii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B89\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E89\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] are known.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p29\"\u003EAs in clawed and spiny lobsters, the esophagus of slipper lobsters is short, presumably to allow for rapid ingestion [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This structure leads into the proventriculus, which is divided into the anterior cardiac stomach and the posterior pyloric stomach. The gastric mill of slipper lobsters is smaller and less calcified [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] likely due to the diet specialization that has occurred in slipper lobsters—that of primarily consuming bivalve flesh, or other fleshy items. Food proceeds from the cardiac stomach to the pyloric stomach through a cardio-pyloric valve, which lacks the spines and accessory teeth seen in other decapods [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Dense mats of setae in the pyloric stomach provide filtering of semi-digested food particles with only the smallest particles entering from the cardiac stomach and exiting into the digestive gland. Larger particles are passed into the midgut caecum and hindgut [\u003Ca href=\"#B88\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E88\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Little is understood about the digestive enzymes involved in food breakdown [\u003Ca href=\"#B57\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E57\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p30\"\u003EMany slipper lobsters (e.g. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) are bivalve specialists and these have evolved the ability to use the nails of their pereiopods to shuck bivalves [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B91\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E91\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. During the feeding sequence, slipper lobsters typically probe the outer valves with their antennules, as though “smelling” and assessing the shell for its possible value [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. They then pick up and hold the bivalve with either the first, third, and fourth or second, third, and fourth pairs of walking legs, using the dactyl tips of the first or second walking legs to repetitively probe the valve edges [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The dactyl tips eventually wedge into the shell edge and then push in further and further to open the valves; this process is known as “wedging” [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Once the valves are opened enough to fully insert one pair of pereiopod dactyls, another pair of walking legs (second or third) are used to cut the mantle tissue along the pallial line. The lobster then uses a back-and-forth “scissoring” type motion to increase the opening angle to reach the adductor muscles [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The second pair of walking legs cut the adductor muscles, so that the valves open freely. With the valves open, the meat is repetitively scraped out of the valves and passed directly to the third maxillipeds [\u003Ca href=\"#B90\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E90\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; see \u003Ca href=\"#F5\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 5\u003C\u002Fa\u003E. Until the flesh is actually passed back to the third maxillipeds, the antennules make repeated downward motions to probe inside the valves, to touch the flesh, and to touch the shell as the legs scrap the flesh from it; it is likely that the antennules act as a dual “smell” and “taste” sensory modality due to the damage to pereiopod setae from the process of shucking [\u003Ca href=\"#B92\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E92\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F5\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF5.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 5.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p31\"\u003EThe feeding sequence of S. aequinoctialis. (1) Lobster approaches bivalve with antennules flicking and sampling odors; (2) pereiopods grab bivalve while antennules “taste” it to assess if feeding sequence will continue; (3) “wedging” of pereiopods into closed valves; (4) probing and “shucking” of the valves, while cutting adductor muscles; (5) close-up of pereiopods ripping adductor muscle; (6) scraping of flesh out of bivalve and delivery to mouthparts.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p32\"\u003EWhile bivalves are a preferred food source, slipper lobsters are also known to consume sea urchins, crustaceans, sponges, gastropods, barnacles, sea squirts, algae (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EUlva\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.), and fish [\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B93\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E93\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Gut contents of commercially fished \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in India included a high proportion of mollusks (27.7%) followed by bottom sediments (24.1%), fishes (22.9%), crustaceans (10.7%), polychaetes (4.2%) and miscellaneous food items (10.4%) [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Scallops, goatfish and shrimps were always consumed when offered under laboratory conditions [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Thus, based on stomach contents and laboratory behavior, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E appears to be an opportunistic, omnivorous, benthic feeder that burrows in soft and sandy mud, engulfs sediments consisting of sand and mud, and then preys on organisms that it encounters in this way [\u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_6_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.2 Sheltering behavior and substrate preferences\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p33\"\u003EAdult specimens of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. are camouflaged to a certain extent due to their flattened morphology and coloration that blends into hard substrates (e.g. [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B94\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E94\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). However, in the brightly illuminated water of their shallow habitats, this camouflage provides only limited concealment against diurnal predators. Thus, most are nocturnal, foraging at night and sheltering during the day ([\u003Ca href=\"#B66\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E66\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B95\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E95\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B96\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E96\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. astori\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E; [\u003Ca href=\"#B72\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E72\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E). A more recent set of lab studies documented that \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E is more active at higher temperatures, and demonstrated that warming water temperatures elicited markedly longer movements [\u003Ca href=\"#B97\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E97\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p34\"\u003EGregarious sheltering has been noted for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Spanier, personal observation) but predation studies at field sites demonstrate that grouping does not decrease per-capita predation rates on individuals within the group. Grouped lobsters suffer an equal rate of predation as lone animals and gain only a small advantage of time, as predatory attack patterns are less focused when lobsters are grouped [\u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Reports of gregarious behavior also exist for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. nodifer\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B99\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but nothing is known about the function of such behavior.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p35\"\u003EThe adults of many species are found on hard and soft substrates (\u003Ca href=\"#F6\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 6\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species sampled both on hard (rocks, caves, coral heads) and soft substrates often result from circumstances where lobsters that usually shelter in hard substrates were collected in soft substrates during their short and long term movements, but some species such as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides elisabethae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. nodifer\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. aequinoctialis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E are only found in mud or sand [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B99\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E99\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B100\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E100\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParribacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E species also inhabit hard substrates (corals structures, caves) or are found in sandy bottom [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. All five species of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, and eight species of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E inhabit relatively soft sandy or muddy substrates [\u003Ca href=\"#B4\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E4\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and are well-adapted for digging into the substrate in terms of their morphology as well as their behavior. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. peronii\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spends most of the day underneath the sand [\u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and both \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. indicus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spent daytime hours buried in sediment with only eyes and antennules exposed [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but were nocturnally active, with clear peaks in activity at dusk and just prior to dawn.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F6\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF6.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 6.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p36\"\u003E\u003Citalic\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E in artificial reef structures (A, B) and natural rock outcropping (C, D). In natural outcroppings and large openings in artificial reefs, they typically co-habit space with other conspecifics (B, D). Photographs by Stephen Breitstein.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_7_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.3 Predators and antipredator behavior\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p37\"\u003EThe response of slipper lobsters to predator attack (e.g., by gregarious triggerfish) has been well studied [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B103\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B104\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E104\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B108\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E108\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and consists of three strategies, two of which are typically executed in sequence: (i) the “fortress strategy” in which the animal grasps the bottom and attempts to outlast its attacker’s motivation to penetrate its hard shell (described in [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]); (ii) the “swimming escape” response (described in [\u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]); and (iii) remaining sheltered in dens [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B103\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E103\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Lacking claws (like \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EHomarus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) or long spinose antennae (like spiny lobsters; see [\u003Ca href=\"#B109\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E109\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B110\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E110\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B111\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E111\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B112\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E112\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]) with which to fend off swimming predators, slipper lobsters have developed a shell that is thicker and more durable to mechanical insult than clawed or spiny lobsters [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. They use their short, strong legs to grasp the substrate and resist being dislodged [\u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B106\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E106\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] (see \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E), and if this fails, they are exceptionally deft swimmers capable of evasive maneuvers [\u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Also they may suddenly change the direction of their swimming, presumably to confuse the chasing predator. This is an energetically costly response to a threat and is generally used as a last resort. Slipper lobsters may match the energy invested by clawed lobsters in claws and spiny lobsters in antennae by increasing only moderately the thickness of their shells and bettering their swimming escape behavior [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cfigure class=\"media-panel\" id=\"F7\"\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"media\"\u003E\u003Cimg src=\"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002Fmedia\u002FF7.png\" class=\"figure-link\" alt=\"\"\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cfigcaption class=\"caption\"\u003E\u003Ch4\u003EFigure 7.\u003C\u002Fh4\u003E\u003Cp\u003E\u003Cp xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\" id=\"p38\"\u003EAnti-predator responses of \u003Citalic\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E. (A) Tail flip in response to on-coming threat by triggerfish; (B) wedging into rocks in response to a predator (such as octopus) that can grip; (C) gregarious behavior in absence of shelter where each individual is concealed among other conspecifics. Photographs by Ehud Spanier.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigcaption\u003E\u003C\u002Ffigure\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p39\"\u003ESlipper lobsters that live in complex substrates also display a variety of shelter-related behaviors that provide a third highly effective survival strategy [\u003Ca href=\"#B105\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E105\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. By combining nocturnal foraging with diurnal sheltering, as well as carrying food to their shelters for later consumption, slipper lobsters may fully minimize their exposure to diurnal predators. The tendency for cohabitation with conspecifics (as seen in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. antarcticus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B1\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E1\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] or \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B98\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E98\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]) may be adaptive because of confusion effects (which lobster to target), alerting earlier to predators due to higher levels of “prey vigilance”, or being concealed among conspecifics (“dilution effect” \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003Esensu\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B113\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E113\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; see \u003Ca href=\"#F7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"fig\"\u003EFigure 7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E). If these tactics fail, their thick carapace effectively blunt cracks [\u003Ca href=\"#B107\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E107\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B114\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E114\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B115\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E115\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and may buy them extra time for escape when attacked.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p40\"\u003EVery little is known about the antipredator behavior of soft bottom species. Fully buried \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. are entirely concealed except for the eyes and antennules [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. also are found on soft bottom substrates and are known to bury into those sediments, much in the same manner as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] presumably also for concealment.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p41\"\u003EBesides triggerfish, spotted gully shark (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ETriakis megalopterus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (Smith, 1849) have been reported to feed on \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. elisabethae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in South Africa [\u003Ca href=\"#B116\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E116\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], groupers (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EEpinephelus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EMycteroperca\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) have been reported as predators of adult and juvenile \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. arctus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. aequinoctialis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. nodifer\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B56\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E56\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B117\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E117\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Combers (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ESerranus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) and rainbow wrasse (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ECoris julis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E Linnaeus, 1758) apparently prey on juvenile \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Juvenile \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. aequinoctialis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E were found in the gut of a large invasive alien red lionfish (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EPterois\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) in Belize [\u003Ca href=\"#B118\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E118\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_8_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.4 Mating behavior\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p42\"\u003EMost information on reproductive behavior comes from laboratory observations. Unlike clawed lobsters where mating usually occurs shortly after females molt, scyllarids are more similar to palinurids in that mating and molting are separate and unrelated events, although in the hooded slipper lobster (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. deceptor\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E), copulation follows molting [\u003Ca href=\"#B119\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E119\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The general decoupling of molting and mating is largely due to males supplying females with external spermatophores that females use within hours or a few days. Nevertheless, some differences exist among the different subfamilies and those are summarized here. Males of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. produce white, gelatinous spermatophores, which they carry around on the base of their fourth and fifth pereiopods ([\u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; Spanier, personal observations) and transfer to females. In some species, females have been observed carrying spermatophores externally 6–10 days prior to egg extrusion (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B26\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E26\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]), while in others, the lack of observable spermatophores prior to egg extrusion has led to a belief that the spermatophore is stored internally and fertilization is internal (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. nodifer\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B55\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E55\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]; \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. squammosus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, [\u003Ca href=\"#B120\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E120\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]). Females of many species can spawn multiple broods in a season due to short brooding periods, and these broods are usually carried during spring and summer months. Only in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E have both eggs and spermatophores been observed simultaneously [\u003Ca href=\"#B74\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E74\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p43\"\u003EMale \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. do not appear to deposit a persistent spermatophoric mass in the process of mating [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Soft, non-persistent masses were observed [\u003Ca href=\"#B121\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E121\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] for \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E and females oviposited within 8 hours post-mating and lost the spermatophore within 12 hours. No courtship behaviors or acts of mating have been witnessed in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E or \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ET. indicus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E during 2000 hours of remote video observation [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], so it assumed that mating rituals are very simple. In \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. spermatophoric masses were persistent, gelatinous, and opaque white in color, and were deposited in two elongated strips, approximately 20–30 mm long, close to the genital openings of the female [\u003Ca href=\"#B68\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E68\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Fertilization is likely external and occurs relatively soon after mating.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p44\"\u003EFrom the very limited information available on \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EParribacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp., it appears that spermatophores are persistent even after spawning and new spermatophores are deposited atop old ones [\u003Ca href=\"#B81\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E81\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p45\"\u003EIn \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. males deposit two jelly-like strings of spermatophores ventrally from the base of the fifth pereiopod to the second abdominal segment; these are used within hours to inseminate eggs and any remaining sperm mass degrades quickly [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Females are capable of multiple spawning events per year, but the number depends largely on environmental conditions; members of the same species may produce three broods in one area, but only two in another. This flexibility in reproduction may prove advantageous when thermal regimes are favorable for rapid gonadal maturation, shorter incubation periods, or rapid larval development [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_9_2\" data-lvl=\"2\"\u003E\u003Ch3 class=\"heading section-title\"\u003E5.5 Movement patterns\u003C\u002Fh3\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p46\"\u003ESlipper lobsters movements consist of either slow, benthic walking used for daily nomadic movements within a small home range and for seasonal migrations from shallow inshore waters to deeper offshore waters or swimming movements that are used for escape or vertical migratory movements. Daily activity patterns suggest that slipper lobsters have endogenous clocks that provide for circadian rhythms with higher locomotor periods during night hours [\u003Ca href=\"#B122\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E122\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Tagging studies of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E off the coast of Israel confirm the slow, benthic walking patterns: local movements within a home range, presumably to forage and migratory offshore movements [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. While residing inshore (February to June in the south-eastern Mediterranean), lobsters make short-range movements from reef shelters to forage and 71% return to these reef shelters. However, lobster numbers decreased in the reef shelters, ultimately decreasing to zero in summer months (June through August), and lobsters did not return to the reef until the following winter when their numbers peaked in the spring. This suggests a migration offshore that would correspond to increased water temperatures inshore [\u003Ca href=\"#B79\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E79\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Similar tagging studies off Sicily showed no such migratory movements [\u003Ca href=\"#B70\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E70\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides squamosus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E also appears to make no long-range migratory movements, with mean distances moved from tagging location by most (97.2%) individuals being <1 km over a 5 year period [\u003Ca href=\"#B123\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E123\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p47\"\u003EMobility of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. in Australia also has been examined through use of tag and recapture studies and monitoring of commercial catch levels [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B84\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E84\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. tend to be very mobile and capable of moving large distances, but because their movements lack any kind of pattern or directionality, they are not likely to be migratory. Likewise, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. exhibit nomadic movement patterns that have no directional patterns [\u003Ca href=\"#B124\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E124\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p48\"\u003ESwimming behavior constitutes a form of locomotion in which a single “appendage”—the abdomen—produces thrust by a combination of a rowing action and a final “squeeze” force when the abdomen presses against the cephalothorax [\u003Ca href=\"#B125\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E125\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Although the tail-flip response is known in adults and juveniles of all three major taxonomic group of lobsters, it is best developed in slipper lobsters.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p49\"\u003EThe hydrodynamics of swimming in slipper lobsters has been studied in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus peroni\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EI. alticrenatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B101\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E101\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B126\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E126\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B128\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E128\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E, Thenus orientalis\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B126\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E126\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B129\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E129\u003C\u002Fa\u003E] and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B102\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E102\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B130\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E130\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B131\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E131\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E uses a “burst-and-coast” type of swimming in response to a threat. This burst-and-coast swimming consists of large amplitude movements of the abdomen followed by periods of powerless gliding. Acceleration can reach top velocities of three body lengths per second while deceleration during gliding decreases to velocities of less than one body length per second. Escape swimming is of short duration used only in emergencies to get to safety, as it requires considerable energy. The flattened second antennae of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E (mistakenly called “shovels” or “flippers”), with their movable joints, serve as stabilizers or rudders to control the swimming movement [\u003Ca href=\"#B130\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E130\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This adjustment in lift via the second antennae is also seen in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. [\u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p50\"\u003EIn \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp., there are two distinct forms of swimming: a locomotory form that is characterized by a slower speed (average of 29 cm s\u003Csup\u003E−1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E) and the absence of explicit stimulus, and escape swimming which is much faster (average of 1 m s\u003Csup\u003E−1\u003C\u002Fsup\u003E), similar to that seen in \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E, and always caused by direct stimulus or threat [\u003Ca href=\"#B83\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E83\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B129\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E129\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In locomotory swimming, the aerofoil body shape generates lift as the abdomen thrusts downward; drag is reduced by all pereiopods being extended anteriorly [\u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Lift height was controlled by the second antennae and each flexion helped to maintain the animal above the sediment [\u003Ca href=\"#B127\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E127\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B129\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E129\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. In comparison, escape swimming always consisted of an abdominal flexion that was proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus. While \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. can tail flip, it does not do so in response to a sudden threat, but seems to be related more to a righting response when the animal is flipped over [\u003Ca href=\"#B128\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E128\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_11\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E6. Diseases\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p51\"\u003EThere are only a few reports on diseases or parasites of slipper lobsters, in general, and of specific species in particular [\u003Ca href=\"#B132\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E132\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B133\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E133\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. This limited information is usually focused on commercial species and those that have potential in aquaculture. \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E specimens die while being held in the laboratory from unknown causes. Halacarid mites\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003E, Copidognathus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp., cause tissue necrosis in the gills of the \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EP. antarcticus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B133\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E133\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Aquaculture of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EThenus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. will require more knowledge on pathogens of these species since the phyllosomas are very susceptible to microorganisms in the water column [\u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B134\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E134\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. There are also reports of parasites in adults. For example, a new species of parasitic copepod, \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EChoniomyzon inflatus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E n., has recently been collected from the external egg masses of the smooth fan lobster \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EIbacus novemdentatu\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E [\u003Ca href=\"#B135\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E135\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The Gram-negative \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVibrio\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E causes mass mortality during hatchery production of phyllosoma larvae and also affects their live feed of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EArtemia\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E nauplii. Filamentous bacteria (\u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ELeucothrix\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E sp.) and protozoans (such as \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EZoothamnium\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp., \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EVorticella\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp. and \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EAcinata\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E spp.) can also biofoul the phyllosomas and cause mortality [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Traditionally, a number of antibiotics as well as other chemicals have been heavily used for controlling bacterial colonies in the rearing water. Alternative methods are the use of ultraviolet light (UV) and ozone (O\u003Csub\u003E3\u003C\u002Fsub\u003E) sterilizers [\u003Ca href=\"#B8\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E8\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, \u003Ca href=\"#B69\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E69\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_12\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E7. Environmental effects and conservation\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p52\"\u003EOverfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation are the main reasons for the drastic decline of marine populations over the past 30 years [\u003Ca href=\"#B136\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E136\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The effects of overfishing characterize many populations of commercial slipper lobsters and result in decreases in exploited stocks in the last few decades. Some species of slipper lobsters, formerly ignored, are now targeted due to the decline in other species (e.g., spiny lobsters) especially around the waters off Australia, Hawaii, India, the Galápagos Islands, and the countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. As a consequence, slipper lobsters have rapidly decreased in stock abundance to the point that local fisheries have collapsed [\u003Ca href=\"#B7\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E7\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Regulations established that try to protect these populations may have unexpected negative effects. For example, the prohibition against landing ovigerous females of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarus arctus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in NE Spain has biased the fishery toward males [\u003Ca href=\"#B10\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E10\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], which then affects natural sex ratios, opportunities for females to find mates, and ultimately population structure. Protected natural reserves\u002Fno-take zones can, to a certain extent, help rectify these effects [\u003Ca href=\"#B137\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E137\u003C\u002Fa\u003E], but require governmental action and policing. A fully protected, natural reserve off the northern Mediterranean coast of Israel has demonstrated significantly higher numbers of female and male \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003EScyllarides latus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E compared to a control area with the same characteristics [\u003Ca href=\"#B138\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E138\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. The specimens in the reserve were also significantly larger than those in the control, non-protected area.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p53\"\u003EInstead of regulations that may have unintended consequences or the creation of natural reserves that require political will, policing, and industry buy-in, targeted fishing moratoriums may also help to rebuild stocks. For example, depleted stocks of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. elisabethae\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E recovered during a six-year moratorium from fishing and trapping off eastern South Africa [\u003Ca href=\"#B139\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E139\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. However, despite years of protection, populations of \u003Cem\u003E\u003Citalic xmlns:mml=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1998\u002FMath\u002FMathML\" xmlns:xlink=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F1999\u002Fxlink\" xmlns:xsi=\"http:\u002F\u002Fwww.w3.org\u002F2001\u002FXMLSchema-instance\"\u003ES. squammosus\u003C\u002Fitalic\u003E\u003C\u002Fem\u003E in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, have failed to recover [\u003Ca href=\"#B140\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E140\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Possible factors that may limit population growth and recovery, include: climate change, Allee effects, and interspecific interactions. Community changes that come from overfishing of coral reef fauna might have broad and lasting results; once lost, valuable resources and ecosystem services may not quickly rebound to pre-exploitation levels and may have cascading effects on the larger fauna that rely on these resources [\u003Ca href=\"#B140\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E140\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Projected climate change impacts on the distribution of coastal lobsters, including a synthesis of 68 slipper lobsters species, suggest negative changes in diversity in areas of high commercial fishing due to habitat loss [\u003Ca href=\"#B141\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E141\u003C\u002Fa\u003E]. Such changes are expected to be particularly dramatic in the tropics, with species projected to contract their climatic envelope between 40 and 100% [\u003Ca href=\"#B141\" class=\"ref-link\" data-ref-style=\"bibr\"\u003E141\u003C\u002Fa\u003E].\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\u003Cdiv class=\"section\" id=\"sec_13\" data-lvl=\"1\"\u003E\u003Ch2 class=\"heading main-title\"\u003E8. Conclusions\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\u003Cp id=\"p54\"\u003EAlthough slipper lobsters represent the most speciose group of lobsters and have been exploited in targeted or by-catch fisheries, they have been and continue to be poorly studied compared to the less speciose but more popular clawed and spiny lobsters. Lack of knowledge of basic biological features such as life history, behavior, physiology, and disease does not bode well for the long-term health of populations especially when most scientists expect dramatic climatic changes to impact oceanic habitats and community structure. Given that these lobsters represent a potential food source for an ever-growing human population, it would be beneficial to understand much more about these lobsters with targeted studies, supported by governmental agencies, much as we saw for clawed and spiny lobsters nearly 40 years ago.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\u003C\u002Fdiv\u003E\n","keywords":"slipper lobsters, Scyllaridae, taxonomy, genetics, anatomy, physiology, ecology, life history, behavior, fisheries","chapterPDFUrl":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fpdfs\u002F68314.pdf","chapterXML":"https:\u002F\u002Fmts.intechopen.com\u002Fsource\u002Fxml\u002F68314.xml","webChapterXML":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-chapter-xmls\u002Fxmls-chapter\u002F68314\u002F1672042576\u002F","downloadPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-download\u002F68314","previewPdfUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fpdf-preview\u002F68314","cdnMediaBaseUrl":"s3:\u002F\u002Fintech-cdn\u002Fmedia\u002Fchapter\u002F68314\u002F1512345123\u002F","totalDownloads":1469,"totalViews":1652,"totalCrossrefCites":1,"totalDimensionsCites":4,"dateSubmitted":"February 20th 2019","dateReviewed":"June 26th 2019","datePrePublished":"July 26th 2019","datePublished":"February 26th 2020","dateFinished":"July 26th 2019","readingETA":"0","abstract":"The family Scyllaridae is the most speciose and diverse of all families of marine lobsters. Slipper lobsters are found in both tropical and temperate habitats with hard or soft substrates and at different depths, and exhibit a wide array of morphological, anatomical, and physiological adaptations. Among the 20 genera and at least 89 species constituting 4 subfamilies, only some members of 4 genera, Thenus (Theninae), Scyllarides (Arctidinae), Ibacus and Parribacus (Ibacinae), form significant fisheries because of their large size. While scientific information on these lobsters has increased considerably in recent decades, it is still limited compared with commercially valuable spiny and clawed lobsters, and is confined to a few key species. The present chapter presents the current available knowledge on the biology of scyllarids and attempts to point out where questions remain to help focus further studies in this important group.","reviewType":"peer-reviewed","bibtexUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fbibtex\u002F68314","risUrl":"\u002Fchapter\u002Fris\u002F68314","signatures":"Kari L. Lavalli, Ehud Spanier and Jason S. Goldstein","isPublished":true,"isOnlineFirst":false,"isDeactivated":0,"noAds":0,"subseries":null,"book":{"id":"8159","type":"book","title":"Crustacea","subtitle":null,"fullTitle":"Crustacea","slug":"crustacea","isPublished":true,"publishedDate":"February 26th 2020","bookSignature":"Genaro Diarte-Plata and Ruth Escamilla-Montes","coverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdn.intechopen.com\u002Fbooks\u002Fimages_new\u002F8159.jpg","cdnCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1713439665-2106036203\u002Fcover.jpg","cdnCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1713439665-2106036203\u002Fcover-300.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1718277669-1279063691\u002Fweb-cover.jpg","cdnWebCoverURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1718277669-1279063691\u002Fweb-cover-300.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1718113852-2069964737\u002Fcover-text.jpg","cdnCoverWithTextURL300":"https:\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fbooks\u002F8159\u002F1718113852-2069964737\u002Fcover-text-300.jpg","licenceType":"CC BY 3.0","editedByType":"Edited by","isbn":"978-1-78985-630-9","printIsbn":"978-1-78985-629-3","pdfIsbn":"978-1-83880-826-6","isAvailableForWebshopOrdering":true,"isDeactivated":false,"kuFlag":false,"noAdsSub":0,"editors":[{"id":"198991","title":"Dr.","name":"Genaro","middleName":null,"surname":"Diarte-Plata","slug":"genaro-diarte-plata","fullName":"Genaro Diarte-Plata"}],"productType":{"id":"1","title":"Edited Volume","chapterContentType":"chapter","authoredCaption":"Edited by"}},"authors":[{"id":"296396","title":"Dr.","name":"Kari","middleName":null,"surname":"Lavalli","fullName":"Kari Lavalli","slug":"kari-lavalli","email":"klavalli@yahoo.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":{"name":"Boston University","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}},{"id":"296410","title":"Dr.","name":"Ehud","middleName":null,"surname":"Spanier","fullName":"Ehud Spanier","slug":"ehud-spanier","email":"spanier@research.haifa.ac.il","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":{"name":"University of Haifa","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"Israel"}}},{"id":"296411","title":"Dr.","name":"Jason","middleName":null,"surname":"Goldstein","fullName":"Jason Goldstein","slug":"jason-goldstein","email":"jsgoldstein2@gmail.com","position":null,"cdnProfilePictureURL":"\u002F\u002Fcdnintech.com\u002Fweb\u002Ffrontend\u002Fwww\u002Fassets\u002F46.025\u002Fauthor.svg","institution":{"name":"Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve","institutionURL":null,"country":{"name":"United States of America"}}}],"sections":[{"id":"sec_1","title":"1. Introduction","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_2","title":"2. Taxonomy, phylogeny and evolution","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_3","title":"3. Life history","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_4","title":"4. Genetics and population continuity","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5","title":"5. Behavior","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_5_2","title":"5.1 Feeding behavior","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_6_2","title":"5.2 Sheltering behavior and substrate preferences","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_7_2","title":"5.3 Predators and antipredator behavior","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_8_2","title":"5.4 Mating behavior","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_9_2","title":"5.5 Movement patterns","level":"2"},{"id":"sec_11","title":"6. Diseases","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_12","title":"7. Environmental effects and conservation","level":"1"},{"id":"sec_13","title":"8. Conclusions","level":"1"}],"chapterReferences":[{"id":"B1","body":"\u003Cref id=\"B1\"\u003E\u003Cmixed-citation publication-type=\"book\"\u003EHolthuis LB. Marine Lobsters of the World. 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All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003E“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services\u002Fproducts, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and\u002For he\u002Fshe or they, are taken as interchangeable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2. 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The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen.  Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website \u003Ca href=\\\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002F\\\"\u003Ewww.intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Cp\u003EIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\\n\\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E7. 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All materials contained on this website are protected by applicable copyright and trademark laws.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EThe following terminology applies to these Terms and Conditions, Privacy Statement, Disclaimer Notice, and any or all Agreements:\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E“Client”, “Customer”, “You” and “Your” refers to you, the person accessing this website and accepting the Company’s Terms and Conditions;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E“The Company”, “Ourselves”, “We”, “Our” and “Us”, refers to our Company, IntechOpen;\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003E“Party”, “Parties”, or “Us”, refers to both the Client and ourselves, or either the Client or ourselves.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAll Terms refer to the offer, acceptance, and consideration of payment necessary to provide assistance to the Client in the most appropriate manner, whether by formal meetings of a fixed duration, or by any other agreed means, for the express purpose of meeting the Client’s needs in respect of provision of the Company’s stated services\u002Fproducts, and in accordance with, and subject to, the prevailing laws of the United Kingdom.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and\u002For he\u002Fshe or they, are taken as interchangeable.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E2. 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On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E4. Limitations\u003C\u002Fstrong\u003E\u003C\u002Fh2\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E5. 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The inclusion of any link to IntechOpen does not imply endorsement by IntechOpen.  Use of any such linked website is done solely at the user's own discretion.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EWe reserve the right of ownership over our entire website \u003Ca href=\"https:\u002F\u002Fwww.intechopen.com\u002F\"\u003Ewww.intechopen.com\u003C\u002Fa\u003E, and all contents. By using our services, you agree to remove all links to our website immediately upon request. We also reserve the right to amend these Terms and Conditions and our linking policy at any time. By continuing to link to our website, you agree to be bound to, and abide by, these linking Terms and Conditions.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Cp\u003EIf you find any link on our website, or any linked website, objectionable for any reason, please Contact Us. We will consider all requests to remove links but will have no obligation to do so.\u003C\u002Fp\u003E\n\n\u003Ch2\u003E\u003Cstrong\u003E7. 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