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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Farmer-soldiers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Farmer-soldiers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Farmer-soldiers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Farmer-soldiers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Equipment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Equipment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Equipment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Equipment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fortifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fortifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Fortifications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fortifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effectiveness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effectiveness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Effectiveness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effectiveness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%8A" title="ليمتنيي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ليمتنيي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8" title="Лимитани – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Лимитани" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="لیمیتانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="لیمیتانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%98%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%99" title="לימיטאני – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לימיטאני" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitan%C4%97jai" title="Limitanėjai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Limitanėjai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanei" title="Limitanei – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Limitanei" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lim%C3%ADtanes" title="Limítanes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Limítanes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Лимитан – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лимитан" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8" title="Лимитанци – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Лимитанци" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limitanci" title="Limitanci – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Limitanci" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%97" title="Лімітанеї – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лімітанеї" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-top-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/100px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/150px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Roman_Military_banner.svg/200px-Roman_Military_banner.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="289" data-file-height="234" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Category:Military of ancient Rome">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:130%;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_ancient_Rome" title="Military of ancient Rome">Military of ancient Rome</a> <div style="font-size:70%;font-weight:normal;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">753 BC</a> – <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">AD 476</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Structural_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Structural history of the Roman military">Structural history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_army" title="Roman army">Army</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_army_unit_types" title="List of Roman army unit types">Unit types and ranks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_decorations_and_punishments" title="Roman military decorations and punishments">Decorations and punishments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_legions" title="List of Roman legions">Legions</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">Auxilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_generals" title="List of Roman generals">Generals</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Navy</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_navy#Fleets" title="Roman navy">Fleets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_admirals" title="Category:Ancient Roman admirals">Admirals</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Campaign_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Campaign history of the Roman military">Campaign history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_wars_and_battles" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Roman wars and battles">Wars and battles</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technological_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Technological history of the Roman military">Technological history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_engineering" title="Roman military engineering">Military engineering</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">Castra</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_siege_engines" title="Roman siege engines">Siege engines</a></li></ul> </div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_triumphal_arches" title="List of Roman triumphal arches">Triumphal arches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_roads" title="Roman roads">Roads</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_Roman_military" title="Political history of the Roman military">Political history</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="font-size:50%;line-height:0.5em;"> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Strategy_of_the_Roman_military" title="Strategy of the Roman military">Strategy and tactics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_infantry_tactics" title="Roman infantry tactics">Infantry tactics</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.2em;padding-bottom:0.45em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Frontiers and fortifications</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">Limes</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_defensive_walls" title="Ancient Roman defensive walls">Walls</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Britannicus" title="Limes Britannicus">Limes Britannicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antonine_Wall" title="Antonine Wall">Antonine Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxon_Shore" title="Saxon Shore">Saxon Shore</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Germanicus" title="Limes Germanicus">Limes Germanicus</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alb_Limes" title="Alb Limes">Alb Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lautertal_Limes" title="Lautertal Limes">Lauter Valley Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Germanic_Limes" title="Lower Germanic Limes">Lower Germanic Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Main_Limes" title="Main Limes">Main Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neckar-Odenwald_Limes" title="Neckar-Odenwald Limes">Neckar-Odenwald Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_Germanic-Rhaetian_Limes" title="Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes">Upper Germanic-Rhaetian Limes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetterau_Limes" title="Wetterau Limes">Wetterau Limes</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danube%E2%80%93Iller%E2%80%93Rhine_Limes" title="Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes">Danube–Iller–Rhine Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Norican_Limes" class="mw-redirect" title="Norican Limes">Norican Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Claustra_Alpium_Iuliarum" title="Claustra Alpium Iuliarum">Claustra Alpium Iuliarum</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pannonian_Limes" title="Pannonian Limes">Pannonian Limes</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Alutanus" title="Limes Alutanus">Limes Alutanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limes_Moesiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Limes Moesiae">Limes Moesiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trajan%27s_Wall" title="Trajan's Wall">Trajan's Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anastasian_Wall" title="Anastasian Wall">Anastasian Wall</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Devil%27s_Dykes" title="Devil's Dykes">Limes Sarmatiae</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Arabicus" title="Limes Arabicus">Limes Arabicus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Tripolitanus" title="Limes Tripolitanus">Limes Tripolitanus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Limes_Mauretaniae" title="Limes Mauretaniae">Limes Mauretaniae</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Rome_military_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Rome military sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <i><b>limitanei</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>, also called <i><b>ripenses</b></i>), meaning respectively "the soldiers in frontier districts" (from the Latin word <i><a href="/wiki/Limes_(Roman_Empire)" title="Limes (Roman Empire)">limes</a></i> meaning frontier) or "the soldiers on the riverbank" (from the Rhine and Danube), were an important part of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">late Roman</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a> after the reorganizations of the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. The <i>limitanei</i>, unlike the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">Comitatenses</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Palatini_(Roman_military)" title="Palatini (Roman military)">palatīni</a></i>, and <i><a href="/wiki/Scholae" title="Scholae">Scholae</a></i>, garrisoned <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">fortifications along the borders</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> and were not normally expected to fight far from their fortifications. </p><p>The <i>limitanei</i> were lower-status and lower-paid than the <i>comitatenses</i> and <i>palatīnī</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold149-157_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold149-157-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the distinction in role and status between <i>scholae</i>, <i>palatini</i>, <i>comitatenses</i>, and <i>limitanei</i> had largely replaced the older one between <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">praetorians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legionaries</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Auxilia" title="Auxilia">auxiliaries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>limitanei</i> and <i>palatini</i> both included legionary units alongside auxiliary units.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature of the <i>limitanei</i> changed considerably between their introduction in the 3rd or 4th century and their disappearance in the 6th or 7th century. In the 4th century, the <i>limitanei</i> were professional soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold161-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Strobel268_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strobel268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and included both infantry and cavalry as well as river flotillas,<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Notitia_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Notitia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but after the 5th century they were part-time soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold161-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and after the 6th century they were unpaid <i>militia</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role of the <i>limitanei</i> remains somewhat uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Elton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh Elton (page does not exist)">Hugh Elton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Warren Treadgold</a> suggest that, besides garrisoning fortifications along the frontier, they operated as border guards and customs police and to prevent small-scale raids.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold93-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton204-206-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have driven off medium-scale attacks without the support of the field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Luttwak" title="Edward Luttwak">Edward Luttwak</a> saw their role as a key part in a strategy of defence-in-depth in combination with the provincial<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Can someone please clear this up? I don't have Luttwak's book, but the limitanei ''were'' the provincial border armies; who would be provincial field armies? (September 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins_and_history">Origins and history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins and history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">late Roman army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_navy" title="Roman navy">Roman navy</a>, <a href="/wiki/East_Roman_army" class="mw-redirect" title="East Roman army">East Roman army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_army" title="Byzantine army">Byzantine army</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_navy" title="Byzantine navy">Byzantine navy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vindolanda_fort,_UK_(15308390056).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg/220px-Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg/330px-Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg/440px-Vindolanda_fort%2C_UK_%2815308390056%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="3216" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed Roman fortifications at <a href="/wiki/Vindolanda" title="Vindolanda">Vindolanda</a>. The <i>limitanei</i> would garrison similar forts around the Empire.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the early 3rd century, the Roman military was organized into several provincial armies under the command of the provincial governors, a smaller reserve under the command of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a>, guard units such as the <a href="/wiki/Praetorian_Guard" title="Praetorian Guard">Praetorian Guard</a>, and the urban cohorts.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Field armies were temporary formations, usually composed of the reserve and/or of detachments drawn from the provincial armies.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Strobel269-271_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strobel269-271-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the later 3rd century, due to the frequent wars, field armies could remain together for several years, under the direct command of the emperor, and would require their own recruitment systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Strobel269-271_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strobel269-271-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the mid 4th century, the Roman military was divided into frontier armies under the command of the provincial <i><a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">duces</a></i> and permanent field armies under the command of the emperor, the <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_militum" title="Magister militum">magistri peditum</a></i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Magister_equitum" title="Magister equitum">magistri equitum</a></i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">comites</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frontier armies would patrol the borders and oppose small-scale raids.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold93-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton204-206-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have driven off medium-scale attacks without the support of the field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The frontier armies would later be known as <i>limitanei</i> or <i>ripenses</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The field armies would respond to larger-scale attacks, would fight against rival emperors, and would conduct any large-scale attacks into neighboring countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> The field armies would later be known as <i>comitatenses</i> or <i>palatini</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first known written reference to <i>ripenses</i> was in 325 and the first to <i>limitanei</i> was not until 363.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Historians disagree on whether the emperor <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a>, or one of his successors, such as <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>, split the Roman military into frontier armies and field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Theodor Mommsen</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=H.M.D._Parker&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="H.M.D. Parker (page does not exist)">H.M.D. Parker</a>, and more recently, <a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Warren Treadgold</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_S._Potter" title="David S. Potter">David S. Potter</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> attribute the reorganization to Diocletian.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Southern15_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern15-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=E.C._Nischer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="E.C. Nischer (page does not exist)">E.C. Nischer</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=D._van_Berchem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="D. van Berchem (page does not exist)">D. van Berchem</a>, and more recently, <a href="/w/index.php?title=M.C._Bishop&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="M.C. Bishop (page does not exist)">M.C. Bishop</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=J.C.N._Coulston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.C.N. Coulston (page does not exist)">J.C.N. Coulston</a> attribute mainly an expansion to Diocletian, and the reorganization to Constantine I and his successors.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Strobel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Strobel (page does not exist)">Karl Strobel</a> sees the reorganization as the culmination of trends going back well into the 3rd century, with Diocletian strengthening both the frontier and field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The division of the Roman Empire, the collapse of its western portion, and the formation of the successor states means that the <i>limitanei</i> may have developed differently in the east and the west, or even in different regions of the west. </p><p>In the east, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> cancelled their pay.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After this, the eastern <i>limitanei</i> were no longer professional soldiers, but continued to exist as <i>militia</i> through the Persian Wars and the Arab Conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold97-98_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold97-98-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1996,_p._36-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Arabic <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_army#Jund" title="Rashidun army">ajnad</a> of Palestine, Jordan, Damascus, and Homs, may represent continuations of the commands of Palaestina, Arabia, Phoeniciae, and Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold97-98_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold97-98-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the west, the collapse of the empire cut off regular pay. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Heather" title="Peter Heather">Peter Heather</a> notes an incident in the Life of <a href="/wiki/St._Severinus" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Severinus">St. Severinus</a>, in Noricum in the 460s, where raiders had intercepted and cut down <i>limitanei</i> who were bringing their pay to the rest of their unit.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>limitanei</i> represented the largest part of the late Roman Army. The eastern portion of the <i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i>, from about 395, may count some 195,500 personnel in the frontier armies not counting the river flotillas, 104,000 in the field armies not counting the fleets, and 3,500 in the palace guard.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The western portion, from about 420, is harder to work with, because it has been unevenly edited, it omits some frontier provinces, and it includes British provinces which were probably lost to the Empire. </p><p>The size of the army, and therefore of the <i>limitanei</i>, remains controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A.H.M. Jones and Warren Treadgold argue that the late Roman army was significantly larger than earlier Roman armies, and Treadgold estimates they had up to 645,000 troops.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Karl Strobel denies this, and Strobel estimates that the late Roman army had some 435,000 troops in the time of Diocletian and 450,000 in the time of Constantine I.<sup id="cite_ref-Strobel268_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strobel268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>limitanei</i> were usually under the command of the <a href="/wiki/Dux" title="Dux">duces</a> of their respective provinces. There were some exceptions, with <a href="/wiki/Comes" title="Comes">comites</a> commanding units of <i>limitanei</i>, and with duces commanding units from two or more provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The units of the <i>limitanei</i> included <a href="/wiki/Roman_legion" title="Roman legion">legiones</a> of infantry, often divided between two bases and sometimes divided among more, numeri, milites, and <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(military_unit)" title="Cohort (military unit)">cohortes</a> of infantry, as well as vexillationes, equites, cunei, and <a href="/wiki/Ala_(Roman_cavalry_unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ala (Roman cavalry unit)">alae</a> of cavalry. The size of the legions is unclear. <a href="/wiki/A.H.M._Jones" class="mw-redirect" title="A.H.M. Jones">A.H.M. Jones</a> suggested that they could have as many as 3,000 troops, because they are often listed with 10 cohorts, and because they are sometimes divided among many bases. Warren Treadgold suggests that the legions probably had about 1,000 troops and the other units probably had about 500 troops each.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The different titles of numeri, milites, and cohorts, or vexillationes, equites, cunei, and alae, probably did not correspond with different structures or roles,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although according to Pat Southern and Karen Dixon, the <i>legiones</i>, <i>auxilia</i>, and <i>cunei</i> of the border armies were part of the <i>limitanei</i>, but higher-status than the older <i>cohortes</i> and <i>alae</i> in the same armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warren Treadgold estimates that 50.1% of the <i>limitanei</i> were infantry and 49.9% cavalry, not counting river flotillas.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Roles">Roles</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The role of the <i>limitanei</i> remains somewhat uncertain.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neither <a href="/wiki/Vegetius" title="Vegetius">Vegetius</a>, writing in the late 4th or early 5th century, nor <a href="/wiki/Maurice_(emperor)" title="Maurice (emperor)">Mauricius</a>, writing in the late 6th century, discuss the <i>limitanei</i> in their military manuals. This is understandable. Vegetius called for the revival of earlier Roman practices, from before the organization of the <i>limitanei</i>, and Mauricius wrote after the decline of the <i>limitanei</i>. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugh_Elton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugh Elton (page does not exist)">Hugh Elton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Warren Treadgold</a> suggest that, besides garrisoning fortifications along the frontier, they operated as border guards and customs police and to prevent small-scale raids.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold93-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton204-206-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hugh Elton describes their roles as "policing the border, gathering intelligence, and stopping raids".<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They may have driven off medium-scale attacks without the support of the field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Luttwak" title="Edward Luttwak">Edward Luttwak</a> saw their role as a key part in a strategy of defence-in-depth, manning a range of defences from forts to walled towns in a deep defensive zone. These defences would deny routes to the enemy, securing food stocks and, in arid areas, water supplies both to restrict attackers and facilitate counterattack by provincial<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (September 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> field armies<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because units of <i>limitanei</i> operated in one area, had their own camps, and often recruited from the same area, they tended to maintain better relations with the locals than the <i>comitatenses</i> and <i>palatini</i>, who would often be transferred to other areas, and were often quartered in civilian homes.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>They were light troops<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and served as a policing force to patrol Rome's distant, far-flung border regions and when necessary, to delay advancing enemy forces until counter-attacks could be arranged.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> They worked in conjunction with the <i><a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">comitatenses</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudocomitatenses"><i>Pseudocomitatenses</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pseudocomitatenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pseudocomitatenses" title="Pseudocomitatenses">Pseudocomitatenses</a></div> <p>The relationship between the <i>limitanei</i>, of the border armies, and the <i>pseudocomitatenses</i>, the lowest-ranking units of the field armies, remains unclear. Theodor Mommsen proposed that the <i>pseudocomitatenses</i> were former units of <i>limitanei</i> incorporated into the mobile field armies,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and most authors since have followed his theory.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> E.C. Nischer proposed the alternate theory that the <i>pseudocomitatenses</i> were positional garrison units which were independent of the border armies and thus placed under the same command as the field armies.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Farmer-soldiers">Farmer-soldiers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Farmer-soldiers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-Cleanup" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This Farmer-Soldiers? may <b>require <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Cleanup" title="Wikipedia:Cleanup">cleanup</a></b> to meet Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">quality standards</a>. The specific problem is: <b>the text is somewhat repetitive; it's unclear exactly what Isaac's and Gat's citations cover; and it should probably distinguish the traditional view and the current view(s) a bit more clearly.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Limitanei" title="Special:EditPage/Limitanei">improve this Farmer-Soldiers?</a> if you can.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the past historians have suggested that the <i>limitanei</i> were organized as units of part-time farmer-soldiers. In this view, the <i>limitanei</i> were used in stationary roles along the frontier and were granted plots of land to cultivate, which essentially turned them into part-time soldiers/farmers.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was usually assumed that over time the <i>limitanei</i> settled down more permanently in their posts and became farmers and <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">land owners</a> as well as soldiers; raising families and earning a living from agricultural means rather than purely military service. It is now more generally assumed that there is no good evidence for this.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The current consensus seems to be that the <i>limitanei</i> were organized as units of professional soldiers,<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold161-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitby522-523-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they gradually became part-time soldiers and eventually an unpaid <i>militia</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1996,_p._36-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> relying on other professions including farming for income.<sup id="cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Southern_1996,_p._36-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Why this new class of soldiers developed is disputed by historians. According to <a href="/wiki/Azar_Gat" title="Azar Gat">Azar Gat</a>, many scholars believe that empires stationed these soldiers on the outskirts of empires as a first line of defense against raiding barbarians tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the soldier profession is often not productive (prolonged periods of training with only occasional conflict), empires had long resorted to this principle of "military colonists". Thus, the late Roman empire adopted the system of <i>limitanei</i> (frontier-colonist-soldier) for economic reasons.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By employing soldiers in this way, Rome was able to capitalize on their knowledge of warfare as well benefit from the agriculture produced by <i>limitanei</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Edward Luttwak, however, sees the change as due a strategic shift away from a firmly held frontier (<i>preclusive defence</i>) to a less firmly held frontier zone backed with mobile forces (<i>defence-in-depth</i>) as responsible for the change,<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though again referencing parallels of military colonists at other times in history.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Equipment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_personal_equipment" title="Roman military personal equipment">Roman military personal equipment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_military_equipment" title="Category:Ancient Roman military equipment">Category:Ancient Roman military equipment</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>M.C. Bishop and J.C.N. Coulston, in a major work on Roman military equipment, do not distinguish that of the <i>limitanei</i> from that of the <i>comitatenses</i> and <i>palatini</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bishop233-240_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop233-240-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is doubtful whether there were any universal differences between the equipment of the <i>limitanei</i> and of the other forces. </p><p>The late Roman empire had centralized fabricae, introduced by Diocletian, to provide arms and armor for the army.<sup id="cite_ref-Notitia_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Notitia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bishop233-240_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bishop233-240-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The 4th century <i>limitanei</i> included both light and heavy infantry,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as light and heavy cavalry,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and river flotillas.<sup id="cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Notitia_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Notitia-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fortifications">Fortifications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Fortifications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_military_frontiers_and_fortifications" title="Roman military frontiers and fortifications">Roman military frontiers and fortifications</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2013</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <i>limitanei</i> garrisoned fortifications along the borders of the Roman empire. Hugh Elton divides these into four categories: "garrison forts, detachment forts, watchtowers, and fortified landing places".<sup id="cite_ref-Elton158_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton158-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fortifications could be organized into lines along rivers, such as the Rhine and Danube, or at times part of the Euphrates, along fortified walls such as <a href="/wiki/Hadrian%27s_Wall" title="Hadrian's Wall">Hadrian's Wall</a>, or along otherwise unfortified roads such as the <a href="/wiki/Strata_Diocletiana" title="Strata Diocletiana">Strata Diocletiana</a>. </p><p>Garrison forts are those at or near the towns along the frontiers, as well as other forts, garrisoned by independent units of <i>limitanei</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Elton158_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton158-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Detachment forts are those too small for independent units, garrisoned by detachments from the nearest garrison fort.<sup id="cite_ref-Elton158_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Elton158-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Fortified landing places are those on the opposite side of riverine borders.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Both Diocletian and Constantine I reinforced the frontier fortifications.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fort of <a href="/wiki/Deutz,_Cologne" title="Deutz, Cologne">Deutz</a>/Divitia, an important bridgehead on the east bank of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a>, was built in this period.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally speaking there were more and smaller forts along the late Roman border than along the earlier Roman imperial borders. This has been interpreted as evidence that units were smaller than before, that units were divided among multiple forts, or both. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effectiveness">Effectiveness</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Effectiveness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Limitanei" title="Special:EditPage/Limitanei">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2013</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The effectiveness of the <i>limitanei</i>, as units, and as part of the larger system, remains controversial. </p><p>The soldiers of the frontier armies were paid less than their counterparts in the field armies. However, this does not imply that the field armies always hired the most promising recruits; some may have preferred to stay close to home rather than to join units which could be deployed anywhere else.<sup id="cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitby522-523-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soldiers of the frontier armies are often supposed to have been part-time farmer-soldiers without the same degree of training as the soldiers of the field armies; however, they were originally full-time soldiers.<sup id="cite_ref-Strobel268_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Strobel268-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Whitby522-523-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although these military reforms brought about a more effective defensive army than the previous arrangement had,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> it did have its pitfalls. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a> was criticised for allowing what were perceived as "second-class" infantry, often recruited from non-Roman backgrounds, to be given the responsibility of watching over Rome's most troublesome regions. The elite <i><a href="/wiki/Comitatenses" title="Comitatenses">comitatenses</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Scholae_Palatinae" title="Scholae Palatinae">Scholae Palatinae</a></i> (the personal bodyguards of the late Roman Emperors such as <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>) resented being reduced to trivial home guard duties and acting more similarly to an urban police force until such a time that a serious enough threat presented itself at a nearby border, when they were called upon for duty.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>They are historically significant in that their appearance, as part of a plan of military reforms enacted in the late 3rd century, was able to extend the life of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> by pushing back the great <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">barbarian invasions</a> of <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The quality of these border troops declined because the <i>limitanei</i> had to live in poor conditions in impoverished and isolated towns,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> unlike their well-off counterparts the <i>comitatenses</i>, who were typically assigned to more urban and prosperous areas of the empire. This affected the discipline and morale of the <a href="/wiki/Late_Roman_army" title="Late Roman army">late Roman army</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A factor that should also be examined and considered, is how the <i>limitanei</i> ended up as part time forces and eventually even, not being paid at all.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditionally, the quality of troops degrades as they spend less and less time as active soldiers, and soldiers that aren't being sent their wages, are obviously not being sent new equipment, or money to repair or replace broken equipment. </p><p>The <i>limitanei</i> were nonetheless a fairly well equipped and trained force of infantry for their time, especially in relation to other standing armies of the day fielded by Rome's <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a>, and Eastern neighbours, collectively referred to as "<a href="/wiki/Barbarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbarians">barbarians</a>" by the Romans themselves. </p><p>It can be surmised, due in part to these reforms, that the Western Roman Empire continued to live on for another 140 years after the end of Constantine's reign, in the face of numerous migrations and invasions from northern and eastern, nomadic peoples such as the <a href="/wiki/Huns" title="Huns">Huns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Goths" title="Goths">Goths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vandals" title="Vandals">Vandals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ostrogoths" title="Ostrogoths">Ostrogoths</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarmatians" title="Sarmatians">Sarmatians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alans" title="Alans">Alans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Burgundians" title="Burgundians">Burgundians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saxons" title="Saxons">Saxons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, which continually weakened the Empire until its eventual <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of the Roman Empire">collapse</a> in 476 AD.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="The material near this tag possibly contains original research. (September 2013)">original research?</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>limitanei</i> are in <i><a href="/wiki/Rome:_Total_War:_Barbarian_Invasion" title="Rome: Total War: Barbarian Invasion">Rome Total War: Barbarian Invasion</a></i> as an infantry unit that can be recruited by any Roman faction. They are a cheap and easily trained unit that has poor attack, but very high defense, simulating their role in holding the frontier and bogging down enemies while the field armies mobilized. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Civilization_VI:_Rise_and_Fall" title="Civilization VI: Rise and Fall">Civilization VI: Rise and Fall</a></i>, <i>limitanei</i> are available as a military policy. The policy causes military units to increase the loyalty of the city they are garrisoned in. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Empires_IV" title="Age of Empires IV">Age of Empires IV</a></i>, <i>limitanei</i> are cheap anti-cavalry infantry available for the Byzantines. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/32px-SPQRomani.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/48px-SPQRomani.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/SPQRomani.svg/64px-SPQRomani.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="931" data-file-height="548" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ancient_Rome" title="Portal:Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akritai" title="Akritai">Akritai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marzoban" class="mw-redirect" title="Marzoban">Marzoban</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The reserve would include the <a href="/wiki/Legio_II_Parthica" title="Legio II Parthica">Legio II Parthica</a>. Although <a href="/wiki/Septimius_Severus" title="Septimius Severus">Septimius Severus</a> may not have used it as a reserve, his successors did.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Notitia Dignitatum</i> does not seem to list any infantry units of sagittarii in the limitanei, so this should be taken cum grano salis.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Notitia Dignitatum</i> attests several cavalry units of sagittarii, and one unit of catafractarii, the last under the Dux Scythiae.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold149-157-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold149-157_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, pp. 149–157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 19, 35–37, 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold44-59-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold44-59_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, pp. 44–59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold161-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold161_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, p. 161.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strobel268-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strobel268_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strobel268_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strobel268_5-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Strobel 2011, p. 268.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Notitia-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Notitia_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Notitia_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Notitia_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The <i>Notitia Dignitatum</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, p. 60, for the pay cancellation but not the role.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._36_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_1996,_pp._29_&_33_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 29 and 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold93-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold93_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold1995, p. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elton204-206-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elton204-206_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton 1996, pp. 204–206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_&_Dixon,_1996,_p._65_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 1976, pp. 130–145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Yann_Le_Bohec" title="Yann Le Bohec">Le Bohec, Yann</a>, <i>The Imperial Roman Army</i>, pp. 19-35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, pp. 5-9 and 9-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, pp. 9-11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Strobel269-271-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Strobel269-271_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Strobel269-271_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Strobel 2011, pp. 269-271.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern, Pat, and Dixon, Karen R., 1996, <i>The Late Roman Army</i>, pp. 9-14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, 1996, pp. 208-210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern and Dixon, pp. 57-60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dix, 1996, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 35-37. The earliest reference, from 325, distinguishes <i>comitatenses</i>, <i>ripenses</i>, and <i>alares et cohortales</i>, so certain lower-status frontier units were not counted as part of the ripenses though they would later be counted as part of the limitanei.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, 1996, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee 2007, p. 11. Lee cites the Theodosian Code.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Theodosian Code 7.20.4 and 12.1.56</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, pp. 15-20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee 2007, pp. 10-12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.S.Potter, <i>The Roman Empire at Bay AD 180-395</i>, pp. 451-453. Potter strongly doubts that the creation of ripenses could be attributed to a cooperation of Constantine with Licinius, therefore he dates it back to the reign of Diocletian. However he admits that there is no unequivocal evidence.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, p. 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern15-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Southern15_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop, M.C., and Coulston, J.C.N., 2006, <i>Roman Military Equipment, From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i>, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 15 & 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strobel 2011, p.p. 268-269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In 545. Treadgold 1995, pp. 60 and 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold97-98-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold97-98_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold97-98_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, pp. 97-98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Southern_1996,_p._36-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Southern_1996,_p._36_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heather, 2005, p. 412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee 2007, pp. 74-79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp.58-60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treadgold_1995,_pp._44-49_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, pp. 44-49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold 1995, pp. 87-98.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton 1996, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 1976, pp. 130-145</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lee 2007, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 169-170, 171-174.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christon I. Archer, et al., <i>World History of Warfare.</i> (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nLM1Kolw_vMC&q=limitanei">99-100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nischer, pp. 30-31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, A.H.M. Jones, Hugh Elton, Pat Southern, and Karen Dixon.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, pp. 95 and 212.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern and Dixon, pp. 19 and 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nischer, pp. 30-41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 1976, p.171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isaac 1988, pp. 125-147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Strobel 2011, p. 268. Strobel notes a law of 458 which still prohibited farming and herding by the soldiers.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Whitby522-523-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Whitby522-523_57-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Whitby 2011, pp. 522-523.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 35-37, 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold, Warren, <i>Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081</i>, p. 60, for the pay cancellation but not the role.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGat2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Azar_Gat" title="Azar Gat">Gat, Azar</a> (2008). <i>War in Human Civilization</i>. Oxford: OUP. pp. 364–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199236633" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199236633"><bdi>978-0199236633</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+in+Human+Civilization&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=364-5&rft.pub=OUP&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0199236633&rft.aulast=Gat&rft.aufirst=Azar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimitanei" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 1976, pp. 191-194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Luttwak 1976, pp. 171-172</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bishop233-240-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bishop233-240_63-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bishop233-240_63-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bishop & Coulston 2006, pp. 233-240.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michel Feugère, 2002, <i>Weapons of the Romans</i>, pp. 185-193. He dates this to the time of Diocletian, based on <a href="/wiki/John_Malalas" title="John Malalas">John Malalas</a>'s quoting one of <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>'s works.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, pp. 89-91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton, 1996, pp. 116-117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Elton158-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Elton158_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elton158_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Elton158_69-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton 1996, p. 158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton 1996, p. 160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, pp. 23-37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon 1996, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Treadgold, Warren, Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081, p. 60, for the pay cancellation but not the role.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Southern & Dixon, 1996, p. 36</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dt>Primary sources</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>The <i><a href="/wiki/Notitia_Dignitatum" title="Notitia Dignitatum">Notitia Dignitatum</a></i></li> <li>The work of <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Secondary sources</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>M.C. Bishop and J.C.N. Coulston, <i>Roman Military Equipment, From the Punic Wars to the Fall of Rome</i> (Oxbow Books, 2006)</li> <li>Hugh Elton, <i>Warfare in Roman Europe AD 350-425</i> (Oxford University Press, 1996).</li> <li>Peter Heather, <i>The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History</i>, (MacMillan, 2005).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Isaac" title="Benjamin Isaac">Benjamin Isaac</a>, <i>The Limits of Empire: the Roman Army in the East</i> (Oxford University Press, revised ed. 1992).</li> <li>A.D. Lee, <i>War in Late Antiquity, A Social History</i> (Blackwell, 2007).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuttwak1976" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Luttwak" title="Edward Luttwak">Luttwak, Edward</a> (1976). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/grandstrategyofr00lutt"><i>The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire</i></a></span>. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801821584" title="Special:BookSources/0801821584"><bdi>0801821584</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Grand+Strategy+of+the+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0801821584&rft.aulast=Luttwak&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgrandstrategyofr00lutt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimitanei" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pat_Southern" title="Pat Southern">Pat Southern</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karen_R._Dixon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karen R. Dixon (page does not exist)">Karen R. Dixon</a>, <i>The Late Roman Army</i> (Routledge, 1996).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Strobel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Strobel (page does not exist)">Karl Strobel</a>, "Strategy and Army Structure between Septimius Severus and Constantine the Great," in Paul Erdkamp, <i>A Companion to the Roman Army</i> (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_Treadgold" title="Warren Treadgold">Warren Treadgold</a>, <i>Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081</i> (Stanford University Press, 1995).</li> <li>Michael Whitby, "Army and Society in the Late Roman World" in Paul Erdkamp, <i>A Companion to the Roman Army</i> (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011).</li></ul> </div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&oldid=1220100012">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limitanei&oldid=1220100012</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Late_Roman_military_units" title="Category:Late Roman military units">Late Roman military units</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a 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