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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confusion_colors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Confusion colors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confusion_colors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_tasks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_tasks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Color tasks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_tasks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Food</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skin_color" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skin_color"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Skin color</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skin_color-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Traffic_lights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Traffic_lights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Traffic lights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Traffic_lights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Signal_lights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Signal_lights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Signal lights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Signal_lights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fashion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fashion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Fashion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fashion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Advantages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Digital_design" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Digital_design"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Digital design</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Digital_design-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unordered_information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unordered_information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.1</span> <span>Unordered information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unordered_information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ordered_Information" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ordered_Information"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10.2</span> <span>Ordered Information</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ordered_Information-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Classification</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Based_on_severity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_severity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Based on severity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_severity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Monochromacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monochromacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Monochromacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monochromacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dichromacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dichromacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Dichromacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dichromacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anomalous_trichromacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anomalous_trichromacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Anomalous trichromacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anomalous_trichromacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Based_on_affected_cone" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Based_on_affected_cone"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Based on affected cone</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Based_on_affected_cone-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Red–green_color_blindness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Red–green_color_blindness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Red–green color blindness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Red–green_color_blindness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Blue–yellow_color_blindness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blue–yellow_color_blindness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Blue–yellow color blindness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blue–yellow_color_blindness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Summary_of_cone_complements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Summary_of_cone_complements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Summary of cone complements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Summary_of_cone_complements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Causes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Causes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Causes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Genetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Genetics_of_red–green_color_blindness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_of_red–green_color_blindness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Genetics of red–green color blindness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_of_red–green_color_blindness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetics_of_blue–yellow_color_blindness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetics_of_blue–yellow_color_blindness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Genetics of blue–yellow color blindness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetics_of_blue–yellow_color_blindness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_genetic_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_genetic_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Other genetic causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_genetic_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-genetic_causes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-genetic_causes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Non-genetic causes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-genetic_causes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Diagnosis</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diagnosis subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Color_vision_test" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_vision_test"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Color vision test</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_vision_test-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Genetic testing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Management</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Management subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Lenses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Aids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Epidemiology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Rights</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Rights-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Rights subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Occupations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Occupations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Driving" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Driving"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Driving</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Driving-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Piloting_aircraft" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Piloting_aircraft"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Piloting aircraft</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Piloting_aircraft-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Color blindness</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 82 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-82" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">82 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عمى الألوان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عمى الألوان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonismu" title="Daltonismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Daltonismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonizm" title="Daltonizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Daltonizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF_%DA%A9%D8%A4%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%DB%8C" title="رنگ کؤرلوغی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="رنگ کؤرلوغی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A3%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="বর্ণান্ধতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বর্ণান্ধতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sek-kak_%C4%AB-si%C3%B4ng" title="Sek-kak ī-siông – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sek-kak ī-siông" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дальтанізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Дальтанізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A6%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Цветна слепота – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Цветна слепота" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sljepilo_za_boje" title="Sljepilo za boje – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sljepilo za boje" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonisme" title="Daltonisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Daltonisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дальтонизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Дальтонизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barvoslepost" title="Barvoslepost – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Barvoslepost" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dallineb_lliw" title="Dallineb lliw – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dallineb lliw" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farveblindhed" title="Farveblindhed – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Farveblindhed" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%89_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86" title="عمى اللوان – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="عمى اللوان" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farbenblindheit" title="Farbenblindheit – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Farbenblindheit" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4rvipimedus" title="Värvipimedus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Värvipimedus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%88%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Αχρωματοψία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αχρωματοψία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonismo" title="Daltonismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Daltonismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolorblindeco" title="Kolorblindeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kolorblindeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonismo" title="Daltonismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Daltonismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="کوررنگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کوررنگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonisme" title="Daltonisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Daltonisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dathdhaille" title="Dathdhaille – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Dathdhaille" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dath-dhalladh" title="Dath-dhalladh – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Dath-dhalladh" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonismo" title="Daltonismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Daltonismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%83%89%EA%B0%81_%EC%9D%B4%EC%83%81" title="색각 이상 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="색각 이상" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A9%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Դալթոնիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դալթոնիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="वर्णान्धता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="वर्णान्धता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonizam" title="Daltonizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Daltonizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolor-blindeso" title="Kolor-blindeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kolor-blindeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buta_warna" title="Buta warna – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Buta warna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discromatopsia" title="Discromatopsia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Discromatopsia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%A6%D7%91%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%9D" title="עיוורון צבעים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עיוורון צבעים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="დალტონიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დალტონიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%86%D9%9B%DA%AF%DB%81%D9%95_%D8%A7%DB%86%D9%86" title="رنٛگہٕ اۆن – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="رنٛگہٕ اۆن" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>कॉशुर / کٲشُر</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Дальтонизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Дальтонизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upofu_wa_rangi" title="Upofu wa rangi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Upofu wa rangi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rengkor%C3%AE" title="Rengkorî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Rengkorî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D2%AF%D1%81_%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%BE_(%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC)" title="Түс тааныбоо (дальтонизм) – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Түс тааныбоо (дальтонизм)" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C4%81su_aklums" title="Krāsu aklums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Krāsu aklums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonizmas" title="Daltonizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Daltonizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monokrom%C3%A1cia" title="Monokromácia – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Monokromácia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Далтонизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Далтонизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A3%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%A4" title="വർണ്ണാന്ധത – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="വർണ്ണാന്ധത" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buta_warna" title="Buta warna – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Buta warna" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1ik-m%C3%A0ng" title="Sáik-màng – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Sáik-màng" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleurenblindheid" title="Kleurenblindheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kleurenblindheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="रंग अन्धता – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="रंग अन्धता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%89%B2%E8%A6%9A%E7%95%B0%E5%B8%B8" title="色覚異常 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="色覚異常" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fargeblindhet" title="Fargeblindhet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fargeblindhet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonisme" title="Daltonisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Daltonisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AC%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A3%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A3%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%A7%E0%AC%A4%E0%AC%BE" title="ବର୍ଣ୍ଣାନ୍ଧତା – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ବର୍ଣ୍ଣାନ୍ଧତା" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ଓଡ଼ିଆ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rang_ajrata_olmaslik" title="Rang ajrata olmaslik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Rang ajrata olmaslik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%85%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%A3" title="ਰੰਗਾ ਦਾ ਅੰਨਾਪਣ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਰੰਗਾ ਦਾ ਅੰਨਾਪਣ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AB_%DA%93%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C_(%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B1%DA%AB%DB%90_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%84_%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%AF_%D8%B1%D9%86%DA%AB%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D8%AA%D8%B1_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81_%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%8A%D8%B1_%D9%86%D9%87_%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%84)" title="د رنګ ړوندوالی (د رنګونو سترګې نیول يا د رنګونو تر منځ توپير نه کول) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د رنګ ړوندوالی (د رنګونو سترګې نیول يا د رنګونو تر منځ توپير نه کول)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9Alepota_barw" title="Ślepota barw – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ślepota barw" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonismo" title="Daltonismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Daltonismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonism" title="Daltonism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Daltonism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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data-title="ڕەنگکوێری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Далтонизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Далтонизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daltonizam" title="Daltonizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Daltonizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a 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lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="వర్ణాంధత్వం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B5" title="ตาบอดสี – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตาบอดสี" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renk_k%C3%B6rl%C3%BC%C4%9F%C3%BC" title="Renk körlüğü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Renk körlüğü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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.mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Colorblind" redirects here. For the disorder that causes most forms of color blindness, see <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">Congenital red–green color blindness</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Color_blind_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Color blind (disambiguation)">Color blind (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Color_blindness" title="Special:EditPage/Color blindness">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Color+blindness%22">"Color blindness"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Color+blindness%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Color+blindness%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Color+blindness%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Color+blindness%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Color+blindness%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Color blindness</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Color vision deficiency, impaired color vision<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishihara_9.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ishihara_9.svg/220px-Ishihara_9.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ishihara_9.svg/330px-Ishihara_9.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Ishihara_9.svg/440px-Ishihara_9.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="360" data-file-height="360" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Example of an <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_color_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishihara color test">Ishihara color test</a> plate. Viewers with normal color vision should clearly see the number "74".</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Decreased ability to <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">see colors</a><sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data">Long term<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a> usually <a href="/wiki/X-linked" class="mw-redirect" title="X-linked">X-linked</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ishihara_color_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishihara color test">Ishihara color test</a><sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data">Adjustments to teaching methods, <a href="/wiki/Mobile_apps" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile apps">mobile apps</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">Red–green: 8% males, 0.5% females (Northern European descent)<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Color blindness</b> or <b>color vision deficiency</b> (<b>CVD</b>) is the decreased ability to <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">see color</a> or differences in <a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">color</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The severity of color blindness ranges from mostly unnoticeable to full absence of color perception. Color blindness is usually an <a href="/wiki/Heredity" title="Heredity">inherited</a> problem or variation in the functionality of one or more of the three classes of <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a> in the retina, which mediate color vision.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most common form is caused by a genetic condition called <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">congenital red–green color blindness</a> (including protan and deutan types), which affects <i>up to</i> 1 in 12 males (8%) and 1 in 200 females (0.5%).<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NHS_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NHS-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The condition is more prevalent in males, because the <a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> genes responsible are located on the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rarer genetic conditions causing color blindness include congenital blue–yellow color blindness (tritan type), <a href="/wiki/Blue_cone_monochromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue cone monochromacy">blue cone monochromacy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">achromatopsia</a>. Color blindness can also result from physical or chemical damage to the <a href="/wiki/Eye" title="Eye">eye</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">optic nerve</a>, parts of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a>, or from medication toxicity.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Color vision also naturally degrades in old age.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Diagnosis of color blindness is usually done with a <a href="/wiki/Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">color vision test</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_test" title="Ishihara test">Ishihara test</a>. There is no cure for most causes of color blindness; however there is ongoing research into <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy_for_color_blindness" title="Gene therapy for color blindness">gene therapy</a> for some severe conditions causing color blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Minor forms of color blindness do not significantly affect daily life and the color blind automatically develop adaptations and coping mechanisms to compensate for the deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, diagnosis may allow an individual, or their parents/teachers, to actively accommodate the condition.<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Color_blind_glasses" title="Color blind glasses">Color blind glasses</a> (e.g. <i><a href="/wiki/EnChroma" title="EnChroma">EnChroma</a></i>) may help the red–green color blind at some <a href="/wiki/Color_task" title="Color task">color tasks</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they do not grant the wearer "normal color vision" or the ability to see "new" colors.<sup id="cite_ref-Robledo_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robledo-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some <a href="/wiki/Mobile_app" title="Mobile app">mobile apps</a> can use a device's camera to identify colors.<sup id="cite_ref-NEI2015_2-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Depending on the jurisdiction, the color blind are ineligible for certain careers,<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_pilot" title="Aircraft pilot">aircraft pilots</a>, <a href="/wiki/Train_driver" title="Train driver">train drivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Police_officer" title="Police officer">police officers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Firefighter" title="Firefighter">firefighters</a>, and members of the <a href="/wiki/Armed_forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed forces">armed forces</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effect of color blindness on artistic ability is controversial,<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but a number of famous artists are believed to have been color blind.<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects">Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A color blind person will have decreased (or no) color discrimination along the red–green axis, blue–yellow axis, or both. However, the vast majority of the color blind are only affected on their red–green axis. </p><p>The first indication of color blindness generally consists of a person using the wrong color for an object, such as when painting, or calling a color by the wrong name. The colors that are confused are very consistent among people with the same type of color blindness. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Normal sight"><img alt="Normal sight" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg/120px-%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg/180px-%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg/240px-%D0%92%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%96%D1%80_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%22%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%22_-_%D1%80%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%9F%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%91%D1%83%D0%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3100" data-file-height="2067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Normal sight</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Deuteranopia_sight.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Deuteranopic sight"><img alt="Deuteranopic sight" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Deuteranopia_sight.jpg/120px-Deuteranopia_sight.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Deuteranopia_sight.jpg/180px-Deuteranopia_sight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Deuteranopia_sight.jpg/240px-Deuteranopia_sight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Deuteranopic sight</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Protanopia_sight.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Protanopic sight"><img alt="Protanopic sight" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Protanopia_sight.png/120px-Protanopia_sight.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Protanopia_sight.png/180px-Protanopia_sight.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Protanopia_sight.png/240px-Protanopia_sight.png 2x" data-file-width="3100" data-file-height="2067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Protanopic sight</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tritanopia_sight.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Tritanopic sight"><img alt="Tritanopic sight" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Tritanopia_sight.jpg/120px-Tritanopia_sight.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Tritanopia_sight.jpg/180px-Tritanopia_sight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Tritanopia_sight.jpg/240px-Tritanopia_sight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Tritanopic sight</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Monochromacy_sight.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Monochromatic sight"><img alt="Monochromatic sight" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Monochromacy_sight.jpg/120px-Monochromacy_sight.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Monochromacy_sight.jpg/180px-Monochromacy_sight.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Monochromacy_sight.jpg/240px-Monochromacy_sight.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="427" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Monochromatic sight</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Confusion_colors">Confusion colors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Confusion colors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png/400px-Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png/600px-Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png/800px-Color_Blind_Confusion_Lines.png 2x" data-file-width="3552" data-file-height="1285" /></a><figcaption>Confusion lines for the three types of dichromacy superimposed on CIEXYZ color space</figcaption></figure> <p>Confusion colors are pairs or groups of colors that will often be mistaken by the color blind. Confusion colors for red–green color blindness include: </p> <ul><li>cyan and grey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rose_(color)" title="Rose (color)">rose-pink</a> and grey</li> <li>blue and purple</li> <li>yellow and <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green#Neon_green" title="Shades of green">neon green</a></li> <li>red, green, orange, brown</li></ul> <p>Confusion colors for tritan include: </p> <ul><li>yellow and grey</li> <li>blue and green</li> <li>dark blue/violet and black</li> <li>violet and yellow-green</li> <li>red and <a href="/wiki/Rose_(color)" title="Rose (color)">rose-pink</a></li></ul> <p>These colors of confusion are defined quantitatively by straight confusion lines plotted in <a href="/wiki/CIEXYZ" class="mw-redirect" title="CIEXYZ">CIEXYZ</a>, usually plotted on the corresponding <a href="/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space#CIE_xy_chromaticity_diagram_and_the_CIE_xyY_color_space" title="CIE 1931 color space">chromaticity diagram</a>. The lines all intersect at a <i>copunctal point</i>, which varies with the <a href="#Based_on_affected_cone">type of color blindness</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">Chromaticities</a> along a confusion line will appear <a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metameric</a> to <a href="#Dichromacy">dichromats</a> of that type. <a href="#Anomalous_trichromacy">Anomalous trichromats</a> of that type will see the chromaticities as metameric if they are <a href="/wiki/Color_difference" title="Color difference">close enough</a>, depending on the strength of their CVD. For two colors on a confusion line to be metameric, the chromaticities first have to be made <i>isoluminant</i>, meaning equal in <a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">lightness</a>. Also, colors that may be isoluminant to the <a href="/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space#CIE_standard_observer" title="CIE 1931 color space">standard observer</a> may not be isoluminant to a person with dichromacy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_tasks">Color tasks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Color tasks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Color_task" title="Color task">Color task</a></div> <p>Cole describes four color tasks, all of which are impeded to some degree by color blindness:<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Comparative</b> – When multiple colors must be compared, such as with mixing paint</li> <li><b>Connotative</b> – When colors are given an implicit meaning, such as red = stop</li> <li><b>Denotative</b> – When identifying colors, for example by name, such as "where is the yellow ball?"</li> <li><b>Aesthetic</b> – When colors look nice – or convey an emotional response – but do not carry explicit meaning</li></ul> <p>The following sections describe specific color tasks with which the color blind typically have difficulty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Food">Food</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Food"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_(deuteranope_view).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg/220px-Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg/330px-Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg/440px-Assorted_Red_and_Green_Apples_%28deuteranope_view%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1031" data-file-height="1375" /></a><figcaption>Simulation of the normal (above) and dichromatic (below) perception of red and green apples</figcaption></figure> <p>Color blindness causes difficulty with the <i>connotative</i> color tasks associated with selecting or preparing food. Selecting food for ripeness can be difficult; the green–yellow transition of bananas is particularly hard to identify. It can also be difficult to detect bruises, mold, or rot on some foods, to determine when meat is done by color, to distinguish some varietals, such as a <a href="/wiki/Braeburn" title="Braeburn">Braeburn</a> vs. a <a href="/wiki/Granny_Smith" title="Granny Smith">Granny Smith</a> apple, or to distinguish colors associated with artificial flavors (e.g. jelly beans, sports drinks). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skin_color">Skin color</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Skin color"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates#Skin_Tone" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">Evolution of color vision in primates § Skin Tone</a></div> <p>Changes in skin color due to bruising, sunburn, rashes or even blushing are easily missed by the red–green color blind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Traffic_lights">Traffic lights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Traffic lights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Driving">§ Driving</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg/220px-Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg/330px-Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg/440px-Salzburg_-_Gnigl_-_Eichstra%C3%9Fe_x_Parscher_Stra%C3%9Fe_-_2020_01_03-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4161" data-file-height="2774" /></a><figcaption>The lack of standard positional clues makes this light difficult to interpret.</figcaption></figure> <p>The colors of <a href="/wiki/Traffic_light" title="Traffic light">traffic lights</a> can be difficult for the red–green color blindness. This difficulty includes distinguishing red/amber lights from sodium street lamps, distinguishing green lights (closer to cyan) from normal white lights, and distinguishing red from amber lights, especially when there are no positional clues available (see image). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse,_New_York.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg/220px-Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg/330px-Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg/440px-Tipperary_Hill_-_greenoverred_Syracuse%2C_New_York.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The infamous inverted traffic light in Syracuse, New York</figcaption></figure> <p>The main coping mechanism to overcome these challenges is to memorize the position of lights. The order of the common triplet traffic light is standardized as red–amber–green from top to bottom or left to right. Cases that deviate from this standard are rare. One such case is a <a href="/wiki/Tipperary_Hill#Green_over_red" title="Tipperary Hill">traffic light in Tipperary Hill</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syracuse,_New_York" title="Syracuse, New York">Syracuse, New York</a>, which is upside-down (green–amber–red top to bottom) due to the sentiments of its <a href="/wiki/Irish_American" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish American">Irish American</a> community.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the light has been criticized due to the potential hazard it poses for color blind drivers.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG/220px-Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG/330px-Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG/440px-Colourblind_traffic_signal.JPG 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Horizontal traffic light in <a href="/wiki/Halifax,_Nova_Scotia" title="Halifax, Nova Scotia">Halifax, Nova Scotia</a>, Canada</figcaption></figure> <p>There are other several features of traffic lights available that help accommodate the color blind. British Rail signals use more easily identifiable colors: The red is blood red, the amber is yellow and the green is a bluish color.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Most British road traffic lights are mounted vertically on a black rectangle with a white border (forming a "sighting board"), so that drivers can more easily look for the position of the light. In the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Canada" title="Eastern Canada">eastern provinces of Canada</a>, traffic lights are sometimes differentiated by shape in addition to color: square for red, diamond for yellow, and circle for green (see image). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Signal_lights">Signal lights</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Signal lights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Occupations">§ Occupations</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Navigation_light" title="Navigation light">Navigation lights</a> in marine and aviation settings employ red and green lights to signal the relative position of other ships or aircraft. <a href="/wiki/Railway_signal#Colour_light_signals" title="Railway signal">Railway signal lights</a> also rely heavily on red–green–yellow colors. In both cases, these color combinations can be difficult for the red–green color blind. <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_Lantern_Test" title="Farnsworth Lantern Test">Lantern Tests</a> are a common means of simulating these light sources to determine not necessarily whether someone is color blind, but whether they can functionally distinguish these specific signal colors. Those who cannot pass this test are generally completely restricted from working on aircraft, ships or rail, for example. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fashion">Fashion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Fashion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Color_of_clothing" title="Color of clothing">Color of clothing</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Color_analysis" title="Color analysis">Color analysis</a> is the analysis of color in its use in fashion, to determine personal color combinations that are most aesthetically pleasing.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Colors to combine can include clothing, accessories, makeup, hair color, skin color, eye color, etc. Color analysis involves many aesthetic and comparative <a href="#Color_tasks">color task</a> that can be difficult for the color blind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Inability to distinguish color does not necessarily preclude the ability to become a celebrated artist. The 20th century expressionist painter <a href="/wiki/Clifton_Pugh" title="Clifton Pugh">Clifton Pugh</a>, three-time winner of Australia's <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Prize" title="Archibald Prize">Archibald Prize</a>, on biographical, gene inheritance and other grounds has been identified as a person with protanopia.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 19th century French artist <a href="/wiki/Charles_M%C3%A9ryon" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Méryon">Charles Méryon</a> became successful by concentrating on <a href="/wiki/Etching" title="Etching">etching</a> rather than painting after he was diagnosed as having a red–green deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jin_Kim_(animator)" title="Jin Kim (animator)">Jin Kim</a>'s red–green color blindness did not stop him from becoming first an <a href="/wiki/Animator" title="Animator">animator</a> and later a character designer with <a href="/wiki/Walt_Disney_Animation_Studios" title="Walt Disney Animation Studios">Walt Disney Animation Studios</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LeeHyoWon_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeeHyoWon-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Deuteranomals are better at distinguishing shades of <a href="/wiki/Khaki" title="Khaki">khaki</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which may be advantageous when looking for predators, food, or camouflaged objects hidden among foliage.<sup id="cite_ref-dimension_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dimension-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dichromats tend to learn to use texture and shape clues and so may be able to penetrate camouflage that has been designed to deceive individuals with normal color vision.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some tentative evidence finds that the color blind are better at penetrating certain color camouflages. Such findings may give an evolutionary reason for the high rate of red–green color blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is also a study suggesting that people with some types of color blindness can distinguish colors that people with normal color vision are not able to distinguish.<sup id="cite_ref-dimension_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dimension-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In World War II, color blind observers were used to penetrate camouflage.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (October 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the presence of chromatic noise, the color blind are more capable of seeing a luminous signal, as long as the chromatic noise appears <a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metameric</a> to them.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the effect behind most "reverse" <a href="/wiki/Pseudoisochromatic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoisochromatic plate">Pseudoisochromatic plates</a> (e.g. <i>"hidden digit"</i> <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishihara plate">Ishihara plates</a>) that are discernible to the color blind but unreadable to people with typical color vision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Digital_design">Digital design</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Digital design"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color coding in data visualization</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="snippet of colored cells in a table (foreground), surrounded in background showing how the image appears in color-blindness simulations." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg/220px-Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg/330px-Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg/440px-Safe_Chart_Colors-F99-FEC-ADD.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption>Testing the colors of a web chart, <i>(center)</i>, to ensure that no information is lost to the various forms of color blindness</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Color_code" title="Color code">Color codes</a> are useful tools for designers to convey information. The interpretation of this information requires users to perform a variety of <a href="#Color_tasks">Color Tasks</a>, usually comparative but also sometimes connotative or denotative. However, these tasks are often problematic for the color blind when design of the color code has not followed best practices for accessibility.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, one of the most ubiquitous <a href="#Color_tasks">connotative</a> color codes is the "red means bad and green means good" or similar systems, based on the classic <a href="#Signal_lights">signal light colors</a>. However, this color coding will almost always be <a href="#Confusion_colors">undifferentiable</a> to <a href="#Deutan">deutans</a> or <a href="#Protan">protans</a>, and therefore should be avoided or supplemented with a parallel connotative system (<a href="/wiki/Check_mark" title="Check mark">symbols</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smiley" title="Smiley">smileys</a>, etc.). </p><p>Good practices to ensure design is accessible to the color blind include: </p> <ul><li>When possible (e.g. in simple video games or apps), allowing the user to choose their own colors is the <b>most</b> inclusive design practice.</li> <li>Using other signals that are parallel to the color coding, such as patterns, shapes, size or order.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This not only helps the color blind, but also aids understanding by normally sighted people by providing them with multiple reinforcing cues.</li> <li>Using brightness contrast (different shades) in addition to color contrast (different hues)</li> <li>To achieve good contrast, conventional wisdom suggests <a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization#Grayscale,_an_important_tool_for_visualization_of_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">converting a (digital) design to grayscale</a> to ensure there is sufficient brightness contrast between colors. However, this does not account for the <a href="/wiki/Luminous_efficiency_function#Color_blindness" title="Luminous efficiency function">different perceptions of brightness to different varieties of color blindness</a>, especially <a href="#Protan">protan</a> CVD, <a href="#Tritan">tritan</a> CVD and <a href="#Monochromacy">monochromacy</a>.</li> <li>Viewing the design through a <b>CVD Simulator</b> to ensure the information carried by color is still sufficiently conveyed. At a minimum, the design should be tested for <a href="#Deutan">deutan</a> CVD, the most common kind of color blindness.</li> <li>Maximizing the area of colors (e.g. increase size, thickness or boldness of colored element) makes the color easier to identify. <a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization#Symbol_size_affects_color_salience" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">Color contrast improves as the angle the color subtends on the retina increases</a>. This applies to all types of color vision.</li> <li>Maximizing brightness (value) and saturation (chroma) of the colors to maximize color contrast.</li> <li>Converting connotative tasks to comparative tasks by including a <a href="/wiki/Chart#Features" title="Chart">legend</a>, even when the meaning is considered obvious (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Red#Warning_and_danger" title="Red">red means danger</a>).</li> <li>Avoiding denotative color tasks (<a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">color naming</a>) when possible. Some denotative tasks can be converted to comparative tasks by depicting the actual color whenever the color name is mentioned; for example, colored typography in "<span style="color:purple;"><b>purple</b></span>", <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:Purple; color:white;"> purple </span> or "purple (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="Purple"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:purple;color:inherit;"> </span></span>)".</li> <li>For denotative tasks (<a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">color naming</a>), using the most common shades of colors. For example, green and yellow are colors of confusion in red–green CVD, but it is not common to mix forest green (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="Green"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:green;color:inherit;"> </span></span>) with bright yellow (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="Yellow"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:yellow;color:inherit;"> </span></span>). Mistakes by the color blind increase drastically when uncommon shades are used, e.g. neon green (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#0f5"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#0F5;color:inherit;"> </span></span>) with dark yellow (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#882"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#882;color:inherit;"> </span></span>).</li> <li>For denotative tasks, using colors that are classically associated with a color name. For example, use "firetruck" red (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="Red"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:red;color:inherit;"> </span></span>) instead of <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(color)" title="Burgundy (color)">burgundy</a> (<span style="display:inline-block;border:1.62px solid black;vertical-align:text-top;" title="#802"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="display:block;padding:0;width:1em;height:1em;background:#802;color:inherit;"> </span></span>) to represent the word "<a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">red</a>".</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unordered_information">Unordered information</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Unordered information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg/220px-Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg/330px-Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg/440px-Delivery_track_of_the_board_game_Great_Western_Trail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Colors of <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board game</a> pieces must be carefully chosen to be accessible to the color blind.</figcaption></figure> <p>A common task for designers is to select a subset of colors (<i>qualitative</i> colormap) that are as mutually differentiable as possible (<a href="/wiki/Color_coding_in_data_visualization#Choosing_salient_colors_for_color_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Color coding in data visualization">salient</a>). For example, player pieces in a <a href="/wiki/Board_game" title="Board game">board game</a> should be as different as possible. </p><p>Classic advice suggests using <a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Brewer#Brewer_palettes" title="Cynthia Brewer">Brewer palettes</a>, but several of these are <i>not</i> actually accessible to the color blind. </p><p>Unfortunately, the colors with the greatest <a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">contrast</a> to the <a href="#Red–green_color_blindness">red–green color blind</a> tend to be <a href="#Confusion_colors">colors of confusion</a> to the <a href="#Blue–yellow_color_blindness">blue–yellow color blind</a>, and vice versa. However, since red–green is much <a href="#Epidemiology">more prevalent</a> than blue–yellow CVD, design should<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. (July 2023)">according to whom?</span></a></i>]</sup> generally prioritize those users (<a href="#Deutan">deutans</a> then <a href="#Protan">protans</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ordered_Information">Ordered Information</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ordered Information"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png/220px-CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png/330px-CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png/440px-CVD-friendly_sequential_colormaps.png 2x" data-file-width="861" data-file-height="603" /></a><figcaption>Three sequential colormaps that have been designed to be accessible to the color blind</figcaption></figure> <p>A common task for data visualization is to represent a color scale, or <i>sequential</i> colormap, often in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Heat_map" title="Heat map">heat map</a> or <a href="/wiki/Choropleth" class="mw-redirect" title="Choropleth">choropleth</a>. Several scales are designed with special consideration for the color blind and are widespread in academia, including Cividis,<sup id="cite_ref-VIRIDIS_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIRIDIS-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Viridis<sup id="cite_ref-VIRIDIS_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VIRIDIS-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Parula#In_art" title="Parula">Parula</a>. These comprise a light-to-dark scale superimposed on a yellow-to-blue scale, making them <a href="/wiki/Monotonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotonic">monotonic</a> and perceptually uniform to all forms of color vision. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Color_blindness.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Color_blindness.svg/330px-Color_blindness.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Color_blindness.svg/495px-Color_blindness.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Color_blindness.svg/660px-Color_blindness.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="328" /></a><figcaption>These color charts show how different color blind people see compared to a person with normal color vision.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (March 2023)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Color_blindness#Dubious" title="Talk:Color blindness">discuss</a></i>]</sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Much terminology has existed and does exist for the classification of color blindness, but the typical classification for color blindness follows the von Kries classifications,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which uses severity and affected cone for naming. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_severity">Based on severity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Based on severity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Based on clinical appearance, color blindness may be described as total or partial. Total color blindness (monochromacy) is much less common than partial color blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Partial color blindness includes dichromacy and anomalous trichromacy, but is often clinically defined as mild, moderate or strong. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Monochromacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></div> <p>Monochromacy is often called <i>total color blindness</i> since there is no ability to see color. Although the term may refer to acquired disorders such as <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_achromatopsia" title="Cerebral achromatopsia">cerebral achromatopsia</a>, it typically refers to congenital color vision disorders, namely <a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">rod monochromacy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blue_cone_monochromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue cone monochromacy">blue cone monochromacy</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-blom_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blom-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In cerebral achromatopsia, a person cannot perceive colors even though the eyes are capable of distinguishing them. Some sources do not consider these to be true color blindness, because the failure is of perception, not of vision. They are forms of <a href="/wiki/Visual_agnosia" title="Visual agnosia">visual agnosia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-blom_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-blom-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a> is the condition of possessing only a single channel for conveying information about color. Monochromats are unable to distinguish any colors and perceive only variations in brightness. Congenital monochromacy occurs in two primary forms: </p> <ol><li>Rod monochromacy, frequently called complete <a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">achromatopsia</a>, where the retina contains no cone cells, so that in addition to the absence of color discrimination, vision in lights of normal intensity is difficult.</li> <li>Cone monochromacy is the condition of having only a single class of cone. A cone monochromat can have good pattern vision at normal daylight levels, but will not be able to distinguish hues. Cone monochromacy is divided into classes defined by the single remaining cone class. However, red and green cone monochromats have not been definitively described in the literature. <a href="/wiki/Blue_cone_monochromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue cone monochromacy">Blue cone monochromacy</a> is caused by lack of functionality of L (red) and M (green) cones, and is therefore mediated by the same genes as red–green color blindness (on the X chromosome). Peak spectral sensitivities are in the blue region of the visible spectrum (near 440 nm). People with this condition generally show <a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">nystagmus</a> ("jiggling eyes"), <a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">photophobia</a> (light sensitivity), reduced <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Myopia" title="Myopia">myopia</a> (nearsightedness).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Visual acuity usually falls to the 20/50 to 20/400 range.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Dichromacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></div> <p>Dichromats can match any color they see with some mixture of just two <a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary colors</a> (in contrast to those with normal sight (<a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">trichromats</a>) who can distinguish three primary colors).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dichromats usually know they have a color vision problem, and it can affect their daily lives. Dichromacy in humans includes protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia. Out of the male population, 2% have severe difficulties distinguishing between red, orange, yellow, and green (orange and yellow are different combinations of red and green light). Colors in this range, which appear very different to a normal viewer, appear to a dichromat to be the same or a similar color. The terms protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia come from Greek, and respectively mean "inability to see (<i>anopia</i>) with the first (<i>prot-</i>), second (<i>deuter-</i>), or third (<i>trit-</i>) [cone]". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anomalous_trichromacy">Anomalous trichromacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Anomalous trichromacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Anomalous trichromacy is the mildest type of color deficiency, but the severity ranges from almost dichromacy (strong) to almost normal trichromacy (mild).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, many mild anomalous trichromats have very little difficulty carrying out tasks that require normal color vision and some may not even be aware that they have a color vision deficiency. The types of anomalous trichromacy include protanomaly, deuteranomaly and tritanomaly. It is approximately three times more common than <a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">dichromacy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anomalous trichromats exhibit <a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">trichromacy</a>, but the color matches they make differ from normal trichromats. In order to match a given spectral yellow light, protanomalous observers need more red light in a red/green mixture than a normal observer, and deuteranomalous observers need more green. This difference can be measured by an instrument called an <a href="/wiki/Anomaloscope" title="Anomaloscope">Anomaloscope</a>, where red and green lights are mixed by a subject to match a yellow light.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Based_on_affected_cone">Based on affected cone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Based on affected cone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are two major types of color blindness: difficulty distinguishing between red and green, and difficulty distinguishing between blue and yellow.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (September 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Color_blindness#Tritanopia" title="Talk:Color blindness">discuss</a></i>]</sup> These definitions are based on the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a> of the partial color blindness. Clinically, it is more common to use a genotypical definition, which describes which <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone</a>/<a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> is affected. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Red–green_color_blindness"><span id="Red.E2.80.93green_color_blindness"></span>Red–green color blindness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Red–green color blindness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Red–green color blindness includes <b>protan</b> and <b>deutan</b> CVD. Protan CVD is related to the L-cone and includes protanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and protanopia (dichromacy). Deutan CVD is related to the M-cone and includes deuteranomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and deuteranopia (dichromacy).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21774112_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21774112-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phenotype (visual experience) of deutans and protans is quite similar. Common colors of confusion include red/brown/green/yellow as well as blue/purple. Both forms are almost always symptomatic of <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">congenital red–green color blindness</a>, so affects males disproportionately more than females.<sup id="cite_ref-harrison_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrison-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of color blindness is sometimes referred to as <i>daltonism</i> after <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton_(scientist)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Dalton (scientist)">John Dalton</a>, who had red–green dichromacy. In some languages, <i>daltonism</i> is still used to describe red–green color blindness. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ConeMosaics.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg/310px-ConeMosaics.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg/465px-ConeMosaics.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/ConeMosaics.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the distribution of cone cells in the <a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a> of an individual with normal color vision (left), and a color blind (protanopic) retina. The center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive cones.</figcaption></figure> <p><span class="anchor" id="Protanopia"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Protanomaly"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Protan"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Protan</b> (2% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous <a href="/wiki/OPN1LW" title="OPN1LW">L-opsins</a> for long-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Protans have a neutral point at a <a href="/wiki/Cyan" title="Cyan">cyan</a>-like wavelength around 492 nm (see <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">spectral color</a> for comparison)—that is, they cannot discriminate light of this wavelength from <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a>. For a protanope, the brightness of red is much reduced compared to normal.<sup id="cite_ref-Genetics_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Genetics-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dimming can be so pronounced that reds may be confused with black or dark gray, and red traffic lights may appear to be extinguished. They may learn to distinguish reds from yellows primarily on the basis of their apparent brightness or lightness, not on any perceptible hue difference. <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Violet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">lavender, and purple</a> are indistinguishable from various <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">shades of blue</a>. A very few people have been found who have one normal eye and one protanopic eye. These <i>unilateral dichromats</i> report that with only their protanopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and those longer than it as yellow.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Deuteranopia"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Deuteranomaly"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Deutan"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Deutan</b> (6% of males): Lacking, or possessing anomalous <a href="/wiki/OPN1MW" title="OPN1MW">M-opsins</a> for medium-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Their neutral point is at a slightly longer wavelength, 498 nm, a more greenish hue of cyan. Deutans have the same hue discrimination problems as protans, but without the dimming of long wavelengths. Deuteranopic unilateral dichromats report that with only their deuteranopic eye open, they see wavelengths shorter than neutral point as blue and longer than it as yellow.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Blue–yellow_color_blindness"><span id="Blue.E2.80.93yellow_color_blindness"></span>Blue–yellow color blindness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Blue–yellow color blindness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Blue–yellow color blindness includes <b>tritan</b> CVD. Tritan CVD is related to the S-cone and includes tritanomaly (anomalous trichromacy) and tritanopia (dichromacy). Blue–yellow color blindness is much less common than red–green color blindness, and more often has acquired causes than genetic. Tritans have difficulty discerning between bluish and greenish hues.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tritans have a neutral point at 571 nm (yellowish).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><span class="anchor" id="Tritanopia"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Tritanomaly"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Tritan"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Tritan</b> (< 0.01% of individuals): Lacking, or possessing anomalous <a href="/wiki/OPN1SW" title="OPN1SW">S-opsins</a> or short-wavelength sensitive cone cells. Tritans see short-wavelength colors (<a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">blue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indigo" title="Indigo">indigo</a> and spectral <a href="/wiki/Violet_(color)" title="Violet (color)">violet</a>) as greenish and drastically dimmed, some of these colors even as <a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">black</a>. Yellow and orange are indistinguishable from <a href="/wiki/White" title="White">white</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">pink</a> respectively, and purple colors are perceived as various <a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">shades of red</a>. Unlike protans and deutans, the mutation for this color blindness is carried on chromosome 7. Therefore, it is not sex-linked (equally prevalent in both males and females). The OMIM gene code for this mutation is 304000 "Colorblindness, Partial Tritanomaly".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Tetartanopia"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Tetartanomaly"></span> <span class="anchor" id="Tetartan"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Tetartan</b> is the "fourth type" of color blindness, and a type of blue–yellow color blindness. However, its existence is hypothetical and given the molecular basis of human color vision, it is unlikely this type could exist.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Summary_of_cone_complements">Summary of cone complements</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Summary of cone complements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The below table shows the cone complements for different types of human color vision, including those considered color blindness, normal color vision and 'superior' color vision. The cone complement contains the types of cones (or their opsins) expressed by an individual. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr style="background:#eaecf0;color:#000000;"> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" style="text-align:right; vertical-align:top;">Cone system </td> <td colspan="2">Red</td> <td rowspan="13" style="font-size:1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2">Green</td> <td rowspan="13" style="font-size:1px;"> </td> <td colspan="2">Blue </td> <td colspan="3" rowspan="2" style="vertical-align:bottom;"><b>N</b> = normal<br /><b>A</b> = anomalous </td></tr> <tr style="background:#eaecf0;color:#000000;"> <td><b>N</b></td> <td><b>A</b></td> <td><b>N</b></td> <td><b>A</b></td> <td><b>N</b></td> <td><b>A</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">1</td> <td>Normal vision </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Trichromacy</td> <td colspan="2">Normal </td></tr> <tr style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;"> <td style="text-align:right;">2</td> <td>Protanomaly </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#FF0000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Anomalous trichromacy </td> <td rowspan="6">Partial<br />color<br />blindness</td> <td rowspan="4">Red–<br />green </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">3</td> <td>Protanopia </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Dichromacy </td></tr> <tr style="border-top:2px solid #a2a9b1;"> <td style="text-align:right;">4</td> <td>Deuteranomaly </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#00FF00"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Anomalous trichromacy </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">5</td> <td>Deuteranopia </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Dichromacy </td></tr> <tr style="border-top:2px solid #a2a9b1;"> <td style="text-align:right;">6</td> <td>Tritanomaly </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#0000FF"> </td> <td>Anomalous trichromacy</td> <td rowspan="2">Blue–<br />yellow </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">7</td> <td>Tritanopia </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td>Dichromacy </td></tr> <tr style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;"> <td style="text-align:right;">8</td> <td>Blue cone monochromacy </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td rowspan="2">Monochromacy </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">Total color blindness </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;">9</td> <td>Achromatopsia </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#000000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td></tr> <tr style="border-top:double #a2a9b1;"> <td style="text-align:right;">10</td> <td rowspan="2">Tetrachromacy<br />(carrier theory) </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#FF0000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td rowspan="2">Tetrachromacy </td> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2">'Superior' </td></tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;"> </td> <td style="background:#FF0000"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td> <td style="background:#00FF00"></td> <td style="background:#00FF00"> </td> <td style="background:#0000FF"></td> <td style="background:#000000"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic_color_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic color vision">Trichromatic color vision</a> and <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness#Mechanism" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">Congenital red–green color blindness § Mechanism</a></div> <p>Color blindness is any deviation of color vision from normal <a href="/wiki/Trichromatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Trichromatic">trichromatic</a> color vision (often as defined by the <a href="/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space#CIE_standard_observer" title="CIE 1931 color space">standard observer</a>) that produces a reduced <a href="/wiki/Gamut" title="Gamut">gamut</a>. Mechanisms for color blindness are related to the functionality of <a href="/wiki/Cone_cell" title="Cone cell">cone cells</a>, and often to the expression of <a href="/wiki/Photopsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopsin">photopsins</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Photopigments" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopigments">photopigments</a> that 'catch' <a href="/wiki/Photons" class="mw-redirect" title="Photons">photons</a> and thereby convert light into chemical signals. </p><p>Color vision deficiencies can be classified as inherited or acquired. </p> <ul><li><i>Inherited</i>: inherited or congenital/genetic color vision deficiencies are most commonly caused by mutations of the genes encoding opsin proteins. However, several other genes can also lead to less common and/or more severe forms of color blindness.</li> <li><i>Acquired</i>: color blindness that is not present at birth, may be caused by chronic illness, accidents, medication, chemical exposure or simply normal aging processes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Genetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Color_blindness" title="Special:EditPage/Color blindness">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Color blindness is typically an inherited genetic disorder. The most common forms of color blindness are associated with the <a href="/wiki/Photopsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Photopsin">Photopsin</a> genes, but the mapping of the human genome has shown there are many causative mutations that do not directly affect the opsins. Mutations capable of causing color blindness originate from at least 19 different chromosomes and 56 different genes (as shown online at the <a href="/wiki/Online_Mendelian_Inheritance_in_Man" title="Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man">Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man</a> [OMIM]). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetics_of_red–green_color_blindness"><span id="Genetics_of_red.E2.80.93green_color_blindness"></span>Genetics of red–green color blindness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Genetics of red–green color blindness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness#Genetics" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">Congenital red–green color blindness § Genetics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A chart showing likelihoods of genetic combinations and outcomes for red–green color blindness" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg/220px-Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg/330px-Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg/440px-Punnett_square_colour_blindness.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Punnett squares for each combination of parents' color vision status giving probabilities of their offsprings' status; A superscript 'c' denotes a chromosome with an affected gene.</figcaption></figure> <p>By far the most common form of color blindness is <a href="/wiki/Congenital_red%E2%80%93green_color_blindness" title="Congenital red–green color blindness">congenital red–green color blindness</a> (Daltonism), which includes protanopia/protanomaly and deuteranopia/deuteranomaly. These conditions are mediated by the <a href="/wiki/OPN1LW" title="OPN1LW">OPN1LW</a> and <a href="/wiki/OPN1MW" title="OPN1MW">OPN1MW</a> genes, respectively, both on the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>. An 'affected' gene is either missing (as in Protanopia and Deuteranopia - <a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a>) or is a <a href="/wiki/Chimeric_gene" title="Chimeric gene">chimeric gene</a> (as in Protanomaly and Deuteranomaly). </p><p>Since the <a href="/wiki/OPN1LW" title="OPN1LW">OPN1LW</a> and <a href="/wiki/OPN1MW" title="OPN1MW">OPN1MW</a> genes are on the X chromosome, they are <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">sex-linked</a>, and therefore affect males and females disproportionately. Because the color blind 'affected' <a href="/wiki/Alleles" class="mw-redirect" title="Alleles">alleles</a> are recessive, color blindness specifically follows <a href="/wiki/X-linked_recessive_inheritance" title="X-linked recessive inheritance">X-linked recessive inheritance</a>. Males have only one X chromosome (XY), and females have two (XX); Because the male only has one of each gene, if it is affected, the male will be color blind. Because a female has two alleles of each gene (one on each chromosome), if only one gene is affected, the dominant normal alleles will "override" the affected, recessive allele and the female will have normal color vision. However, if the female has two mutated alleles, she will still be color blind. This is why there is a disproportionate prevalence of color blindness, with ~8% of males exhibiting color blindness and ~0.5% of females. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Genetics_of_blue–yellow_color_blindness"><span id="Genetics_of_blue.E2.80.93yellow_color_blindness"></span>Genetics of blue–yellow color blindness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Genetics of blue–yellow color blindness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Congenital blue–yellow color blindness is a much rarer form of color blindness including tritanopia/tritanomaly. These conditions are mediated by the <a href="/wiki/OPN1SW" title="OPN1SW">OPN1SW</a> gene on <a href="/wiki/Chromosome_7" title="Chromosome 7">Chromosome 7</a> which encodes the S-opsin protein and follows autosomal dominant inheritance.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharpe1999_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharpe1999-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cause of blue–yellow color blindness is not analogous to the cause of red–green color blindness, i.e. the peak sensitivity of the S-opsin does not shift to longer wavelengths. Rather, there are 6 known point mutations of OPN1SW that degrade the performance of the S-cones.<sup id="cite_ref-RCM2020_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RCM2020-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The OPN1SW gene is almost invariant in the human population. Congenital tritan defects are often progressive, with nearly normal trichromatic vision in childhood (e.g. mild tritanomaly) progressing to dichromacy (tritanopia) as the S-cones slowly die.<sup id="cite_ref-RCM2020_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RCM2020-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tritanomaly and tritanopia are therefore different penetrance of the same disease, and some sources have argued that tritanomaly therefore be referred to as incomplete tritanopia.<sup id="cite_ref-Sharpe1999_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sharpe1999-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_genetic_causes">Other genetic causes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Other genetic causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several inherited diseases are known to cause color blindness, including <a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">achromatopsia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cone_dystrophy" title="Cone dystrophy">cone dystrophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">retinitis pigmentosa</a>. These can be <a href="/wiki/Congenital" class="mw-redirect" title="Congenital">congenital</a> or commence in childhood or adulthood. They can be static/stationary or <a href="/wiki/Progressive_disease" title="Progressive disease">progressive</a>. Progressive diseases often involve deterioration of the retina and other parts of the eye, so often progress from color blindness to more severe <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">visual impairments</a>, up to and including total blindness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Non-genetic_causes">Non-genetic causes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Non-genetic causes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Physical trauma can cause color blindness, either neurologically – brain trauma which produces swelling of the brain in the <a href="/wiki/Occiput" class="mw-redirect" title="Occiput">occipital lobe</a> – or retinally, either acute (e.g. from laser exposure) or chronic (e.g. from <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a> exposure). </p><p>Color blindness may also present itself as a symptom of degenerative diseases of the eye, such as <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a> and age-related <a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">macular degeneration</a>, and as part of the retinal damage caused by <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a> deficiency may also cause color blindness.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Color blindness may be a <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effect</a> of prescription drug use. For example, red–green color blindness can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Ethambutol" title="Ethambutol">ethambutol</a>, a drug used in the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blue–yellow color blindness can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Sildenafil" title="Sildenafil">sildenafil</a>, an active component of <a href="/wiki/Viagra" class="mw-redirect" title="Viagra">Viagra</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hydroxychloroquine" title="Hydroxychloroquine">Hydroxychloroquine</a> can also lead to hydroxychloroquine retinopathy, which includes various color defects.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exposure to chemicals such as styrene<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or organic solvents<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dick_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dick-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> can also lead to color vision defects. </p><p>Simple colored filters can also create mild color vision deficiencies. John Dalton's original hypothesis for his deuteranopia was actually that the <a href="/wiki/Vitreous_humor" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitreous humor">vitreous humor</a> of his eye was discolored: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I was led to conjecture that one of the humours of my eye must be a transparent, but coloured, medium, so constituted as to absorb red and green rays principally... I suppose it must be the vitreous humor.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John Dalton, <i>Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours: with observations</i> (1798)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>An autopsy of his eye after his death in 1844 showed this to be definitively untrue,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though other filters are possible. Actual physiological examples usually affect the blue–yellow opponent channel and are named <a href="/wiki/Cyanopsia" title="Cyanopsia">Cyanopsia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xanthopsia" title="Xanthopsia">Xanthopsia</a>, and are most typically an effect of yellowing or removal of the <a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">lens</a>. </p><p>The opponent channels can also be affected by the prevalence of certain cones in the <a href="/wiki/Retinal_mosaic" title="Retinal mosaic">retinal mosaic</a>. The cones are not equally prevalent and not evenly distributed in the retina. When the number of one of these cone types is significantly reduced, this can also lead to or contribute to a color vision deficiency. This is one of the causes of <b>tritanomaly</b>. </p><p>Some people are also unable to distinct between blue and green, which appears to be a combination of <a href="/wiki/Cultural_neuroscience#Culture_differences_in_visual_stimuli" title="Cultural neuroscience">culture</a> and exposure to UV-light.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Diagnosis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Color_vision_test">Color vision test</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Color vision test"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">Color vision test</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ishihara_compare_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ishihara_compare_1.jpg/310px-Ishihara_compare_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="310" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Ishihara_compare_1.jpg/465px-Ishihara_compare_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fb/Ishihara_compare_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="601" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>An Ishihara test image as seen by subjects with normal color vision and by those with a variety of color deficiencies</figcaption></figure> <p>The main method for diagnosing a color vision deficiency is in testing the color vision directly. The <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_color_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishihara color test">Ishihara color test</a> is the test most often used to detect red–green deficiencies and most often recognized by the public.<sup id="cite_ref-Gor1998_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some tests are clinical in nature, designed to be fast, simple, and effective at identifying broad categories of color blindness. Others focus on precision and are generally available only in academic settings.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Pseudoisochromatic plates</b>, a classification which includes the <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_color_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Ishihara color test">Ishihara color test</a> and HRR test, embed a figure in the plate as a number of spots surrounded by spots of a slightly different color. These colors must appear identical (<a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metameric</a>) to the color blind but distinguishable to color normals. Pseudoisochromatic plates are used as screening tools because they are cheap, fast, and simple, but they do not provide precise diagnosis of CVD.</li> <li><b>Lanterns</b>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_Lantern_Test" title="Farnsworth Lantern Test">Farnsworth Lantern Test</a>, project small colored lights to a subject, who is required to identify the color of the lights. The colors are those of typical signal lights, i.e. red, green, and yellow, which also happen to be colors of confusion of red–green CVD. Lanterns do not diagnose color blindness, but they are occupational screening tests to ensure an applicant has sufficient color discrimination to be able to perform a job.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huetestfmd15-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Huetestfmd15-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="165" /></a><figcaption>A Farnsworth D-15 test</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b>Arrangement tests</b> can be used as screening or diagnostic tools. The <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth%E2%80%93Munsell_100_hue_test#100_hue_test" title="Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test">Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test</a> is very sensitive, but the <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth%E2%80%93Munsell_100_hue_test#D15_test" title="Farnsworth–Munsell 100 hue test">Farnsworth D-15</a> is a simplified version used specifically for screening for CVD. In either case, the subject is asked to arrange a set of colored caps or chips to form a gradual transition of color between two anchor caps.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Anomaloscope" title="Anomaloscope">Anomaloscopes</a></b> are typically designed to detect red–green deficiencies and are based on the <a href="/wiki/Anomaloscope#Principle" title="Anomaloscope">Rayleigh match</a>, which compares a mixture of red and green light in variable proportions to a fixed spectral yellow of variable luminosity. The subject must change the two variables until the colors appear to match. They are expensive and require expertise to administer, so they are generally only used in academic settings.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_testing">Genetic testing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Genetic testing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While genetic testing cannot directly evaluate a subject's color vision (<a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>), most congenital color vision deficiencies are well-correlated with <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a>. Therefore, the <a href="/wiki/Genotype" title="Genotype">genotype</a> can be directly evaluated and used to predict the <a href="/wiki/Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>. This is especially useful for <a href="/wiki/Progressive_disease" title="Progressive disease">progressive</a> forms that do not have a strongly color deficient phenotype at a young age. However, it can also be used to sequence the L- and M-Opsins on the X-chromosome, since the most common <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> of these two genes are known and have even been related to exact <a href="/wiki/Spectral_sensitivity" title="Spectral sensitivity">spectral sensitivities</a> and peak wavelengths. A subject's color vision can therefore be classified through <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-GHR2019_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GHR2019-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but this is just a prediction of the phenotype, since color vision can be affected by countless non-genetic factors such as your <a href="/wiki/Retinal_mosaic" title="Retinal mosaic">cone mosaic</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Management"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite much recent improvement in <a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy_for_color_blindness" title="Gene therapy for color blindness">gene therapy for color blindness</a>, there is currently no FDA approved treatment for any form of CVD, and otherwise no cure for CVD currently exists. Management of the condition by using lenses to alleviate symptoms or smartphone apps to aid with daily tasks is possible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lenses">Lenses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Lenses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Color_blind_glasses" title="Color blind glasses">Color blind glasses</a></div> <p>There are three kinds of lenses that an individual can wear that can increase their accuracy in some color related tasks (although none of these will "<i>fix</i>" color blindness or grant the wearer normal color vision): </p> <ul><li>A red-tint contact lens worn over the non-dominant eye will leverage <a href="/wiki/Binocular_disparity" title="Binocular disparity">binocular disparity</a> to improve discrimination of some colors. However, it can make other colors more difficult to distinguish. A 1981 review of various studies to evaluate the effect of the X-chrom (one brand) contact lens concluded that, while the lens may allow the wearer to achieve a better score on certain color vision tests, it did not correct color vision in the natural environment.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A case history using the X-Chrom lens for a rod monochromat is reported<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and an X-Chrom manual is online.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Tinted glasses (e.g. Pilestone/Colorlite glasses) apply a tint (e.g. magenta) to incoming light that can distort colors in a way that makes some color tasks easier to complete. These glasses can circumvent many <a href="/wiki/Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">color vision tests</a>, though this is typically not allowed.<sup id="cite_ref-FAA_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAA-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Glasses with a <a href="/wiki/Notch_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Notch filter">notch filter</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/EnChroma" title="EnChroma">EnChroma</a> glasses) filter a narrow band of light that excites both the L and M cones (yellow–green wavelengths).<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When combined with an additional stopband in the short wavelength (blue) region, these lenses <i>may</i> constitute a <a href="/wiki/Neutral-density_filter" title="Neutral-density filter">neutral-density filter</a> (have no color tint). They improve on the other lens types by causing less distortion of colors and will essentially increase the saturation of some colors. They will only work on trichromats (anomalous or normal), and unlike the other types, do not have a significant effect on Dichromats. The glasses do not significantly increase one's ability on color blind tests.<sup id="cite_ref-Robledo_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Robledo-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aids">Aids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Aids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many mobile and computer applications have been developed to aid color blind individuals in completing color tasks: </p> <ul><li>Some applications (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Color_picker" title="Color picker">color pickers</a>) can identify the name (or coordinates within a <a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a>) of a color on screen or the color of an object by using the device's camera.</li> <li>Some applications will make images easier to interpret by the color blind by enhancing color contrast in natural images and/or information graphics. These methods are generally called <i>daltonization</i> algorithms.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Some applications can simulate color blindness by applying a filter to an image or screen that reduces the gamut of an image to that of a specific type of color blindness. While they do not directly help color blind people, they allow those with normal color vision to understand how the color blind see the world. Their use can help improve inclusive design by allowing designers to simulate their own images to ensure they are accessible to the color blind.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In 2003, a cybernetic device called <a href="/wiki/Eyeborg" title="Eyeborg">eyeborg</a> was developed to allow the wearer to hear sounds representing different colors.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Achromatopsic artist <a href="/wiki/Neil_Harbisson" title="Neil Harbisson">Neil Harbisson</a> was the first to use such a device in early 2004; the eyeborg allowed him to start painting in color by memorizing the sound corresponding to each color. In 2012, at a <a href="/wiki/TED_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="TED Conference">TED Conference</a>, Harbisson explained how he could now perceive colors outside the ability of human vision.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Epidemiology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin-left:15px; text-align:center"> <caption>Rates of color blindness<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (March 2014)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Males</th> <th>Females </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Dichromacy</b></td> <td>2.4%</td> <td>0.03% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protanopia</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td>0.02% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deuteranopia</td> <td>1.2%</td> <td>0.01% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tritanopia</td> <td>0.008%</td> <td>0.008% </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Anomalous trichromacy</b></td> <td>6.3%</td> <td>0.37% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Protanomaly</td> <td>1.3%</td> <td>0.02% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Deuteranomaly</td> <td>5.0%</td> <td>0.35% </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tritanomaly</td> <td>0.0001%</td> <td>0.0001% </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Color blindness affects a large number of individuals, with protans and deutans being the most common types.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid21774112_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid21774112-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In individuals with Northern European ancestry, as many as 8 percent of men and 0.4 percent of women experience congenital color deficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interestingly, even Dalton's first paper already arrived upon this 8% number:<sup id="cite_ref-Dalton1_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalton1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...it is remarkable that, out of 25 pupils I once had, to whom I explained this subject, 2 were found to agree with me...</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>John Dalton, <i>Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours: with observations</i> (1798)</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:US_Flag_color_blind.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/US_Flag_color_blind.png/220px-US_Flag_color_blind.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="372" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/US_Flag_color_blind.png/330px-US_Flag_color_blind.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f7/US_Flag_color_blind.png 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="695" /></a><figcaption>An 1895 illustration of normal vision and various kinds of color blindness</figcaption></figure> <p>During the 17th and 18th century, several philosophers hypothesized that not all individuals perceived colors in the same way:<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...there is no reason to suppose a perfect resemblance in the disposition of the Optic Nerve in all Men, since there is an infinite variety in every thing in Nature, and chiefly in those that are Material, 'tis therefore very probable that all Men see not the same Colours in the same Objects.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Nicolas Malebranche</a>, <i>The search after truth</i> (1674) <sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the power of conceiving <i>colors</i>, too, there are striking differences among individuals: and, indeed, I am inclined to suspect, that, in the greater number of instances, the supposed defects of sight in this respect ought to be ascribed rather to a defect in the power of conception.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Dugald_Stewart" title="Dugald Stewart">Dugald Stewart</a>, <i>Elements of the philosophy of the human mind</i> (1792) <sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Lynn_Walls" title="Gordon Lynn Walls">Gordon Lynn Walls</a> claims<sup id="cite_ref-Walls56_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walls56-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that the first well-circulated case study of color blindness was published in a 1777 letter from Joseph Huddart to <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Priestley" title="Joseph Priestley">Joseph Priestley</a>, which described "Harris the Shoemaker" and several of his brothers with what would later be described as protanopia. There appear to be no earlier surviving historical mentions of color blindness, despite its prevalence.<sup id="cite_ref-Walls56_73-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walls56-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phenomenon only came to be scientifically studied in 1794, when English chemist <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> gave the first account of color blindness in a paper to the <a href="/wiki/Manchester_Literary_and_Philosophical_Society" title="Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society">Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society</a>, which was published in 1798 as <i>Extraordinary Facts relating to the Vision of Colours: With Observations</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanthony201814_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanthony201814-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dalton1_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dalton1-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Genetic analysis of Dalton's preserved eyeball confirmed him as having deuteranopia in 1995, some 150 years after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Influenced by Dalton, German writer <a href="/wiki/J._W._von_Goethe" class="mw-redirect" title="J. W. von Goethe">J. W. von Goethe</a> studied color vision abnormalities in 1798 by asking two young subjects to match pairs of colors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELanthony201825–26_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELanthony201825–26-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1837, <a href="/wiki/August_Seebeck" title="August Seebeck">August Seebeck</a> first discriminated between protans and deutans (then as class I + II).<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Walls56_73-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Walls56-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was also the first to develop an objective test method, where subjects sorted colored sheets of paper, and was the first to describe a female colorblind subject.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1875, the <a href="/wiki/Lagerlunda_rail_accident" title="Lagerlunda rail accident">Lagerlunda train crash</a> in Sweden brought color blindness to the forefront. Following the crash, Professor <a href="/wiki/Alarik_Frithiof_Holmgren" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarik Frithiof Holmgren">Alarik Frithiof Holmgren</a>, a physiologist, investigated and concluded that the color blindness of the engineer (who had died) had caused the crash. Professor Holmgren then created the first test for color vision using multicolored skeins of wool to detect color blindness and thereby exclude the color blind from jobs in the transportation industry <a href="#Signal_lights">requiring color vision to interpret safety signals</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-VC86_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VC86-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there is a claim that there is no firm evidence that color deficiency did cause the collision, or that it might have not been the sole cause.<sup id="cite_ref-lagerlunda_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-lagerlunda-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1920, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_William_Edridge-Green&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick William Edridge-Green (page does not exist)">Frederick William Edridge-Green</a> devised an alternative theory of color vision and color blindness based on Newton's classification of 7 fundamental colors (<a href="/wiki/ROYGBIV" title="ROYGBIV">ROYGBIV</a>). Edridge-Green classified color vision based on how many distinct colors a subject could see in the spectrum. Normal subjects were termed <i>hexachromic</i> as they could not discern Indigo. Subjects with superior color vision, who could discern indigo, were <i>heptachromic</i>. The color blind were therefore <i>dichromic</i> (equivalent to dichromacy) or <i>tri-</i>, <i>tetra-</i> or <i>pentachromic</i> (anomalous trichromacy).<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Rights">Rights</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Rights"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, under federal anti-discrimination laws such as the <a href="/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990" title="Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990">Americans with Disabilities Act</a>, color vision deficiencies have not been found to constitute a disability that triggers protection from workplace discrimination. </p><p>A Brazilian court ruled that the color blind are protected by the Inter-American Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Person with Disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At trial, it was decided that the carriers of color blindness have a right of access to wider knowledge, or the full enjoyment of their human condition.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupations">Occupations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Occupations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Color blindness may make it difficult or impossible for a person to engage in certain activities. Persons with color blindness may be legally or practically barred from occupations in which color perception is an essential part of the job (<i>e.g.,</i> mixing paint colors), or in which color perception is important for safety (<i>e.g.,</i> operating vehicles in response to color-coded signals). This occupational safety principle originates from the aftermath of the 1875 <a href="/wiki/Lagerlunda_rail_accident" title="Lagerlunda rail accident">Lagerlunda train crash</a>, which <a href="/wiki/Alarik_Frithiof_Holmgren" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarik Frithiof Holmgren">Alarik Frithiof Holmgren</a> blamed on the color blindness of the engineer and created the first occupational screening test (<a href="/wiki/Holmgren%27s_wool_test" title="Holmgren's wool test">Holmgren's wool test</a>) against the color blind.<sup id="cite_ref-VC86_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VC86-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>...I consider that to [Holmgren] above all others do we owe the present and future control of color-blindness on land and sea, by which life and property are safer, and the risks of travelling less.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Benjamin Joy Jeffries, <i>Color-blindness: Its Danger & Its Detection</i> (1879)</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Color vision is important for occupations using telephone or computer networking cabling, as the individual wires inside the cables are color-coded using green, orange, brown, blue and white colors.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Electronic wiring, transformers, resistors, and capacitors are color-coded as well, using black, brown, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet, gray, white, silver, and gold.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Participation, officiating and viewing sporting events can be impacted by color blindness. Professional football players <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Delaney" title="Thomas Delaney">Thomas Delaney</a> and <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1bio_Carvalho_(footballer,_born_2002)" title="Fábio Carvalho (footballer, born 2002)">Fabio Carvalho</a> have discussed the difficulties when color clashes occur, and research undertaken by FIFA has shown that enjoyment and player progression can be hampered by issues distinguishing the difference between the pitch and training objects or field markings.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Snooker" title="Snooker">Snooker</a> <a href="/wiki/World_Snooker_Championship" title="World Snooker Championship">World Champions</a> <a href="/wiki/Mark_Williams_(snooker_player)" title="Mark Williams (snooker player)">Mark Williams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ebdon" title="Peter Ebdon">Peter Ebdon</a> sometimes need to ask the referee for help distinguishing between the red and brown balls due to their color blindness. Both have played foul shots on notable occasions by <dfn><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_cue_sports_terms#pot" title="Glossary of cue sports terms"><span title="See entry at: Glossary of cue sports terms § pot" style="color:inherit;" class="glossary-link">potting</span></a></dfn> the wrong ball.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Driving">Driving</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Driving"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Traffic_lights">§ Traffic lights</a></div> <p>Red–green color blindness can make it difficult to drive, primarily due to the inability to differentiate red–amber–green <a href="/wiki/Traffic_lights" class="mw-redirect" title="Traffic lights">traffic lights</a>. Protans are further disadvantaged due to the darkened perception of reds, which can make it more difficult to quickly recognize brake lights.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole1_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole1-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, some countries have refused to grant <a href="/wiki/Driver%27s_license" title="Driver's license">driver's licenses</a> to individuals with color blindness: </p> <ul><li>In April 2003, Romania removed color blindness from its list of disqualifying conditions for learner driver's licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is now qualified as a condition that could potentially compromise driver safety, therefore a driver may have to be evaluated by an authorized ophthalmologist to determine if they can drive safely. As of May 2008, there is an ongoing campaign to remove the legal restrictions that prohibit color blind citizens from getting driver's licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In June 2020, India relaxed its ban on driver's licenses for the color blind to now only apply to those with strong CVD. While previously restricted, those who test as mild or moderate can now pass the medical requirements.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Australia instituted a tiered ban on the color blind from obtaining commercial driver's licenses in 1994. This included a ban for all <a href="/wiki/Protan" class="mw-redirect" title="Protan">protans</a>, and a stipulation that <a href="/wiki/Deutan" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutan">deutans</a> must pass the <a href="/wiki/Farnsworth_Lantern" class="mw-redirect" title="Farnsworth Lantern">Farnsworth Lantern</a>. The stipulation on deutans was revoked in 1997 citing a lack of available test facilities, and the ban on protans was revoked in 2003.<sup id="cite_ref-Cole1_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cole1-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>All color blind individuals are banned from obtaining a driver's license in China<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and since 2016 in Russia (2012 for dichromats).<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Piloting_aircraft">Piloting aircraft</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Piloting aircraft"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="#Signal_lights">§ Signal lights</a></div> <p>Although many aspects of aviation depend on color coding, only a few of them are critical enough to be interfered with by some milder types of color blindness. Some examples include <a href="/wiki/Aviation_light_signals" title="Aviation light signals">color-gun signaling</a> of aircraft that have lost radio communication, color-coded <a href="/wiki/Precision_approach_path_indicator" title="Precision approach path indicator">glide-path indications</a> on runways, and the like. Some jurisdictions restrict the issuance of pilot credentials to persons with color blindness for this reason. Restrictions may be partial, allowing color-blind persons to obtain certification but with restrictions, or total, in which case color-blind persons are not permitted to obtain piloting credentials at all.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the United States, the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration" title="Federal Aviation Administration">Federal Aviation Administration</a> requires that pilots be tested for normal color vision as part of their medical clearance in order to obtain the required medical certificate, a prerequisite to obtaining a pilot's certification. If testing reveals color blindness, the applicant may be issued a license with restrictions, such as no night flying and no flying by color signals—such a restriction effectively prevents a pilot from holding certain flying occupations, such as that of an airline pilot, although commercial pilot certification is still possible, and there are a few flying occupations that do not require night flight and thus are still available to those with restrictions due to color blindness (e.g., agricultural aviation). The government allows several types of tests, including medical standard tests (<i>e.g.,</i> the <a href="/wiki/Ishihara_test" title="Ishihara test">Ishihara</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Israel_Dvorine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Israel Dvorine (page does not exist)">Dvorine</a>, and others) and specialized tests oriented specifically to the needs of aviation. If an applicant fails the standard tests, they will receive a restriction on their medical certificate that states: "Not valid for night flying or by color signal control". They may apply to the FAA to take a specialized test, administered by the FAA. Typically, this test is the "color vision light gun test". For this test an FAA inspector will meet the pilot at an airport with an operating control tower. The color <a href="/wiki/Aviation_light_signals" title="Aviation light signals">signal light gun</a> will be shone at the pilot from the tower, and they must identify the color. If they pass they may be issued a waiver, which states that the color vision test is no longer required during medical examinations. They will then receive a new medical certificate with the restriction removed. This was once a Statement of Demonstrated Ability (SODA), but the SODA was dropped, and converted to a simple waiver (letter) early in the 2000s.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research published in 2009 carried out by the <a href="/wiki/City_University_of_London" class="mw-redirect" title="City University of London">City University of London</a>'s Applied Vision Research Centre, sponsored by the UK's <a href="/wiki/Civil_Aviation_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Aviation Authority">Civil Aviation Authority</a> and the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration, has established a more accurate assessment of color deficiencies in pilot applicants' red/green and yellow–blue color range which could lead to a 35% reduction in the number of prospective pilots who fail to meet the minimum medical threshold.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_agnosia" class="mw-redirect" title="Color agnosia">Color agnosia</a> – Ability to see colors, but inability to recognize colors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_anomia" class="mw-redirect" title="Color anomia">Color anomia</a> – Ability to see colors, but inability to name colors.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_with_color_blindness" title="List of people with color blindness">List of people with color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Motion blindness">Motion blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Gor1998-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gor1998_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 June</span> 2022</span>. <q>Description, user reviews, drug side effects, interactions–prescribing information</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RxList.com&rft.atitle=VIAGRA+%28SILDENAFIL+CITRATE%29+DRUG&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rxlist.com%2Fviagra-drug.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFraunfelderFraunfelderChambers2014" class="citation book cs1">Fraunfelder FT, Fraunfelder FW, Chambers WA (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6bqXBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA79"><i>Drug-Induced Ocular Side Effects: Clinical ocular toxicology e‑book</i></a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">11 April</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Aerospace+Medical+Dispositions+%E2%80%93+Color+vision&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.faa.gov%2Fabout%2Foffice_org%2Fheadquarters_offices%2Favs%2Foffices%2Faam%2Fame%2Fguide%2Fapp_process%2Fexam_tech%2Fitem52%2Famd%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarburton2009" class="citation web cs1">Warburton S (29 May 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/05/29/327137/colour-blindness-research-could-clear-more-pilots-to-fly-uk.html">"Colour-blindness research could clear more pilots to fly: UK CAA"</a>. <i>Air transport</i>. Reed Business Information. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090602082019/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/05/29/327137/colour-blindness-research-could-clear-more-pilots-to-fly-uk.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 October</span> 2009</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Air+transport&rft.atitle=Colour-blindness+research+could+clear+more+pilots+to+fly%3A+UK+CAA&rft.date=2009-05-29&rft.aulast=Warburton&rft.aufirst=Simon&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.flightglobal.com%2Farticles%2F2009%2F05%2F29%2F327137%2Fcolour-blindness-research-could-clear-more-pilots-to-fly-uk.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaiserBoynton1996" class="citation book cs1">Kaiser PK, Boynton RM (1996). <i>Human color vision</i>. Washington, DC: Optical Society of America. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55752-461-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55752-461-4"><bdi>978-1-55752-461-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/472932250">472932250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+color+vision&rft.place=Washington%2C+DC&rft.pub=Optical+Society+of+America&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F472932250&rft.isbn=978-1-55752-461-4&rft.aulast=Kaiser&rft.aufirst=Peter+K.&rft.au=Boynton%2C+Robert+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntyre2002" class="citation book cs1">McIntyre D (2002). <i>Colour blindness: causes and effects</i>. Chester: Dalton Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9541886-0-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9541886-0-3"><bdi>978-0-9541886-0-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49204679">49204679</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Colour+blindness%3A+causes+and+effects&rft.place=Chester&rft.pub=Dalton+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49204679&rft.isbn=978-0-9541886-0-3&rft.aulast=McIntyre&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinCassinSolomon1984" class="citation book cs1">Rubin ML, Cassin B, Solomon S (1984). <i>Dictionary of eye terminology</i>. Gainesville, Fla: Triad Pub. Co. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-937404-07-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-937404-07-2"><bdi>978-0-937404-07-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10375427">10375427</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+eye+terminology&rft.place=Gainesville%2C+Fla&rft.pub=Triad+Pub.+Co&rft.date=1984&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10375427&rft.isbn=978-0-937404-07-2&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Melvin+L.&rft.au=Cassin%2C+Barbara&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Sheila&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShevell2003" class="citation book cs1">Shevell SK (2003). <i>The science of color</i>. Amsterdam: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51251-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-51251-2"><bdi>978-0-444-51251-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/52271315">52271315</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+science+of+color&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F52271315&rft.isbn=978-0-444-51251-2&rft.aulast=Shevell&rft.aufirst=Steven+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHilbertByrne1997" class="citation book cs1">Hilbert D, Byrne A (1997). <i>Readings on color</i>. Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52231-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-52231-1"><bdi>978-0-262-52231-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/35762680">35762680</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Readings+on+color&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F35762680&rft.isbn=978-0-262-52231-1&rft.aulast=Hilbert&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Byrne%2C+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStilesWyszecki2000" class="citation book cs1">Stiles WS, Wyszecki G (2000). <i>Color science: concepts and methods, quantitative data and formulae</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39918-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-39918-6"><bdi>978-0-471-39918-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/799532137">799532137</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Color+science%3A+concepts+and+methods%2C+quantitative+data+and+formulae&rft.place=Chichester&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F799532137&rft.isbn=978-0-471-39918-6&rft.aulast=Stiles&rft.aufirst=W.+S.&rft.au=Wyszecki%2C+G%C3%BCnter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuchenbeckerBroschmann2014" class="citation book cs1">Kuchenbecker J, Broschmann D (2014). <i>Plates for color vision testing</i>. New York: Thieme. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-13-175481-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-13-175481-3"><bdi>978-3-13-175481-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plates+for+color+vision+testing&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Thieme&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-3-13-175481-3&rft.aulast=Kuchenbecker&rft.aufirst=J.&rft.au=Broschmann%2C+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalton1798" class="citation journal cs1">Dalton J (1798). "Extraordinary facts relating to the vision of colours: with observations". <i>Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester</i>. <b>5</b>: 28–45. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/9879327">9879327</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Memoirs+of+the+Literary+and+Philosophical+Society+of+Manchester&rft.atitle=Extraordinary+facts+relating+to+the+vision+of+colours%3A+with+observations&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=28-45&rft.date=1798&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F9879327&rft.aulast=Dalton&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AColor+blindness" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Color_blindness&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Color_blindness" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Color blindness">Color blindness</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_19/May_1881/Color-Blindness" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Popular Science Monthly/Volume 19/May 1881/Color-Blindness">Popular Science Monthly/Volume 19/May 1881/Color-Blindness</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tigger.uic.edu/~hilbert/Glossary.html">"A Glossary of Color Science."</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151004164334/http://tigger.uic.edu/~hilbert/Glossary.html">Archived</a> 4 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="width:100%; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 0;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q133696" class="extiw" title="d:Q133696">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-11" title="ICD-11">11</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse/latest-release/mms/en#2028524981">9D44</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H53.5">H53.5</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=368.5">368.5</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D003117">D003117</a></li><li><b><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb2999.htm">2999</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/MedlinePlus" title="MedlinePlus">MedlinePlus</a></b>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001002.htm">001002</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_physiology" title="Template talk:Eye physiology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_physiology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye physiology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Physiology_of_the_visual_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body#Physiology" title="Human body">Physiology</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">visual system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaze_(physiology)" title="Gaze (physiology)">Gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraocular_pressure" title="Intraocular pressure">Intraocular pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">Visual field</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color vision</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6llner%27s_rule" title="Köllner's rule">Köllner's rule</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentachromacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentachromacy">Pentachromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">Trichromacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Eye_pathology" title="Template talk:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Eye_pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Eye pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Diseases_of_the_human_eye" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Diseases of the human eye</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adnexa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inflammation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inflammation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stye" title="Stye">Stye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalazion" title="Chalazion">Chalazion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharitis" title="Blepharitis">Blepharitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meibomian_gland_dysfunction" title="Meibomian gland dysfunction">Meibomian gland dysfunction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Entropion" title="Entropion">Entropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectropion" title="Ectropion">Ectropion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagophthalmos" title="Lagophthalmos">Lagophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharochalasis" title="Blepharochalasis">Blepharochalasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptosis_(eyelid)" title="Ptosis (eyelid)">Ptosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blepharophimosis" title="Blepharophimosis">Blepharophimosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthelasma" title="Xanthelasma">Xanthelasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankyloblepharon" title="Ankyloblepharon">Ankyloblepharon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelash" title="Eyelash">Eyelash</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichiasis" title="Trichiasis">Trichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarosis" title="Madarosis">Madarosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distichiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distichiasis">Distichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichomegaly" title="Trichomegaly">Trichomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_apparatus" title="Lacrimal apparatus">Lacrimal apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoadenitis" title="Dacryoadenitis">Dacryoadenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphora_(medicine)" title="Epiphora (medicine)">Epiphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryocystitis" title="Dacryocystitis">Dacryocystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exophthalmos" title="Exophthalmos">Exophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enophthalmos" title="Enophthalmos">Enophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_cellulitis" title="Orbital cellulitis">Orbital cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_lymphoma" title="Orbital lymphoma">Orbital lymphoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_cellulitis" title="Periorbital cellulitis">Periorbital cellulitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemosis" title="Chemosis">Chemosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">Conjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergic_conjunctivitis" title="Allergic conjunctivitis">allergic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygium_(conjunctiva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterygium (conjunctiva)">Pterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopterygium" title="Pseudopterygium">Pseudopterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinguecula" title="Pinguecula">Pinguecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconjunctival_bleeding" title="Subconjunctival bleeding">Subconjunctival hemorrhage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Globe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">Globe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleritis" title="Scleritis">Scleritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcleritis" title="Episcleritis">Episcleritis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratitis" title="Keratitis">Keratitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herpetic_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetic keratitis">herpetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">acanthamoebic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">fungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure keratitis">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ulcer" title="Corneal ulcer">Corneal ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thygeson%27s_superficial_punctate_keratopathy" title="Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy">Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_dystrophy" title="Corneal dystrophy">Corneal dystrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchs%27_dystrophy" title="Fuchs' dystrophy">Fuchs'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meesmann_corneal_dystrophy" title="Meesmann corneal dystrophy">Meesmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ectatic_disorders" title="Corneal ectatic disorders">Corneal ectasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconus" title="Keratoconus">Keratoconus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucid_marginal_degeneration" title="Pellucid marginal degeneration">Pellucid marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoglobus" title="Keratoglobus">Keratoglobus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrien%27s_marginal_degeneration" title="Terrien's marginal degeneration">Terrien's marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-LASIK_ectasia" title="Post-LASIK ectasia">Post-LASIK ectasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis" title="Keratoconjunctivitis">Keratoconjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis_sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratoconjunctivitis sicca">sicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacity" title="Corneal opacity">Corneal opacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_neovascularization" title="Corneal neovascularization">Corneal neovascularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser%E2%80%93Fleischer_ring" title="Kayser–Fleischer ring">Kayser–Fleischer ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27s_striae" title="Haab's striae">Haab's striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_senilis" title="Arcus senilis">Arcus senilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_keratopathy" title="Band keratopathy">Band keratopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Vascular tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_uveitis" title="Intermediate uveitis">Intermediate uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphema" title="Hyphema">Hyphema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubeosis_iridis" title="Rubeosis iridis">Rubeosis iridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_pupillary_membrane" title="Persistent pupillary membrane">Persistent pupillary membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridodialysis" title="Iridodialysis">Iridodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechia_(eye)" title="Synechia (eye)">Synechia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroideremia" title="Choroideremia">Choroideremia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroiditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroiditis">Choroiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_choroidal_excavation" title="Focal choroidal excavation">Focal choroidal excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypoidal_choroidal_vasculopathy" title="Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy">Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">Congenital cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_cataract" title="Childhood cataract">Childhood cataract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphakia" title="Aphakia">Aphakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_lentis" title="Ectopia lentis">Ectopia lentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retinal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal disease">Retina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis" title="Retinitis">Retinitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_retinitis" title="Cytomegalovirus retinitis">Cytomegalovirus retinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">Retinal detachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">Posterior vitreous detachment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoschisis" title="Retinoschisis">Retinoschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_ischemic_syndrome" title="Ocular ischemic syndrome">Ocular ischemic syndrome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein_occlusion" title="Central retinal vein occlusion">Central retinal vein occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Central retinal artery occlusion">Central retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Branch retinal artery occlusion">Branch retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">Retinopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purtscher%27s_retinopathy" title="Purtscher's retinopathy">Purtscher's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">of prematurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bietti%27s_crystalline_dystrophy" title="Bietti's crystalline dystrophy">Bietti's crystalline dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coats%27_disease" title="Coats' disease">Coats' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_retinopathy" title="Sickle cell retinopathy">Sickle cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_retinopathy" title="Photic retinopathy">photic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_degeneration" title="Macular degeneration">Macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_haemorrhage" title="Retinal haemorrhage">Retinal haemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">Central serous retinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_edema" title="Macular edema">Macular edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">Epiretinal membrane</a> (Macular pucker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot_chorioretinopathy" title="Birdshot chorioretinopathy">Birdshot chorioretinopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypertension" title="Ocular hypertension">Ocular hypertension</a> / <a href="/wiki/Primary_juvenile_glaucoma" title="Primary juvenile glaucoma">Primary juvenile glaucoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypotony" title="Ocular hypotony">Ocular hypotony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_eye_(medicine)" title="Red eye (medicine)">Red eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_rupture" title="Globe rupture">Globe rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">Keratomycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phthisis_bulbi" title="Phthisis bulbi">Phthisis bulbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_fetal_vasculature" title="Persistent fetal vasculature">Persistent fetal vasculature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_exudative_vitreoretinopathy" title="Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy">Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease">Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pathways" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Pathways</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_papillitis" title="Optic papillitis">optic papillitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Kennedy_syndrome" title="Foster Kennedy syndrome">Foster Kennedy syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic atrophy">Optic atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc_drusen" title="Optic disc drusen">Optic disc drusen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Ischemic optic neuropathy">Ischemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">anterior (AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy">posterior (PION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">non-arteritic anterior (NAION)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjer%27s_optic_neuropathy" title="Kjer's optic neuropathy">Kjer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_and_nutritional_optic_neuropathy" title="Toxic and nutritional optic neuropathy">Toxic and nutritional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">Extraocular muscles</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">Binocular vision</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Paralytic_strabismus" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Paralytic_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Paralytic strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">Ophthalmoparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_progressive_external_ophthalmoplegia" title="Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia">Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kearns%E2%80%93Sayre_syndrome" title="Kearns–Sayre syndrome">Kearns–Sayre syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_disease" title="Cranial nerve disease">palsies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve_palsy" title="Oculomotor nerve palsy">Oculomotor (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_nerve_palsy" title="Fourth nerve palsy">Fourth-nerve (IV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_nerve_palsy" title="Sixth nerve palsy">Sixth-nerve (VI)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Other_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Other strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Exotropia" title="Exotropia">Exotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertropia" title="Hypertropia">Hypertropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophoria" title="Heterophoria">Heterophoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophoria" title="Esophoria">Esophoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exophoria" title="Exophoria">Exophoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotropia" title="Cyclotropia">Cyclotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%27s_syndrome" title="Brown's syndrome">Brown's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_syndrome" title="Duane syndrome">Duane syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other binocular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">Conjugate gaze palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_insufficiency" title="Convergence insufficiency">Convergence insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internuclear_ophthalmoplegia" title="Internuclear ophthalmoplegia">Internuclear ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_and_a_half_syndrome" title="One and a half syndrome">One and a half syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">Anisometropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">Aniseikonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorders</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oguchi_disease" title="Oguchi disease">Oguchi disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">Vision loss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemianopsia" title="Hemianopsia">Hemianopsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binasal_hemianopsia" title="Binasal hemianopsia">binasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitemporal_hemianopsia" title="Bitemporal hemianopsia">bitemporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">subjective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisocoria" title="Anisocoria">Anisocoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Robertson_pupil" title="Argyll Robertson pupil">Argyll Robertson pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gunn_pupil" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Gunn pupil">Marcus Gunn pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adie_syndrome" title="Adie syndrome">Adie syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloplegia" title="Cycloplegia">Cycloplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinaud%27s_syndrome" title="Parinaud's syndrome">Parinaud's syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infections" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Infections</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Color_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Color_topics" title="Template:Color topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Color_topics" title="Template talk:Color topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Color_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Color topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Color_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Color" title="Color">Color</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_science" title="Color science">Color science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color physics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">Electromagnetic spectrum</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow" title="Rainbow">Rainbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">Visible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">Spectral colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">Chromophore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_coloration" title="Structural coloration">Structural coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_chemicals" title="Color of chemicals">Color of chemicals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_of_water" title="Color of water">Water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectral_power_distribution" title="Spectral power distribution">Spectral power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorimetry" title="Colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">Color perception</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromesthesia" title="Chromesthesia">Chromesthesia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sonochromatism" title="Sonochromatism">Sonochromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_calibration" title="Color calibration">Color calibration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_constancy" title="Color constancy">Color constancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_task" title="Color task">Color task</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_code" title="Color code">Color code</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_vision_test" title="Color vision test">Color vision test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision" title="Evolution of color vision">Evolution of color vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impossible_color" title="Impossible color">Impossible colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">Metamerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opponent_process" title="Opponent process">Opponent process</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afterimage" title="Afterimage">Afterimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unique_hues" title="Unique hues">Unique hues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">Tetrachromacy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_dress" title="The dress">The dress</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_psychology" title="Color psychology">Color psychology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_symbolism" title="Color symbolism">Color symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_preferences" title="Color preferences">Color preferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCscher_color_test" title="Lüscher color test">Lüscher color test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kruithof_curve" title="Kruithof curve">Kruithof curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_colour" title="Political colour">Political color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_colours" title="National colours">National colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromophobia" title="Chromophobia">Chromophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromotherapy" title="Chromotherapy">Chromotherapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_reproduction" title="Color reproduction">Color reproduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colour_cast" title="Colour cast">Color cast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_printing" title="Color printing">Color printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-primary_color_display" title="Multi-primary color display">Multi-primary color display</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattron" title="Quattron">Quattron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_model" title="Color model">Color model</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Additive_color" title="Additive color">additive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/RGB" class="mw-redirect" title="RGB">RGB</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtractive_color" title="Subtractive color">subtractive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CMYK" class="mw-redirect" title="CMYK">CMYK</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">Color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Color mapping">Color mapping</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:RGB_color_wheel.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/100px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/150px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/RGB_color_wheel.svg/200px-RGB_color_wheel.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="500" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_color" title="Philosophy of color">Color<br />philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_scheme" title="Color scheme">Color scheme</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_picker" title="Color picker">Color tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monochromatic_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="Monochromatic colors">Monochromatic colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">black-and-white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementary_colors" title="Complementary colors">Complementary colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analogous_colors" title="Analogous colors">Analogous colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Achromatic colors (Neutral)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polychrome" title="Polychrome">Polychromatic colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light-on-dark_color_scheme" title="Light-on-dark color scheme">Light-on-dark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">Web colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tincture_(heraldry)" title="Tincture (heraldry)">Tinctures in heraldry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_theory" title="Color theory">Color theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_mixing" title="Color mixing">Color mixing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">Primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_color" title="Secondary color">Secondary color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromaticity" title="Chromaticity">Chromaticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_solid" title="Color solid">Color solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_wheel" title="Color wheel">Color wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_triangle" title="Color triangle">Color triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_analysis" title="Color analysis">Color analysis</a> (fashion)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_realism_(art_style)" title="Color realism (art style)">Color realism (art style)</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Vision_and_Colours" title="On Vision and Colours">On Vision and Colours</a></i> (Schopenhauer)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_Colours" title="Theory of Colours">Theory of Colours</a></i> (Goethe)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term" title="Color term">Color terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_term#Basic_color_terms" title="Color term">Basic terms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue" title="Blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green" title="Green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red" title="Red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow" title="Yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink" title="Pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purple" title="Purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orange_(colour)" title="Orange (colour)">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black" title="Black">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey" title="Grey">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White" title="White">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown" title="Brown">Brown</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_in_culture" title="Category:Color in culture">Cultural differences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_relativity_and_the_color_naming_debate" title="Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate">Linguistic relativity and the color naming debate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue%E2%80%93green_distinction_in_language" title="Blue–green distinction in language">Blue–green distinction in language</a></li></ul></li> <li>Color history <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_dualism" title="Black-and-white dualism">Black-and-white dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_in_culture" title="Blue in culture">Blue in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_in_Chinese_culture" title="Color in Chinese culture">Color in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_colors_of_Japan" title="Traditional colors of Japan">Traditional colors of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin_color" title="Human skin color">Human skin color</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color dimensions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hue" title="Hue">Hue</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dichromatism" title="Dichromatism">Dichromatism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorfulness" title="Colorfulness">Colorfulness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pastel_(color)" title="Pastel (color)">Pastel colors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminance" title="Luminance">Luminance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lightness" title="Lightness">Lightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkness" title="Darkness">Darkness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brightness" title="Brightness">Brightness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridescence" title="Iridescence">Iridescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grayscale" title="Grayscale">Grayscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tint,_shade_and_tone" title="Tint, shade and tone">Tint, shade and tone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Color<br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pantone" title="Pantone">Pantone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Marketing_Group" title="Color Marketing Group">Color Marketing Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_Association_of_the_United_States" title="Color Association of the United States">Color Association of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Authority" title="International Colour Authority">International Colour Authority</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Commission_on_Illumination" title="International Commission on Illumination">International Commission on Illumination</a> (CIE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Color_Consortium" title="International Color Consortium">International Color Consortium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Colour_Association" title="International Colour Association">International Colour Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_colors" title="Lists of colors">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_A%E2%80%93F" title="List of colors: A–F">List of colors: A–F</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_G%E2%80%93M" title="List of colors: G–M">List of colors: G–M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors:_N%E2%80%93Z" title="List of colors: N–Z">List of colors: N–Z</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_(compact)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of colors (compact)">List of colors (compact)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">List of colors by shade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_palettes" title="List of color palettes">List of color palettes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_color_spaces_and_their_uses" title="List of color spaces and their uses">List of color spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Crayola_crayon_colors" title="List of Crayola crayon colors">List of Crayola crayon colors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Crayola_crayons" title="History of Crayola crayons">history</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_chart" title="Color chart">Color chart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_RAL_colors" class="mw-redirect" title="List of RAL colors">List of RAL colors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_colors" title="Web colors">List of web colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_colors_by_shade" title="List of colors by shade">Shades of:</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_red" title="Shades of red">Red</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_orange" title="Shades of orange">Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_yellow" title="Shades of yellow">Yellow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_green" title="Shades of green">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_cyan" title="Shades of cyan">Cyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_blue" title="Shades of blue">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_violet" title="Shades of violet">Violet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_purple" title="Shades of purple">Purple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_magenta" title="Shades of magenta">Magenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_pink" title="Shades of pink">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_brown" title="Shades of brown">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_white" title="Shades of white">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_gray" title="Shades of gray">Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shades_of_black" title="Shades of black">Black</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Related</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">Vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">Contrast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lighting" title="Lighting">Lighting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Color" title="Category:Color">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_color-related_articles" title="Index of color-related articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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