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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Early history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recent_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recent_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Recent history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recent_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_recent_work" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_recent_work"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Notable recent work</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notable_recent_work-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Notable recent work subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Notable_recent_work-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Biden_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biden_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Biden administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biden_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Banning_non-compete_clauses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banning_non-compete_clauses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Banning non-compete clauses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banning_non-compete_clauses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chip_manufacturers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chip_manufacturers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Chip manufacturers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chip_manufacturers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmaceutical_drug_prices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmaceutical_drug_prices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Pharmaceutical drug prices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmaceutical_drug_prices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Food_prices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Food_prices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.4</span> <span>Food prices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Food_prices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Junk_fees_and_high_prices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Junk_fees_and_high_prices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.5</span> <span>Junk fees and high prices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Junk_fees_and_high_prices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microsoft_merger" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microsoft_merger"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.6</span> <span>Microsoft merger</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microsoft_merger-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Right_to_repair" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Right_to_repair"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.7</span> <span>Right to repair</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Right_to_repair-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trump_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trump_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Trump administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trump_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Meta_antitrust_acquisitions_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meta_antitrust_acquisitions_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Meta antitrust acquisitions case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meta_antitrust_acquisitions_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obama_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obama_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Obama administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obama_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Money_Now_Funding_/_Cash4Businesses_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Money_Now_Funding_/_Cash4Businesses_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.1</span> <span>Money Now Funding / Cash4Businesses case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Money_Now_Funding_/_Cash4Businesses_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-OMICS_Publishing_Group_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#OMICS_Publishing_Group_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.2</span> <span>OMICS Publishing Group case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-OMICS_Publishing_Group_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sears_Holdings_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sears_Holdings_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3.3</span> <span>Sears Holdings case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sears_Holdings_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bush_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bush_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Bush administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bush_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gateway_Learning_case" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gateway_Learning_case"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.1</span> <span>Gateway Learning case</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gateway_Learning_case-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activities_in_the_healthcare_industry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activities_in_the_healthcare_industry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Activities in the healthcare industry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Activities_in_the_healthcare_industry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phoebe_Putney_Memorial_Hospital_and_Palmyra_Medical_Center_in_Georgia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phoebe_Putney_Memorial_Hospital_and_Palmyra_Medical_Center_in_Georgia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.1</span> <span>Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital and Palmyra Medical Center in Georgia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phoebe_Putney_Memorial_Hospital_and_Palmyra_Medical_Center_in_Georgia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ProMedica_health_system_and_St._Luke's_hospital_in_Ohio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ProMedica_health_system_and_St._Luke's_hospital_in_Ohio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.2</span> <span>ProMedica health system and St. Luke's hospital in Ohio</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ProMedica_health_system_and_St._Luke's_hospital_in_Ohio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-OSF_healthcare_system_and_Rockford_Health_System_in_Illinois" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#OSF_healthcare_system_and_Rockford_Health_System_in_Illinois"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5.3</span> <span>OSF healthcare system and Rockford Health System in Illinois</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-OSF_healthcare_system_and_Rockford_Health_System_in_Illinois-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Organization</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Organization subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Current_members_of_the_FTC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_members_of_the_FTC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Current members of the FTC</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Current_members_of_the_FTC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Backgrounds_of_commissioners" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Backgrounds_of_commissioners"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Backgrounds of commissioners</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Backgrounds_of_commissioners-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureaus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureaus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Bureaus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureaus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bureau_of_Competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureau_of_Competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Bureau of Competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureau_of_Competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureau_of_Consumer_Protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureau_of_Consumer_Protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Bureau of Consumer Protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureau_of_Consumer_Protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bureau_of_Economics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bureau_of_Economics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Bureau of Economics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bureau_of_Economics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_offices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_offices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.4</span> <span>Other offices</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_offices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Activities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Activities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Activities</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Activities-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Activities subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Activities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Unfair_or_deceptive_practices_affecting_consumers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unfair_or_deceptive_practices_affecting_consumers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Unfair or deceptive practices affecting consumers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unfair_or_deceptive_practices_affecting_consumers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Definitions_of_unfairness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions_of_unfairness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Definitions of unfairness</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions_of_unfairness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Definitions_of_deception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Definitions_of_deception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2</span> <span>Definitions of deception</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Definitions_of_deception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dot_Com_Disclosures_guide" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dot_Com_Disclosures_guide"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.2.1</span> <span>Dot Com Disclosures guide</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dot_Com_Disclosures_guide-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Federal Trade Commission</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="لجنة التجارة الفيدرالية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لجنة التجارة الفيدرالية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Federal Trade Commission" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comisi%C3%B3n_Federal_de_Comercio" title="Comisión Federal de Comercio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Comisión Federal de Comercio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federacia_Komerca_Komisiono" title="Federacia Komerca Komisiono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Federacia Komerca Komisiono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%86_%D9%81%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA" title="کمیسیون فدرال تجارت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کمیسیون فدرال تجارت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Federal Trade Commission" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%B0%EB%B0%A9%EA%B1%B0%EB%9E%98%EC%9C%84%EC%9B%90%ED%9A%8C" title="연방거래위원회 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="연방거래위원회" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Federal Trade Commission" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suruhanjaya_Perdagangan_Persekutuan" title="Suruhanjaya Perdagangan Persekutuan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Suruhanjaya Perdagangan Persekutuan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Federal Trade Commission" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%A3%E9%82%A6%E5%8F%96%E5%BC%95%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E4%BC%9A" title="連邦取引委員会 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="連邦取引委員会" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">United States government agency</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size: 125%;">Federal Trade Commission</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/150px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/225px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/300px-Seal_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="720" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Seal of the Federal Trade Commission</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_United_States_Federal_Trade_Commission.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="240" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Flag of the Federal Trade Commission</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Agency overview</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Formed</th><td class="infobox-data">September 26, 1914<span class="noprint">; 110 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1914-09-26</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Preceding agency</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations" title="Bureau of Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Jurisdiction</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal government of the United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Building" title="Federal Trade Commission Building">Federal Trade Commission Building</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Washington,_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Employees</th><td class="infobox-data">1,123 (FY 2021)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Annual budget</th><td class="infobox-data">$425.7 million (FY 2024)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Agency executive</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li style="text-indent: -1em; padding-left: 1em;"><a href="/wiki/Lina_Khan" title="Lina Khan">Lina Khan</a>, Chairperson</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov">ftc.gov</a></span></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #efefef">Footnotes</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Federal Trade Commission</b> (<b>FTC</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">independent agency of the United States government</a> whose principal mission is the enforcement of civil (non-criminal) <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust law</a> and the promotion of <a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">consumer protection</a>. The FTC shares jurisdiction over federal civil antitrust law enforcement with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice_Antitrust_Division" title="United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division">Department of Justice Antitrust Division</a>. The agency is headquartered in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Building" title="Federal Trade Commission Building">Federal Trade Commission Building</a> in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_DC" class="mw-redirect" title="Washington, DC">Washington, DC</a>. </p><p>The FTC was established in 1914 with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act</a>, signed in response to the 19th-century monopolistic trust crisis. Since its inception, the FTC has enforced the provisions of the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Act</a>, a key <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust</a> statute, as well as the provisions of the FTC Act, <a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/41">§ 41</a> et seq. Over time, the FTC has been delegated with the enforcement of additional business regulation statutes and has promulgated a number of regulations (codified in <a href="/wiki/Title_16_of_the_Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Title 16 of the Code of Federal Regulations">Title 16 of the Code of Federal Regulations</a>). The broad statutory authority granted to the FTC provides it with more surveillance and monitoring abilities than it actually uses.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The FTC is composed of five commissioners, who each serve seven-year terms. Members of the commission are nominated by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> and subject to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> confirmation, and no more than three FTC members can be of the same <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">party</a>. One member of the body serves as FTC Chair at the President's pleasure, with Commissioner <a href="/wiki/Lina_Khan" title="Lina Khan">Lina Khan</a> having served as chair since June 2021. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_history">Early history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Supreme Court decisions against <a href="/wiki/Standard_Oil_Co._v._United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard Oil Co. v. United States">Standard Oil</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_v._American_Tobacco_Co." title="United States v. American Tobacco Co.">American Tobacco</a><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in May 1911, the first version of a bill to establish a commission to regulate interstate trade was introduced on January 25, 1912, by Oklahoma congressman <a href="/wiki/Dick_Thompson_Morgan" class="mw-redirect" title="Dick Thompson Morgan">Dick Thompson Morgan</a>. He would make the first speech on the House floor advocating its creation on February 21, 1912. </p><p>Though the initial bill did not pass, the questions of trusts and antitrust dominated the 1912 election.<sup id="cite_ref-FTC_hist_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FTC_hist-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most political party platforms in 1912 endorsed the establishment of a federal trade commission with its regulatory powers placed in the hands of an administrative board, as an alternative to functions previously and necessarily exercised so slowly through the courts.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 presidential election</a> decided in favor of the Democrats and <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a>, Morgan reintroduced a slightly amended version of his bill during the April 1913 special session. The national debate culminated in Wilson's signing of the FTC Act on September 26, 1914, with additional tightening of regulations in the <a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Clayton Antitrust Act">Clayton Antitrust Act</a> three weeks later. </p><p>The new FTC would absorb the staff and duties of <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Corporations" title="Bureau of Corporations">Bureau of Corporations</a>, previously established under the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_Commerce_and_Labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Department of Commerce and Labor">Department of Commerce and Labor</a> in 1903. The FTC could additionally challenge "unfair methods of competition" and enforce the Clayton Act's more specific prohibitions against certain price discrimination, vertical arrangements, <a href="/wiki/Interlocking_directorate" title="Interlocking directorate">interlocking directorates</a>, and stock acquisitions.<sup id="cite_ref-FTC_hist_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FTC_hist-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recent_history">Recent history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Recent history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1984,<sup id="cite_ref-frop_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frop-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the FTC began to regulate the <a href="/wiki/Funeral_home" title="Funeral home">funeral home</a> industry in order to protect consumers from deceptive practices. The FTC <a href="/wiki/Funeral_Rule" title="Funeral Rule">Funeral Rule</a> requires funeral homes to provide all customers (and potential customers) with a General Price List (GPL), specifically outlining goods and services in the funeral industry, as defined by the FTC, and a listing of their prices.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> By law, the GPL must be presented on request to all individuals, and no one is to be denied a written, retainable copy of the GPL. In 1996, the FTC instituted the Funeral Rule Offenders Program (FROP), under which "funeral homes make a voluntary payment to the U.S. Treasury or appropriate state fund for an amount less than what would likely be sought if the Commission authorized filing a lawsuit for civil penalties. In addition, the funeral homes participate in the NFDA compliance program, which includes a review of the price lists, on-site training of the staff, and follow-up testing and certification on compliance with the <a href="/wiki/Funeral_Rule" title="Funeral Rule">Funeral Rule</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-frop_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frop-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the mid-1990s, the FTC launched the fraud sweeps concept where the agency and its federal, state, and local partners filed simultaneous legal actions against multiple telemarketing fraud targets. The first sweeps operation was <i>Project Telesweep</i> in July 1995 which cracked down on 100 business opportunity scams.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the 2021 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Supreme Court">United States Supreme Court</a> case, <i><a href="/wiki/AMG_Capital_Management,_LLC_v._FTC" title="AMG Capital Management, LLC v. FTC">AMG Capital Management, LLC v. FTC</a></i>, the Court found unanimously that the FTC did not have power under <span class="plainlinksneverexpand"><a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/53#b">§ 53(b)</a></span> of the FTC Act, amended in 1973, to seek equitable relief in courts; it had the power to seek only injunctive relief.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, <a href="/wiki/Project_2025" title="Project 2025">Project 2025</a> suggested that an administration could abolish the FTC.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_recent_work">Notable recent work</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notable recent work"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biden_administration">Biden administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Biden administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Banning_non-compete_clauses">Banning non-compete clauses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Banning non-compete clauses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The FTC ruled to ban virtually all <a href="/wiki/Non-compete_clauses_in_the_United_States" title="Non-compete clauses in the United States">non-competes nationwide</a> in April 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agency estimates 30 million workers are bound by these clauses and only excludes senior executives from the ban on enforcing non-competes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The agency believes that this will allow workers to find better working conditions and pay, since switching companies, on average, provides the biggest pay raises.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also allows workers to leave abusive work environments and can prevent some doctors from having to leave medicine once they leave a practice.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ban was put on hold by U.S. District Judge <a href="/wiki/Ada_Brown_(judge)" title="Ada Brown (judge)">Ada Brown</a> on July 3, 2024, but then upheld on appeal by U.S. District Judge <a href="/wiki/Kelley_B._Hodge" title="Kelley B. Hodge">Kelley B. Hodge</a> on July 23, 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 20, 2024, a federal court in Texas overturned the FTC's ban on non-compete agreements, which was originally scheduled to take effect on September 4, 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> U.S. District Judge Ada Brown said the FTC did not have the authority to issue the ban, which she said was "unreasonably overbroad without a reasonable explanation."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Victoria Graham, an FTC spokeswoman responded to the ruling by stating "We are seriously considering a potential appeal..."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Chip_manufacturers">Chip manufacturers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Chip manufacturers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The FTC successfully blocked <a href="/wiki/Nvidia" title="Nvidia">Nvidia</a> from purchasing <a href="/wiki/Arm_Holdings" title="Arm Holdings">ARM holdings</a> in 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pharmaceutical_drug_prices">Pharmaceutical drug prices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pharmaceutical drug prices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The FTC has pursued lawsuits against companies to lower drug prices,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including for insulin<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and for inhalers.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The FTC launched its investigation into <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management" title="Pharmacy benefit management">pharmacy benefit managers</a> (PBMs) in 2022. In July 2024, it released an interim report on its 2-year investigation into <a href="/wiki/Pharmacy_benefit_management" title="Pharmacy benefit management">pharmacy benefit managers</a>, the agency requested documents from the six largest PBMs as part of its investigation. The three largest – <a href="/wiki/Optum" title="Optum">UnitedHealth Group's OptumRx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Express_Scripts" title="Express Scripts">Cigna's Express Scripts</a> and <a href="/wiki/CVS_Caremark" title="CVS Caremark">CVS Health's Caremark</a> – manage about 80% of U.S. prescriptions. The top three PBMs share a parent company with a large <a href="/wiki/Health_insurance" title="Health insurance">medical insurance company</a>. The FTC accused these companies of raising drug prices through <a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_interest" title="Conflict of interest">conflicts of interest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertical_integration" title="Vertical integration">vertical integration</a>, concentration, and exclusivity provisions; the agency also alleged that the companies created a rebate system that prioritized high rebates from drug manufacturers, among other factors. The agency stated that several PBMs failed to provide documents in a timely manner and warned that it could take the companies to court to force them to comply, during the announcment in the preliminary findings.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2024, the FTC sued the three largest pharmacy benefit managers (PBMs) for allegedly engaging in anti-competitive practices that increased their profits while artificially inflating the list price of insulin. The agency is seeking to prohibit the PBMs from favoring medicines because certain pharaceuticals make them more money.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Food_prices">Food prices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Food prices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In February 2024, the FTC challenged the <a href="/wiki/Proposed_acquisition_of_Albertsons_by_Kroger" title="Proposed acquisition of Albertsons by Kroger">Kroger-Albertsons merger</a>, arguing it would drive up grocery and pharmacy prices, worsen service, and lower wages and working conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In March 2024, the FTC released a report that found higher profit margins as a driver of inflation for grocery prices.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 2024, it announced it would be probing grocery prices to look for anti-competitive behavior and <a href="/wiki/Price_gouging" title="Price gouging">price gouging</a> at chain supermarkets.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Junk_fees_and_high_prices">Junk fees and high prices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Junk fees and high prices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2023, the FTC proposed a new rule that would ensure that the cancellation process of subscription services is as easy as the process of signing up.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On October 16, 2024, the FTC announced the new rule, dubbed "click to cancel", requiring companies to make subscription services "as easy for consumers to cancel their enrollment as it was to sign up."<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Khan said in a interview that the new rule is designed so that if consumers signed up online, they must also be able to cancel on the same website in the same number of steps.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rule’s final provisions will go into effect 180 days after it is published in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It also targeted airlines and credit card companies over <a href="/wiki/Junk_fees" class="mw-redirect" title="Junk fees">junk fees</a> and high prices.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Microsoft_merger">Microsoft merger</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Microsoft merger"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/FTC_v._Microsoft" title="FTC v. Microsoft">FTC v. Microsoft</a></div> <p>In 2023, the FTC authorized an administrative complaint against <a href="/wiki/Proposed_acquisition_of_Activision_Blizzard_by_Microsoft" class="mw-redirect" title="Proposed acquisition of Activision Blizzard by Microsoft">the merger</a> between <a href="/wiki/Microsoft" title="Microsoft">Microsoft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Activision_Blizzard" title="Activision Blizzard">Activision Blizzard</a>, Inc. The FTC alleged the deal would suppress competitors from accessing future content/games developed by Activision once the deal goes through. The FTC dropped its lawsuit on July 20, 2023. Microsoft had to restructure its deal to appease UK regulators.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microsoft reneged on promises it made in court filings by laying off 1900 employees in January 2024, signaling that it did not plan to let Activision Blizzard remain as independent as it had promised and leading the FTC to continue to appeal the decision.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Right_to_repair">Right to repair</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Right to repair"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In July 2021, the FTC voted unanimously to enforce the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_repair" title="Right to repair">right to repair</a> as policy and to look to take action against companies that limit the type of repair work that can be done at independent repair shops.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2024, following a comment by the FTC to the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Copyright_Office" title="United States Copyright Office">US Copyright Office</a>, an exemption was granted allowing for repair of retail-level food preparation equipment, such as <a href="/wiki/McDonald%27s_ice_cream_machine" title="McDonald's ice cream machine">McDonald's ice cream machines</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trump_administration">Trump administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Trump administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Meta_antitrust_acquisitions_case">Meta antitrust acquisitions case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Meta antitrust acquisitions case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_v._Meta_Platforms,_Inc." title="Federal Trade Commission v. Meta Platforms, Inc.">Federal Trade Commission v. Meta Platforms, Inc.</a></div> <p>In December 2020 the FTC sued Meta (formally known as Facebook) for anticompetitive conduct under Section 2 of the <a href="/wiki/Sherman_Antitrust_Act" title="Sherman Antitrust Act">Sherman Act</a>, which prohibits improper monopolization of a market. The FTC accused Meta of buying up its competitors to stifle competition which reduced the range of services available to consumers and by creating fewer social media platforms for advertisers to target.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Obama_administration">Obama administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Obama administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Money_Now_Funding_/_Cash4Businesses_case"><span id="Money_Now_Funding_.2F_Cash4Businesses_case"></span>Money Now Funding / Cash4Businesses case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Money Now Funding / Cash4Businesses case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In September 2013, a federal court closed an elusive <a href="/wiki/Business_opportunity" title="Business opportunity">business opportunity</a> scheme on the request of the FTC, namely "Money Now Funding"/"Cash4Businesses".<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FTC alleged that the defendants misrepresented potential earnings, violated the <a href="/wiki/National_Do_Not_Call_Registry" title="National Do Not Call Registry">National Do Not Call Register</a>, and violated the FTC's Business Opportunity Rule in preventing a fair consumer evaluation of the business.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was one of the first definitive actions taken by any regulator against a company engaging in transaction laundering, where almost US$6 million were processed illicitly.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In December 2018, two defendants, Nikolas Mihilli and Dynasty Merchants, LLC, settled with the FTC.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were banned from processing credit card transactions, though the initial monetary judgment of $5.8 million was suspended due to the defendant's inability to pay. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="OMICS_Publishing_Group_case">OMICS Publishing Group case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: OMICS Publishing Group case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2016, the FTC launched action against the academic journal publisher <a href="/wiki/OMICS_Publishing_Group" title="OMICS Publishing Group">OMICS Publishing Group</a> for producing <a href="/wiki/Predatory_journals" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory journals">predatory journals</a> and organizing <a href="/wiki/Predatory_conferences" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory conferences">predatory conferences</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This action, partly in response to ongoing pressure from the academic community,<sup id="cite_ref-Straumsheim_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Straumsheim-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the first action taken by the FTC against an academic journal publisher.<sup id="cite_ref-RWatch_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RWatch-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OMICS-Group_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OMICS-Group-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The complaint alleges that the defendants have been "deceiving academics and researchers about the nature of its publications and hiding publication fees ranging from hundreds to thousands of dollars".<sup id="cite_ref-FTC_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FTC-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It additionally notes that "OMICS regularly advertises conferences featuring academic experts who were never scheduled to appear in order to attract registrants"<sup id="cite_ref-Straumsheim_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Straumsheim-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that attendees "spend hundreds or thousands of dollars on registration fees and travel costs to attend these scientific conferences."<sup id="cite_ref-FTC_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FTC-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Manuscripts are also sometimes held hostage, with OMICS refusing to allow submissions to be withdrawn and thereby preventing resubmission to another journal for consideration.<sup id="cite_ref-RWatch_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-RWatch-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Library scientist <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Beall" title="Jeffrey Beall">Jeffrey Beall</a> has described OMICS as among the most egregious of <a href="/wiki/Predatory_publisher" class="mw-redirect" title="Predatory publisher">predatory publishers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Straumsheim_55-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Straumsheim-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In November 2017, a federal court in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Nevada" title="United States District Court for the District of Nevada">Court for the District of Nevada</a> granted a preliminary injunction that: </p> <blockquote><p>"prohibits the defendants from making misrepresentations regarding their academic journals and conferences, including that specific persons are editors of their journals or have agreed to participate in their conferences. It also prohibits the defendants from falsely representing that their journals engage in peer review, that their journals are included in any academic journal indexing service or any measurement of the extent to which their journals are cited. It also requires that the defendants clearly and conspicuously disclose all costs associated with submitting or publishing articles in their journals."<sup id="cite_ref-OMICS-prelim-injunction_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OMICS-prelim-injunction-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In April 2019, the court imposed a fine of US$50.1 million on OMICS companies.<sup id="cite_ref-ftc_case_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ftc_case-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hindu.2019_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hindu.2019-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> OMICS' lawyer said that this was an unfair allegation and that OMICS would sue FTC for $3.11 billion in damages, saying it had caused loss of revenue and reputation.<sup id="cite_ref-Hindu.2019_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hindu.2019-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sears_Holdings_case">Sears Holdings case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sears Holdings case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Matter_of_Sears_Holdings_Management_Corp." class="mw-redirect" title="In the Matter of Sears Holdings Management Corp.">In the Matter of Sears Holdings Management Corp.</a></i>, the FTC alleged that a research software program provided by Sears was deceptive because it collected information about nearly all online behavior, a fact that was only disclosed in legalese, buried within the end user license agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FTC secured a consent decree in the case. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bush_administration">Bush administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Bush administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gateway_Learning_case">Gateway Learning case</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gateway Learning case"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/In_re_Gateway_Learning_Corp." title="In re Gateway Learning Corp.">In re Gateway Learning Corp.</a></i> the FTC alleged that Gateway committed unfair and deceptive trade practices by making retroactive changes to its privacy policy without informing customers and by violating its own privacy policy by selling customer information when it had said it would not.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gateway settled the complaint by entering into a consent decree with the FTC that required it to surrender some profits and placed restrictions upon Gateway for the following 20 years.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Activities_in_the_healthcare_industry">Activities in the healthcare industry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Activities in the healthcare industry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to prospective analysis of the effects of mergers and acquisitions, the FTC has recently resorted to retrospective analysis and monitoring of consolidated hospitals.<sup id="cite_ref-DHG_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHG-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, it also uses retroactive data to demonstrate that some hospital mergers and acquisitions are hurting consumers, particularly in terms of higher prices.<sup id="cite_ref-DHG_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHG-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here are some recent examples of the FTC's success in blocking or unwinding of hospital consolidations or affiliations: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phoebe_Putney_Memorial_Hospital_and_Palmyra_Medical_Center_in_Georgia">Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital and Palmyra Medical Center in Georgia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital and Palmyra Medical Center in Georgia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 2011, the FTC successfully challenged in court the $195 million acquisition of Palmyra Medical Center by Phoebe Putney Memorial Hospital.<sup id="cite_ref-DHG_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHG-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Phoebe_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoebe-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FTC alleged that the transaction would create a monopoly as it would "reduce competition significantly and allow the combined Phoebe/Palmyra to raise prices for general acute-care hospital services charged to commercial health plans, substantially harming patients and local employers and employees".<sup id="cite_ref-Phoebe_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoebe-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> on February 19, 2013, ruled in favor of the FTC.<sup id="cite_ref-Phoebe_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Phoebe-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ProMedica_health_system_and_St._Luke's_hospital_in_Ohio"><span id="ProMedica_health_system_and_St._Luke.27s_hospital_in_Ohio"></span>ProMedica health system and St. Luke's hospital in Ohio</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: ProMedica health system and St. Luke's hospital in Ohio"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Similarly, court attempts by ProMedica health system in <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a> to overturn an order by the FTC to the company to unwind its 2010 acquisition of St. Luke's hospital were unsuccessful.<sup id="cite_ref-DHG_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHG-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ProMedica_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProMedica-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FTC claimed that the acquisition would hurt consumers through higher premiums because insurance companies would be required to pay more.<sup id="cite_ref-ProMedica_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProMedica-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In December 2011, an administrative judge upheld the FTC's decision, noting that the behavior of ProMedica health system and St. Luke's was indeed anticompetitive. The court ordered ProMedica to divest St. Luke's to a buyer that would be approved by the FTC within 180 days of the date of the order.<sup id="cite_ref-DHG_67-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DHG-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ProMedica_69-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ProMedica-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="OSF_healthcare_system_and_Rockford_Health_System_in_Illinois">OSF healthcare system and Rockford Health System in Illinois</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: OSF healthcare system and Rockford Health System in Illinois"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In November 2011, the FTC filed a lawsuit alleging that the proposed acquisition of Rockford by OSF would drive up prices for general acute-care inpatient services as OSF would face only one competitor (SwedishAmerican health system) in the Rockford area and would have a market share of 64%.<sup id="cite_ref-OSF_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OSF-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later in 2012, OSF announced that it had abandoned its plans to acquire Rockford Health System.<sup id="cite_ref-OSF_70-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OSF-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission" title="List of members of the Federal Trade Commission">List of members of the Federal Trade Commission</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_members_of_the_FTC">Current members of the FTC</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Current members of the FTC"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The commission is headed by five commissioners, who each serve seven-year terms. Commissioners are nominated by the <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">president</a> and confirmed by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>. No more than three commissioners can be of the same <a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">political party</a>. In practice, this means that two commissioners are of the opposition party. However, three members of the FTC throughout its history have been <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">without party affiliation</a>, with the most recent independent, <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Jones_Harbour" title="Pamela Jones Harbour">Pamela Jones Harbour</a>, serving from 2003 to 2009.<sup id="cite_ref-mlexwatch.com_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mlexwatch.com-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" id="senators"> <tbody><tr> <th>Portrait </th> <th>Name </th> <th colspan="2">Party </th> <th>Prior experience </th> <th>Education </th> <th>Term began </th> <th><span class="nowrap">Term expires</span> </th></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lina_Khan,_FTC_Chair_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg/125px-Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg/188px-Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Lina_Khan%2C_FTC_Chair_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1780" data-file-height="2374" /></a></span> </td> <th><a href="/wiki/Lina_Khan" title="Lina Khan">Lina Khan</a> <p>(chair) </p> </th> <td style="background-color:#3333FF"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> </td> <td>Legal scholar </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Williams_College" title="Williams College">Williams College</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bachelor_of_Arts" title="Bachelor of Arts">BA</a>) <p><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_School" title="Yale Law School">Yale Law School</a> (<a href="/wiki/Juris_Doctor" title="Juris Doctor">JD</a>) </p> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002021-06-15-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">June 15, 2021</span> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002024-09-26-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">September 26, 2024</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Rebecca_Slaughter_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg/125px-Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg/188px-Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Rebecca_Slaughter_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1826" data-file-height="2434" /></a></span> </td> <th><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Slaughter" title="Rebecca Slaughter">Rebecca Slaughter</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#3333FF"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> </td> <td>Legal advisor to Senator <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Schumer" title="Chuck Schumer">Chuck Schumer</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yale_University" title="Yale University">Yale University</a> (BA) <p><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_School" title="Yale Law School">Yale Law School</a> (JD) </p> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002018-05-02-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">May 2, 2018</span> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002029-09-26-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">September 26, 2029</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Alvaro_Bedoya,_FTC_Commissioner_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg/125px-Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg/188px-Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg/250px-Alvaro_Bedoya%2C_FTC_Commissioner_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3138" data-file-height="4442" /></a></span> </td> <th><a href="/wiki/Alvaro_Bedoya" title="Alvaro Bedoya">Alvaro Bedoya</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#3333FF"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a> </td> <td>Director of the <a href="/wiki/Center_on_Privacy_and_Technology" title="Center on Privacy and Technology">Center on Privacy and Technology</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Georgetown_University_Law_Center" title="Georgetown University Law Center">Georgetown University Law Center</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Harvard_College" title="Harvard College">Harvard College</a> (BA) <p><a href="/wiki/Yale_Law_School" title="Yale Law School">Yale Law School</a> (JD) </p> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002022-05-16-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">May 16, 2022</span> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002026-09-26-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">September 26, 2026</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Melissa_Holyoak,_FTC_Commissioner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/125px-Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/188px-Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/250px-Melissa_Holyoak%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2901" data-file-height="2859" /></a></span> </td> <th><a href="/wiki/Melissa_Holyoak" title="Melissa Holyoak">Melissa Holyoak</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#E81B23"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Solicitor_general" title="Solicitor general">Solicitor general</a> of Utah </td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Utah" title="University of Utah">University of Utah</a> (BA) <p><a href="/wiki/S.J._Quinney_College_of_Law" title="S.J. Quinney College of Law">University of Utah Law School</a> (JD) </p> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002024-03-25-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">March 25, 2024</span> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002025-09-26-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">September 26, 2025</span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Andrew_N._Ferguson,_FTC_Commissioner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/125px-Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/188px-Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg/250px-Andrew_N._Ferguson%2C_FTC_Commissioner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3369" data-file-height="5054" /></a></span> </td> <th><a href="/wiki/Andrew_N._Ferguson" title="Andrew N. Ferguson">Andrew N. Ferguson</a> </th> <td style="background-color:#E81B23"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a> </td> <td>Solicitor general of Virginia </td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia" title="University of Virginia">University of Virginia</a> (BA) <p><a href="/wiki/University_of_Virginia_School_of_Law" title="University of Virginia School of Law">University of Virginia School of Law</a> (JD) </p> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002024-04-02-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">April 2, 2024</span> </td> <td><span data-sort-value="000000002030-09-26-0000" style="white-space:nowrap">September 26, 2030</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <ul><li>Shortly after the U.S. Senate confirmed Lina Khan as a commissioner, President Biden tapped her to serve as chair of the commission.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The FTC Act allows commissioners to remain in their position after their term expires until a replacement has been appointed.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Backgrounds_of_commissioners">Backgrounds of commissioners</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Backgrounds of commissioners"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As of 2021, there have been: </p> <ul><li>Three <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African-Americans</a> to serve on the FTC: <a href="/wiki/A._Leon_Higginbotham_Jr." title="A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.">A. Leon Higginbotham Jr.</a> (served from 1962 to 1964), <a href="/wiki/Mozelle_W._Thompson" title="Mozelle W. Thompson">Mozelle W. Thompson</a> (served from 1997 to 2004), <a href="/wiki/Pamela_Jones_Harbour" title="Pamela Jones Harbour">Pamela Jones Harbour</a> (served from 2003 to 2009)<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Three <a href="/wiki/Asian_Americans" title="Asian Americans">Asian-Americans</a> to serve on the FTC: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Yao" title="Dennis Yao">Dennis Yao</a> (served from 1991 to 1994), <a href="/wiki/Rohit_Chopra" title="Rohit Chopra">Rohit Chopra</a> (served from 2018 to 2021), and <a href="/wiki/Lina_Khan" title="Lina Khan">Lina Khan</a> (served since 2021); Khan is the first Asian-American to serve as FTC Chair<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Three <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">independents</a> to serve on the FTC: <a href="/wiki/Philip_Elman" title="Philip Elman">Philip Elman</a> (served from 1961 to 1970), <a href="/wiki/Mary_Azcuenaga" title="Mary Azcuenaga">Mary Azcuenaga</a> (served from 1984 to 1998), and Pamela Jones Harbour (served from 2003 to 2009)<sup id="cite_ref-mlexwatch.com_71-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mlexwatch.com-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bureaus">Bureaus</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Bureaus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output 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message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/240px-seek%3D59-Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="240" height="135" data-durationhint="97" data-mwtitle="Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/1/17/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv/Scam_Watch_1280x720.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption><i>How to File a Complaint with the Federal Trade Commission</i>, from the FTC</figcaption></figure> <p>The FTC has three main bureaus: the Bureau of Competition, the Bureau of Consumer Protection, and the Bureau of Economics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureau_of_Competition">Bureau of Competition</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Bureau of Competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Bureau of Competition is the division of the FTC charged with elimination and prevention of "anticompetitive" business practices. It accomplishes this through the enforcement of <a href="/wiki/Antitrust" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust">antitrust</a> laws, review of proposed <a href="/wiki/Merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Merger">mergers</a>, and investigation into other non-merger business practices that may impair competition. Such non-merger practices include horizontal restraints, involving agreements between direct competitors, and <a href="/wiki/Vertical_restraints" title="Vertical restraints">vertical restraints</a>, involving agreements among businesses at different levels in the same industry (such as suppliers and commercial buyers). </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Apex_Building,_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission,_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington,_D.C.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg/220px-The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg/330px-The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg/440px-The_Apex_Building%2C_headquarters_of_the_Federal_Trade_Commission%2C_on_Constitution_Avenue_and_7th_Streets_in_Washington%2C_D.C.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3396" data-file-height="2262" /></a><figcaption>Apex Building, built in 1938 (FTC headquarters) in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, DC</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The FTC shares enforcement of antitrust laws with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice" title="United States Department of Justice">Department of Justice</a>. However, while the FTC is responsible for civil enforcement of antitrust laws, the <a href="/wiki/Antitrust_Division_of_the_Department_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice">Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice</a> has the power to bring both civil and criminal action in antitrust matters. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureau_of_Consumer_Protection">Bureau of Consumer Protection</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Bureau of Consumer Protection"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Bureau of Consumer Protection's mandate is to protect consumers against unfair or deceptive acts or practices in commerce. With the written consent of the commission, Bureau attorneys enforce federal laws related to consumer affairs and rules promulgated by the FTC. Its functions include investigations, enforcement actions, and consumer and business education. Areas of principal concern for this bureau are: advertising and marketing, financial products and practices, <a href="/wiki/Telemarketing_fraud" title="Telemarketing fraud">telemarketing fraud</a>, privacy and identity protection, etc. The bureau also is responsible for the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Do_Not_Call_Registry" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Do Not Call Registry">United States National Do Not Call Registry</a>. </p><p>Under the FTC Act, the commission has the authority, in most cases, to bring its actions in federal court through its own attorneys. In some consumer protection matters, the FTC appears with, or supports, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bureau_of_Economics">Bureau of Economics</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Bureau of Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Bureau of Economics was established to support the Bureau of Competition and Consumer Protection by providing expert knowledge related to the economic impacts of the FTC's legislation and operation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_offices">Other offices</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Other offices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The FTC maintains an Office of Technology Research and Investigation to assist it in technology-related enforcement actions.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The FTC generally selects its Chief Technologist from among computer science academics and noted practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The role has previously been filled by <a href="/wiki/Steven_M._Bellovin" title="Steven M. Bellovin">Steven K. Bellovin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lorrie_Cranor" title="Lorrie Cranor">Lorrie Cranor</a>, <a href="/wiki/Edward_Felten" title="Edward Felten">Edward Felten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ashkan_Soltani" title="Ashkan Soltani">Ashkan Soltani</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latanya_Sweeney" title="Latanya Sweeney">Latanya Sweeney</a>.</li> <li>The FTC also maintains an academic in residence program, inviting leading legal scholars to join the FTC for a year as a Senior Policy Advisor. The role has been held by <a href="/wiki/Tim_Wu" title="Tim Wu">Tim Wu</a> in 2011,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paul Ohm in 2012,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Andrea_M._Matwyshyn" title="Andrea M. Matwyshyn">Andrea M. Matwyshyn</a> in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Activities">Activities</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Activities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-One_source plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-one_source" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies largely or entirely on a <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Articles_with_a_single_source" title="Wikipedia:Articles with a single source">single source</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:Federal_Trade_Commission##" title="Talk:Federal Trade Commission">talk page</a>. Please help <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">introducing citations to additional sources</a>.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Federal+Trade+Commission%22">"Federal Trade Commission"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Federal+Trade+Commission%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Federal+Trade+Commission%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Federal+Trade+Commission%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external 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3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 18em;"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Competition_law" title="Competition law">Competition law</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice_2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/100px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/150px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Scale_of_justice_2.svg/200px-Scale_of_justice_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="204" data-file-height="208" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Basic concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_competition_law" title="History of competition law">History of competition law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopoly" title="Monopoly">Monopoly</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oligopoly" title="Oligopoly">oligopoly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coercive_monopoly" title="Coercive monopoly">Coercive monopoly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_monopoly" title="Natural monopoly">Natural monopoly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barriers_to_entry" title="Barriers to entry">Barriers to entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herfindahl%E2%80%93Hirschman_index" title="Herfindahl–Hirschman index">Herfindahl–Hirschman index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_concentration" title="Market concentration">Market concentration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Market_power" title="Market power">Market power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_but_significant_and_non-transitory_increase_in_price" title="Small but significant and non-transitory increase in price">SSNIP test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevant_market" title="Relevant market">Relevant market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merger_control" title="Merger control">Merger control</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> <a href="/wiki/Anti-competitive_practices" title="Anti-competitive practices">Anti-competitive practices</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monopolization" title="Monopolization">Monopolization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collusion" title="Collusion">Collusion</a> <ul><li>Formation of <a href="/wiki/Cartel" title="Cartel">cartels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Price_fixing" title="Price fixing">Price fixing</a> (<a href="/wiki/Price_fixing_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="Price fixing cases">cases</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bid_rigging" title="Bid rigging">Bid rigging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_collusion" title="Tacit collusion">Tacit collusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_licensing" title="Occupational licensing">Occupational licensing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Product_bundling" title="Product bundling">Product bundling</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tying_(commerce)" title="Tying (commerce)">tying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refusal_to_deal" title="Refusal to deal">Refusal to deal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Group_boycott" title="Group boycott">Group boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_facilities_doctrine" title="Essential facilities doctrine">Essential facilities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusive_dealing" title="Exclusive dealing">Exclusive dealing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dividing_territories" title="Dividing territories">Dividing territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_closure" title="Occupational closure">Occupational closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predatory_pricing" title="Predatory pricing">Predatory pricing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patent_misuse" title="Patent misuse">Misuse of patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_misuse" title="Copyright misuse">copyrights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulatory_capture" title="Regulatory capture">Regulatory capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">Rent-seeking</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#98FB98;"> Enforcement authorities and organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Competition_Network" title="International Competition Network">International Competition Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_regulator" title="Competition regulator">List of competition regulators</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Competition_law" title="Template:Competition law"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Competition_law" title="Template talk:Competition law"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Competition_law" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Competition law"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The FTC investigates issues raised by reports from consumers and businesses, pre-merger notification filings, congressional inquiries, or reports in the <a href="/wiki/Mass_media" title="Mass media">media</a>. These issues include, for instance, <a href="/wiki/False_advertising" title="False advertising">false advertising</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a>. FTC investigations may pertain to a single company or an entire industry. If the results of the investigation reveal unlawful conduct, the FTC may seek voluntary compliance by the offending business through a <a href="/wiki/Consent_judgment" class="mw-redirect" title="Consent judgment">consent order</a>, file an administrative complaint, or initiate federal litigation. During the course of regulatory activities, the FTC is authorized to collect records, but not on-site inspections.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally an administrative complaint is heard in front of an independent administrative law judge (ALJ) with FTC staff acting as prosecutors. The case is reviewed <i>de novo</i> by the full FTC commission which then may be appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals and finally to the Supreme Court.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Under the FTC Act, the federal courts retain their traditional authority to issue <a href="/wiki/Equitable_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Equitable relief">equitable relief</a>, including the appointment of receivers, monitors, the imposition of asset freezes to guard against the spoliation of funds, immediate access to business premises to preserve evidence, and other relief including financial disclosures and expedited discovery. In numerous cases, the FTC employs this authority to combat serious consumer deception or fraud. Additionally, the FTC has <a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">rulemaking</a> power to address concerns regarding industry-wide practices. Rules promulgated under this authority are known as <i>Trade Rules</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One of the Federal Trade Commission's other major focuses is <a href="/wiki/Identity_theft" title="Identity theft">identity theft</a>. The FTC serves as a federal repository for individual consumer complaints regarding identity theft. Even though the FTC does not resolve individual complaints, it does use the aggregated information to determine where federal action might be taken. The complaint form is available online or by phone (1-877-ID-THEFT).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The FTC has been involved in the oversight of the online advertising industry and its practice of <a href="/wiki/FTC_regulation_of_behavioral_advertising" title="FTC regulation of behavioral advertising">behavioral targeting</a> for some time. In 2011 the FTC proposed a "<a href="/wiki/Do_Not_Track" title="Do Not Track">Do Not Track</a>" mechanism to allow Internet users to <a href="/wiki/Opt-out" title="Opt-out">opt-out</a> of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_targeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral targeting">behavioral targeting</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The FTC, along with the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> and Department of Justice also empowers third-party enforcer-firms to engage in some regulatory oversight, e.g. the FTC requires other energy companies to audit offshore oil platform operators.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, the FTC issued a comprehensive revision of its <a href="/wiki/Green_guides" title="Green guides">Green guides</a>, which set forth standards for environmental marketing.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable secondary sources. (August 2024)">non-primary source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Unfair_or_deceptive_practices_affecting_consumers">Unfair or deceptive practices affecting consumers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Unfair or deceptive practices affecting consumers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Primary_sources plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Primary_sources" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>relies excessively on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">references</a> to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">primary sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please improve this section by adding <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources" title="Wikipedia:No original research">secondary or tertiary sources</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_1" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/EndorsementGuides_0.webm/240px-seek%3D148-EndorsementGuides_0.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="240" height="135" data-durationhint="257" data-mwtitle="EndorsementGuides_0.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:EndorsementGuides_0.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/EndorsementGuides_0.webm/EndorsementGuides_0.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="484" data-height="272" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/EndorsementGuides_0.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-width="484" data-height="272" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/EndorsementGuides_0.webm/EndorsementGuides_0.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/7a/EndorsementGuides_0.webm/EndorsementGuides_0.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption><i>Endorsement Guides</i> from the FTC</figcaption></figure> <p>Section 5 of the Federal Trade Commission Act, <a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/45">§ 45</a> grants the FTC power to investigate and prevent <i>deceptive</i> trade practices. The statute declares that "unfair methods of competition in or affecting commerce, and unfair or deceptive acts or practices in or affecting commerce, are hereby declared unlawful."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unfairness and deception towards consumers represent two distinct areas of FTC enforcement and authority. The FTC also has authority over unfair methods of competition between businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Unfairness_Policy_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unfairness_Policy-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Definitions_of_unfairness">Definitions of unfairness</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Definitions of unfairness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Courts have identified three main factors that must be considered in consumer unfairness cases: (1) whether the practice injures consumers; (2) whether the practice violates established public policy; and (3) whether it is unethical or unscrupulous.<sup id="cite_ref-Unfairness_Policy_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unfairness_Policy-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Definitions_of_deception">Definitions of deception</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Definitions of deception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In a letter to the Chairman of the House Committee on Energy and Commerce, the FTC defined the elements of <a href="/wiki/Deception" title="Deception">deception</a> cases. First, "there must be a representation, omission or practice that is likely to mislead the consumer."<sup id="cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deception_Policy-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of omissions, the Commission considers the implied representations understood by the consumer. </p><p> A misleading omission occurs when information is not disclosed to correct reasonable consumer expectations.<sup id="cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deception_Policy-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Second, the Commission examines the practice from the perspective of a reasonable consumer being targeted by the practice. Finally the representation or omission must be a material one – that is one that would have changed consumer behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Deception_Policy-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg/220px-Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg/330px-Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg/440px-Federal_Trade_Commission_Entrance_Doorway.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1757" data-file-height="2353" /></a><figcaption>Federal Trade Commission entrance doorway in Washington, DC</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Dot_Com_Disclosures_guide">Dot Com Disclosures guide</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Dot Com Disclosures guide"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In its Dot Com Disclosures guide,<sup id="cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dot_Com_Disclosures-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the FTC said that "disclosures that are required to prevent deception or to provide consumers material information about a transaction must be presented clearly and conspicuously."<sup id="cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dot_Com_Disclosures-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FTC suggested a number of different factors that would help determine whether the information was "clear and conspicuous" including but not limited to: </p> <ul><li>the <b>placement</b> of the disclosure in an advertisement and its <b>proximity</b> to the claim it is qualifying,</li> <li>the <b>prominence</b> of the disclosure,</li> <li>whether items in other parts of the advertisement <b>distract attention</b> from the disclosure,</li> <li>whether the advertisement is so lengthy that the disclosure needs to be <b>repeated</b>,</li> <li>whether disclosures in audio messages are presented in an adequate <b>volume and cadence</b> and visual disclosures appear for a sufficient <b>duration</b>, and</li> <li>whether the language of the disclosure is <b>understandable</b> to the intended audience.<sup id="cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dot_Com_Disclosures-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>However, the "key is the overall net impression."<sup id="cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dot_Com_Disclosures-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Federal+Trade+Commission&rft.atitle=FTC+Names+Latanya+Sweeney+as+Chief+Technologist%3B+Andrea+Matwyshyn+as+Policy+Advisor&rft.date=2013-11-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fnews-events%2Fpress-releases%2F2013%2F11%2Fftc-names-latanya-sweeney-chief-technologist-andrea-matwyshyn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Loo2018" class="citation journal cs1">Van Loo, Rory (August 1, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/265">"Regulatory Monitors: Policing Firms in the Compliance Era"</a>. <i>Faculty Scholarship</i>. <b>119</b> (2): 369.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Faculty+Scholarship&rft.atitle=Regulatory+Monitors%3A+Policing+Firms+in+the+Compliance+Era&rft.volume=119&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=369&rft.date=2018-08-01&rft.aulast=Van+Loo&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.bu.edu%2Ffaculty_scholarship%2F265&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Loo2020" class="citation journal cs1">Van Loo, Rory (April 1, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/800">"The New Gatekeepers: Private Firms as Public Enforcers"</a>. <i>Virginia Law Review</i>. <b>106</b> (2): 467.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virginia+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+New+Gatekeepers%3A+Private+Firms+as+Public+Enforcers&rft.volume=106&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=467&rft.date=2020-04-01&rft.aulast=Van+Loo&rft.aufirst=Rory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.bu.edu%2Ffaculty_scholarship%2F800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov/opa/2012/10/greenguides.shtm">"FTC Issues Revised 'Green Guides'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>FTC.gov</i>. October 1, 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 24,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FTC.gov&rft.atitle=FTC+Issues+Revised+%27Green+Guides%27&rft.date=2012-10-01&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fopa%2F2012%2F10%2Fgreenguides.shtm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_15_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 15 of the United States Code">15 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/45(a)(1)">§ 45(a)(1)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unfairness_Policy-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Unfairness_Policy_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Unfairness_Policy_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/policystmt/ad-unfair.htm">"FTC Policy Statement on Unfairness, Dec. 17, 1980"</a>. Ftc.gov<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 14,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FTC+Policy+Statement+on+Unfairness%2C+Dec.+17%2C+1980&rft.pub=Ftc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fbcp%2Fpolicystmt%2Fad-unfair.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deception_Policy-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Deception_Policy_86-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov/bcp/policystmt/ad-decept.htm">"FTC Policy Statement on Deception, Oct. 14, 1983"</a>. Ftc.gov<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 14,</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FTC+Policy+Statement+on+Deception%2C+Oct.+14%2C+1983&rft.pub=Ftc.gov&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fbcp%2Fpolicystmt%2Fad-decept.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dot_Com_Disclosures-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dot_Com_Disclosures_87-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/attachments/press-releases/ftc-staff-revises-online-advertising-disclosure-guidelines/130312dotcomdisclosures.pdf">".com Disclosures: How to Make Effective Disclosures in Digital Advertising, March 2013"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. FTC<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 19,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=.com+Disclosures%3A+How+to+Make+Effective+Disclosures+in+Digital+Advertising%2C+March+2013&rft.pub=FTC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ftc.gov%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2Fattachments%2Fpress-releases%2Fftc-staff-revises-online-advertising-disclosure-guidelines%2F130312dotcomdisclosures.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Further_reading_cleanup plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This "<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Layout#Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Layout">Further reading</a>" section <b>may need cleanup</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please read the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Further_reading" title="Wikipedia:Further reading">editing guide</a> and help improve the section.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">August 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacLean2007" class="citation journal cs1">MacLean, Elizabeth Kimball (July 2007). "Joseph E. Davies: The Wisconsin Idea and the Origins of the Federal Trade Commission". <i>Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era</i>. <b>6</b> (3): 248–284. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS1537781400002097">10.1017/S1537781400002097</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161773580">161773580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Gilded+Age+and+Progressive+Era&rft.atitle=Joseph+E.+Davies%3A+The+Wisconsin+Idea+and+the+Origins+of+the+Federal+Trade+Commission&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=248-284&rft.date=2007-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS1537781400002097&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161773580%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=MacLean&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Kimball&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWinerman2003" class="citation journal cs1">Winerman, Marc (2003). "The Origins of the FTC: Concentration, Cooperation, Control, and Competition". <i>Antitrust Law Journal</i>. <b>71</b> (1): 1–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antitrust+Law+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+the+FTC%3A+Concentration%2C+Cooperation%2C+Control%2C+and+Competition&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-98&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Winerman&rft.aufirst=Marc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacIntyreVolhard1970" class="citation journal cs1">MacIntyre, A. Everette; Volhard, Joachim J. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/bclr/vol11/iss4/6/">"The Federal Trade Commission"</a>. <i>Boston College Law Review</i>. <b>11</b> (4): 723–783.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+College+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Federal+Trade+Commission&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=723-783&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=MacIntyre&rft.aufirst=A.+Everette&rft.au=Volhard%2C+Joachim+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flawdigitalcommons.bc.edu%2Fbclr%2Fvol11%2Fiss4%2F6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis1962" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, G. Cullom (1962). "The Transformation of the Federal Trade Commission, 1914–1929". <i>The Mississippi Valley Historical Review</i>. <b>49</b> (3): 437–455. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1902564">10.2307/1902564</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1902564">1902564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Mississippi+Valley+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=The+Transformation+of+the+Federal+Trade+Commission%2C+1914%E2%80%931929&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=437-455&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1902564&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1902564%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=G.+Cullom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFederal+Trade+Commission" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Federal_Trade_Commission&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 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style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="USA. 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Federal Trade Commission"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=vse20191023851&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/8046515">Norway</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=141182">Greece</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=494/56910">Vatican</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007269260005171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01024933?l=en">CiNii</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/998875">Trove</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027913465">IdRef</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" 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