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<li id="toc-Sequence_composition_and_evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sequence_composition_and_evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Sequence composition and evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sequence_composition_and_evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-vascular_plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-vascular_plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Non-vascular plants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-vascular_plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gymnosperms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gymnosperms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.3</span> <span>Gymnosperms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gymnosperms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Angiosperms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Angiosperms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.4</span> <span>Angiosperms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Angiosperms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Medical applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Evolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sex chromosome</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 48 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-48" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">48 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschlechtschromosom" title="Geschlechtschromosom – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Geschlechtschromosom" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%BA%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%8A" title="صبغي جنسي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="صبغي جنسي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%99%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%97_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%AE" title="লিঙ্গ ক্রোমোজোম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="লিঙ্গ ক্রোমোজোম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8ng-ji%C3%A1m-sek-th%C3%A9" title="Sèng-jiám-sek-thé – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sèng-jiám-sek-thé" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Ганасомы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ганасомы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Ганасомы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ганасомы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolni_hromosom" title="Spolni hromosom – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Spolni hromosom" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al%C2%B7losoma" title="Al·losoma – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Al·losoma" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pohlavn%C3%AD_chromozom" title="Pohlavní chromozom – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pohlavní chromozom" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8nskromosom" title="Kønskromosom – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kønskromosom" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonosom" title="Gonosom – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gonosom" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonosoom" title="Gonosoom – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Gonosoom" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%87%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%83%CF%89%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Φυλετικό χρωμόσωμα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυλετικό χρωμόσωμα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alosoma" title="Alosoma – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Alosoma" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexu-kromosoma" title="Sexu-kromosoma – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sexu-kromosoma" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%AC%D9%86%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="کروموزوم جنسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="کروموزوم جنسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonosome" title="Gonosome – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gonosome" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gn%C3%A9aschr%C3%B3mas%C3%B3m" title="Gnéaschrómasóm – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Gnéaschrómasóm" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromosoma_sexual" title="Cromosoma sexual – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cromosoma sexual" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B1%EC%97%BC%EC%83%89%EC%B2%B4" title="성염색체 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="성염색체" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kynlitningur" title="Kynlitningur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kynlitningur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eterosoma" title="Eterosoma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Eterosoma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9B%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%96%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9F" title="כרומוזומי מין – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="כרומוזומי מין" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%81_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Жыныс хромосомалары – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жыныс хромосомалары" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonosz%C3%B3ma" title="Gonoszóma – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gonoszóma" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%9A%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="Одредување на пол – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Одредување на пол" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geslachtschromosoom" title="Geslachtschromosoom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geslachtschromosoom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E6%9F%93%E8%89%B2%E4%BD%93" title="性染色体 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="性染色体" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnskromosom" title="Kjønnskromosom – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kjønnskromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kj%C3%B8nnskromosom" title="Kjønnskromosom – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kjønnskromosom" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinsiy_xromosomalar" title="Jinsiy xromosomalar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Jinsiy xromosomalar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosomy_p%C5%82ci" title="Chromosomy płci – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Chromosomy płci" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromossomo_sexual" title="Cromossomo sexual – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cromossomo sexual" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterozom" title="Heterozom – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Heterozom" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%8B" title="Половые хромосомы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Половые хромосомы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_chromosome" title="Sex chromosome – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sex chromosome" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%AE%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%85%DB%86%D8%B3%DB%86%D9%85" title="توخمی کرۆمۆسۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="توخمی کرۆمۆسۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Полни хромозом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Полни хромозом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukupuolikromosomi" title="Sukupuolikromosomi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sukupuolikromosomi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nskromosom" title="Könskromosom – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Könskromosom" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="பால்குறி நிறப்புரி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பால்குறி நிறப்புரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A8" title="โครโมโซมเพศ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครโมโซมเพศ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chromosome that differs from an ordinary autosome in form, size, and behavior</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist" style="width:22.0em;white-space:wrap;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Sex" title="Category:Sex">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff; font-size:135%;font-weight:normal;color:black;"><b><a href="/wiki/Sex" title="Sex">Sex</a></b></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/200px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/300px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg/400px-Mice_X_Y_chromosomes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="519" data-file-height="285" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> Biological terms</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminization_(biology)" title="Feminization (biology)">Feminization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virilization" title="Virilization">Virilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XO_sex-determination_system" title="XO sex-determination system">XO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZO_sex-determination_system" title="ZO sex-determination system">ZO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Heterogametic sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">Homogametic sex</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sex chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_chromosome_anomalies" title="Sex chromosome anomalies">Sex chromosome anomalies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">Testis-determining factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sequential_hermaphroditism" title="Sequential hermaphroditism">Sequential hermaphroditism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simultaneous_hermaphroditism" title="Simultaneous hermaphroditism">Simultaneous hermaphroditism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_(biology)" title="Intersex (biology)">Intersex (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_type" title="Mating type">Mating type</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">Sexual reproduction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_sexual_reproduction" title="Evolution of sexual reproduction">Evolution of sexual reproduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisogamy" title="Anisogamy">Anisogamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isogamy" title="Isogamy">Isogamy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_cell" title="Germ cell">Germ cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">Meiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gametogenesis" title="Gametogenesis">Gametogenesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatogenesis" title="Spermatogenesis">Spermatogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oogenesis" title="Oogenesis">Oogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamete" title="Gamete">Gamete</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spermatozoon" title="Spermatozoon">spermatozoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_cell" title="Egg cell">ovum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertilisation" title="Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/External_fertilization" title="External fertilization">External fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internal_fertilization" title="Internal fertilization">Internal fertilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproduction" title="Plant reproduction">Plant reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mating_in_fungi" title="Mating in fungi">Fungal reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction_in_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual reproduction in animals">Sexual reproduction in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_intercourse" title="Sexual intercourse">Sexual intercourse</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penile%E2%80%93vaginal_intercourse" title="Penile–vaginal intercourse">Penile–vaginal intercourse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)" title="Copulation (zoology)">Copulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_reproduction" title="Human reproduction">Human reproduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordosis_behavior" title="Lordosis behavior">Lordosis behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_thrust" title="Pelvic thrust">Pelvic thrust</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_reproductive_morphology" title="Plant reproductive morphology">Plant sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_sexual_behaviour" title="Animal sexual behaviour">Animal sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Human sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanics_of_human_sexuality" title="Mechanics of human sexuality">Mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexual_activity" title="Human sexual activity">Activity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#ddddff;"> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_system" title="Sexual system">Sexual system</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.15em 0.5em 0.6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dioecy" title="Dioecy">Dioecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gonochorism" title="Gonochorism">Gonochorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sex_sidebar" title="Template talk:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sex_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sex sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Sex chromosomes</b> (also referred to as <b>allosomes</b>, <b>heterotypical chromosome, gonosomes</b>, <b>heterochromosomes</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-bionline_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bionline-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>idiochromosomes</b><sup id="cite_ref-bionline_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bionline-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) are <a href="/wiki/Chromosome" title="Chromosome">chromosomes</a> that carry the genes that determine the sex of an individual. The human sex chromosomes are a typical pair of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammal</a> allosomes. They differ from <a href="/wiki/Autosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomes">autosomes</a> in form, size, and behavior. Whereas autosomes occur in homologous pairs whose members have the same form in a <a href="/wiki/Diploid_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Diploid cell">diploid cell</a>, members of an allosome pair may differ from one another. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Nettie_Stevens" title="Nettie Stevens">Nettie Stevens</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Beecher_Wilson" title="Edmund Beecher Wilson">Edmund Beecher Wilson</a> both independently discovered sex chromosomes in 1905. However, Stevens is credited for discovering them earlier than Wilson.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Differentiation">Differentiation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Differentiation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_XY_chromosome_cropped.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Human_male_karyotpe_high_resolution_-_XY_chromosome_cropped.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="66" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="66" /></a><figcaption>Human male XY chromosomes after <span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/G-banding" class="mw-redirect" title="G-banding">G-banding</a></span></figcaption></figure> <p>In humans, each <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">cell nucleus</a> contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46 chromosomes. The first 22 pairs are called <a href="/wiki/Autosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomes">autosomes</a>. Autosomes are <a href="/wiki/Homologous_chromosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Homologous chromosomes">homologous chromosomes</a> i.e. chromosomes which contain the same <a href="/wiki/Genes" class="mw-redirect" title="Genes">genes</a> (regions of DNA) in the same order along their chromosomal arms. The 23rd pair of chromosomes are called allosomes. These consist of two <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosomes</a> in females, and an X chromosome and a <a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a> in males. Females therefore have 23 homologous chromosome pairs, while males have 22. The X and Y chromosomes have small regions of homology called <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal regions</a>. </p><p>An X chromosome is always present as the 23rd chromosome in the <a href="/wiki/Ovum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ovum">ovum</a>, while either an X or Y chromosome may be present in an individual <a href="/wiki/Sperm" title="Sperm">sperm</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early in female embryonic development, in cells other than egg cells, one of the X chromosomes is randomly and permanently partially <a href="/wiki/X-inactivation" title="X-inactivation">deactivated</a>: In some cells, the X chromosome inherited from the mother deactivates; in other cells, it is the X chromosome inherited from the father. This ensures that both sexes always have exactly one functional copy of an X chromosome in each body cell. The deactivated X chromosome is silenced by repressive <a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">heterochromatin</a> that compacts the DNA and prevents expression of most genes. This compaction is regulated by <a href="/wiki/PRC2" title="PRC2">PRC2</a> (Polycomb Repressive Complex 2).<sup id="cite_ref-pmid28947664_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid28947664-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sex_determination">Sex determination</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sex determination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/220px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="364" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/330px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png/440px-Human_karyotype_with_bands_and_sub-bands.png 2x" data-file-width="9684" data-file-height="16008" /></a><figcaption>Schematic <a href="/wiki/Karyogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyogram">karyogram</a> of a human, showing the sex chromosomes in green box at bottom right. The X chromosome is part of <a href="/wiki/Chromosome#Human_chromosomes" title="Chromosome">chromosome group</a> C, and the Y chromosome is part of group G. <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">Bands and sub-bands</a> are annotated to the right of each chromosome (or chromosome pair), and the gene for the <a href="/wiki/Sex-determining_region_Y_protein" title="Sex-determining region Y protein">sex-determining region Y protein</a> is located at Yp11.2.<br /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Karyogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyogram">Karyogram</a></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">Sexual differentiation in humans</a></div> <p>All <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#Diploid" title="Ploidy">diploid</a> organisms with allosome-determined sex get half of their allosomes from each of their parents. In most mammals, females are XX, and can pass along either of their Xs; since males are XY they can pass along either an X or a Y. Females in such species receive an X chromosome from each parent while males receive an X chromosome from their mother and a Y chromosome from their father. It is thus the male's sperm that determines the sex of each offspring in such species. </p><p>However, a small percentage of humans have a divergent sexual development, known as <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a>. This can result from allosomes that are neither XX nor XY. It can also occur when two fertilized embryo fuse, producing a <a href="/wiki/Chimera_(genetics)" title="Chimera (genetics)">chimera</a> that might contain two different sets of DNA one XX and the other XY.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It could also result from exposure, often in utero, to chemicals that disrupt the normal conversion of the allosomes into sex hormones and further into the development of either <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">ambiguous outer genitalia or internal organs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kucinskas2005_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kucinskas2005-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is a gene in the Y chromosome that has regulatory sequences that control genes that code for maleness, called the <a href="/wiki/SRY_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="SRY gene">SRY gene</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This gene produces a testis-determining factor ("TDF"), which initiates testis development in humans and other mammals. The SRY sequence's prominence in sex determination was discovered when the genetics of <a href="/wiki/XX_male_syndrome" title="XX male syndrome">sex-reversed XX men</a> (i.e. humans who possess biological male-traits but actually have XX allosomes) were studied. After examination, it was discovered that the difference between a typical XX individual (traditional female) and a sex-reversed XX man was that the typical individuals lacked the SRY gene. It is theorized that in sex-reversed XX men, the SRY gets <a href="/wiki/Chromosomal_translocation" title="Chromosomal translocation">translocated</a> to an X chromosome in the XX pair during <a href="/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hake-2008_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hake-2008-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_vertebrates">Other vertebrates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other vertebrates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Diverse mechanisms are involved in the determination of sex in animals.<sup id="cite_ref-Hunter1995_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hunter1995-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For mammals, sex determination is carried by the genetic contribution of the spermatozoon. Many lower chordates, such as fish, amphibians and reptiles, have systems that are influenced by the environment. Fish and amphibians, for example, have genetic sex determination but their sex can also be influenced by externally available steroids and incubation temperature of eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some reptiles, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a>, only the incubation temperature determines sex (<a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">temperature-dependent sex determination</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many scientists argue that sex determination in plants is more complex than that in humans. This is because even <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> have a variety of mating systems, their sex determination primarily regulated by MADS-box genes. These genes code for proteins that form the sex organs in flowers.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plant sex chromosomes are most common in <a href="/wiki/Bryophyte" title="Bryophyte">bryophytes</a>, relatively common in <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a> and unknown in <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycophyte" title="Lycophyte">lycophytes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pannell-2017_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pannell-2017-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The diversity of plants is reflected in their sex-determination systems, which include XY and <a href="/wiki/UV_sex_determination" class="mw-redirect" title="UV sex determination">UV</a> systems as well as many variants. Sex chromosomes have evolved independently across many plant groups. Recombination of chromosomes may lead to <a href="/wiki/Heterogametic_sex" class="mw-redirect" title="Heterogametic sex">heterogamety</a> before the development of sex chromosomes, or recombination may be reduced after sex chromosomes develop.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only a few <a href="/wiki/Pseudoautosomal_region" title="Pseudoautosomal region">pseudoautosomal regions</a> normally remain once sex chromosomes are fully differentiated. When chromosomes do not recombine, neutral sequence divergences begin to accumulate, which has been used to estimate the age of sex chromosomes in various plant lineages. Even the oldest estimated divergence, in the liverwort <i><a href="/wiki/Marchantia_polymorpha" title="Marchantia polymorpha">Marchantia polymorpha</a>,</i> is more recent than mammal or bird divergence. Due to this recency, most plant sex chromosomes also have relatively small sex-linked regions. Current evidence does not support the existence of plant sex chromosomes more ancient than those of <i>M. polymorpha</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Charlesworth-2016_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-2016-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The high prevalence of <a href="/wiki/Autopolyploidy" class="mw-redirect" title="Autopolyploidy">autopolyploidy</a> in plants also impacts the structure of their sex chromosomes. Polyploidization can occur before and after the development of sex chromosomes. If it occurs after sex chromosomes are established, dosage should stay consistent between the sex chromosomes and autosomes, with minimal impact on sex differentiation. If it occurs before sex chromosomes become heteromorphic, as is likely in the octoploid red sorrel <i><a href="/wiki/Rumex_acetosella" title="Rumex acetosella">Rumex acetosella</a></i>, sex is determined in a single XY system. In a more complicated system, the sandalwood species <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Viscum_fischeri&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viscum fischeri (page does not exist)">Viscum fischeri</a></i> has X1X1X2X2 chromosomes in females, and X1X2Y chromosomes in males.<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-2014_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sequence_composition_and_evolution">Sequence composition and evolution</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sequence composition and evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Amplification of transposable elements, <a href="/wiki/Tandem_repeat" title="Tandem repeat">tandom repeats</a> especially accumulation of long tandom repeats (<a href="/wiki/LTR_retrotransposon" title="LTR retrotransposon">LTR</a>) <a href="/wiki/Retrotransposon" title="Retrotransposon">retrotransposones</a> are responsible for plant sex chromosome evolution. The insertion of retrotransposons is probably the major cause of y-chromosome expansion and <a href="/wiki/Plant_genomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant genomes">plant genome</a> size evolution. Retrotransposones contribute in size determination of sex chromosomes and its proliferation varies even in closely related species. LTR and tandom repeats play dominant role in the evolution of <i>S. latifolia</i> sex chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Athila is new family of retroelements, discovered in <i><a href="/wiki/Arabidopsis_thaliana" title="Arabidopsis thaliana">Arabidopsis thaliana</a></i>, present in <a href="/wiki/Heterochromatin" title="Heterochromatin">heterochromatin</a> region only. Athila retroelements overrepresented in X but absent in Y while tandem repeats enriched in Y-chromosome. Some <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a> sequences have also been identified in the Y-chromosome of <i><a href="/wiki/Silene_latifolia" title="Silene latifolia">S. latifolia</a></i>. <i><a href="/wiki/Silene_vulgaris" title="Silene vulgaris">S. vulgaris</a></i> has more retroelements in their sex chromosomes compare to <i>S. latifolia</i>. <a href="/wiki/Microsatellite" title="Microsatellite">Microsatellite</a> data shows that there is no significant difference between X and Y-chromosome microsatellites in both <i>Silene</i> species. This would conclude that microsatellites do not participate in Y-chromosome evolution. The portion of Y-chromosome that never recombine with X-chromosome faces selection reduction. This reduced selection leads to insertion of transposable elements and accumulation of <a href="/wiki/Deleterious_mutation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deleterious mutation">deleterious mutation</a>. The Y become larger and smaller than X due to insertion of retroelement and deletion of genetic material respectively. The genus <i><a href="/wiki/Humulus" title="Humulus">Humulus</a></i> is also used as model for the study of sex chromosomes evolution. Based on the <a href="/wiki/Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetic</a> topology distribution there are three regions on sex chromosomes. One region that stops recombining in the <a href="/wiki/Ancestor" title="Ancestor">ancestor</a> of <i><a href="/wiki/Humulus_lupulus" title="Humulus lupulus">H. lupulus</a></i>, second that stops recombining in modern <i>H. lupulus</i> and the third region called pseudoautosomal region. <i>H. lupulus</i> is the rare case in plants in which Y is smaller than X, while its ancestor plant has the same size of both X and Y chromosomes. This size difference should be caused by deletion of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> in Y but that is not the case. This is because of complex dynamics like the larger size of X than Y-chromosome may be due to <a href="/wiki/Duplication_(chromosomal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Duplication (chromosomal)">duplication</a> or retrotransposition and size of Y remains same.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Non-vascular_plants">Non-vascular plants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Non-vascular plants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Ferns and lycophytes have bisexual <a href="/wiki/Gametophyte" title="Gametophyte">gametophytes</a>, so there is no evidence for sex chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-Pannell-2017_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pannell-2017-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the bryophytes, including liverworts, hornworts and mosses, sex chromosomes are common. The sex chromosomes in bryophytes affect what type of gamete is produced by the gametophyte, and there is wide diversity in gametophyte type. Unlike seed plants, where gametophytes are always unisexual, in bryophytes they may produce male, female, or both types of gamete.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-2017_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-2017-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bryophytes most commonly employ a UV sex-determination system, where U produces female gametophytes and V produces male gametophytes. The U and V chromosomes are heteromorphic with U larger than V and are frequently both larger than the autosomes. There is variation even within this system, including UU/V and U/VV chromosome arrangements. In some bryophytes, <a href="/wiki/Microchromosome" title="Microchromosome">microchromosomes</a> have been found to co-occur with sex chromosomes and likely impact sex determination.<sup id="cite_ref-Renner-2017_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Renner-2017-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gymnosperms">Gymnosperms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Gymnosperms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dioecy is common among <a href="/wiki/Gymnosperm" title="Gymnosperm">gymnosperms</a>, found in an estimated 36% of species. However, heteromorphic sex chromosomes are relatively rare, with only five species known as of 2014. Five of these use an XY system, and one (<i><a href="/wiki/Ginkgo_biloba" title="Ginkgo biloba">Ginkgo biloba</a></i>) uses a WZ system. Some gymnosperms, such as Johann's Pine (<i><a href="/wiki/Pinus_johannis" title="Pinus johannis">Pinus johannis</a></i>), have homomorphic sex chromosomes that are almost indistinguishable through <a href="/wiki/Karyotyping" class="mw-redirect" title="Karyotyping">karyotyping</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kumar-2014_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kumar-2014-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Angiosperms">Angiosperms</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Angiosperms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cosexual <a href="/wiki/Angiosperm" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperm">angiosperms</a> with either monoecious or hermaphroditic flowers do not have sex chromosomes. Angiosperms with separate sexes (dioecious) may use sex chromosomes or environmental flowers for sex determination. <a href="/wiki/Cytogenetics" title="Cytogenetics">Cytogenetic</a> data from about 100 angiosperm species showed heteromorphic sex chromosomes in approximately half, mostly taking the form of XY sex-determination systems. Their Y is typically larger, unlike in humans; however there is diversity among angiosperms. In the Poplar genus (<i><a href="/wiki/Populus" title="Populus">Populus</a></i>) some species have male heterogamety while others have female heterogamety.<sup id="cite_ref-Charlesworth-2016_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Charlesworth-2016-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sex chromosomes have arisen independently multiple times in angiosperms, from the monoecious ancestral condition. The move from a monoecious to dioecious system requires both <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_male_sterility" title="Cytoplasmic male sterility">male and female sterility mutations</a> to be present in the population. Male sterility likely arises first as an adaptation to prevent selfing. Once male sterility has reached a certain prevalence, then female sterility may have a chance to arise and spread.<sup id="cite_ref-Pannell-2017_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pannell-2017-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the domesticated papaya (<i><a href="/wiki/Carica_papaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Carica papaya">Carica papaya</a></i>), three sex chromosomes are present, denoted as X, Y and Y<sup>h</sup>. This corresponds with three sexes: females with XX chromosomes, males with XY, and hermaphrodites with XY<sup>h</sup>. The hermaphrodite sex is estimated to have arisen only 4000 years ago, post-domestication of the plant. The genetic architecture suggests that either the Y chromosome has an X-inactivating gene, or that the Y<sup>h</sup> chromosome has an X-activating gene.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medical_applications">Medical applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Medical applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Allosomes not only carry the genes that determine male and female traits, but also those for some other characteristics as well. Genes that are carried by either sex chromosome are said to be <a href="/wiki/Sex_linkage" title="Sex linkage">sex linked</a>. Sex linked diseases are passed down through families through one of the X or Y chromosomes. Since usually men inherit Y chromosomes, they are the only ones to inherit Y-linked traits. Men and women can get the X-linked ones since both inherit X chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated2_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An allele is either said to be <a href="/wiki/Dominance_(genetics)" title="Dominance (genetics)">dominant</a> or <a href="/wiki/Recessive" class="mw-redirect" title="Recessive">recessive</a>. Dominant inheritance occurs when an abnormal gene from one parent causes disease even though the matching gene from the other parent is normal. The abnormal allele dominates. Recessive inheritance is when both matching genes must be abnormal to cause disease. If only one gene in the pair is abnormal, the disease does not occur, or is mild. Someone who has one abnormal gene (but no symptoms) is called a carrier. A carrier can pass this abnormal gene to his or her children.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> X chromosome carry about 1500 genes, more than any other chromosome in the human body. Most of them code for something other than female anatomical traits. Many of the non-sex determining X-linked genes are responsible for abnormal conditions. The Y chromosome carries about 78 genes. Most of the Y chromosome genes are involved with essential cell house-keeping activities and sperm production. Only one of the Y chromosome genes, the SRY gene, is responsible for male anatomical traits. When any of the 9 genes involved in sperm production are missing or defective the result is usually very low sperm counts and infertility.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of mutations on the X chromosome include more common diseases such as the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> or color vision deficiency is the inability or decreased ability to see color, or perceive color differences, under normal lighting conditions. Color blindness affects many individuals in the population. There is no actual blindness, but there is a deficiency of color vision. The most usual cause is a fault in the development of one or more sets of retinal cones that perceive color in light and transmit that information to the optic nerve. This type of color blindness is usually a sex-linked condition. The genes that produce photopigments are carried on the X chromosome; if some of these genes are missing or damaged, color blindness will be expressed in males with a higher probability than in females because males only have one X chromosome.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemophilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemophilia">Hemophilia</a> refers to a group of bleeding disorders in which it takes a long time for the blood to clot. This is referred to as X-Linked recessive.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hemophilia is much more common in males than females because males are hemizygous. They only have one copy of the gene in question and therefore express the trait when they inherit one mutant allele. In contrast, a female must inherit two mutant alleles, a less frequent event since the mutant allele is rare in the population. X-linked traits are maternally inherited from carrier mothers or from an affected father. Each son born to a carrier mother has a 50% probability of inheriting the X chromosome carrying the mutant allele.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fragile_X_syndrome" title="Fragile X syndrome">Fragile X syndrome</a> is a genetic condition involving changes in part of the X chromosome. It is the most common form of inherited intellectual disability (mental retardation) in males. It is caused by a change in a gene called FMR1. A small part of the gene code is repeated on a fragile area of the X chromosome. The more repeats, the more likely there is to be a problem. Males and females can both be affected, but because males have only one X chromosome, a single fragile X is likely to affect them more. Most fragile-X males have large testes, big ears, narrow faces, and <a href="/wiki/Sensory_processing_disorder" title="Sensory processing disorder">sensory processing disorders</a> that result in learning disabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Other complications include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XX_male_syndrome" title="XX male syndrome">46,XX testicular disorder of sex development</a>, also called XX male syndrome, is a condition in which individuals with two X chromosomes in each cell, the pattern normally found in females, have a male appearance. People with this disorder have male external genitalia. In most people with 46,XX testicular disorder of sex development, the condition results from an exchange of genetic material between chromosomes (translocation). This exchange occurs as a random event during the formation of sperm cells in the affected person's father. The SRY gene (normally on the Y chromosome) is misplaced in this disorder, onto an X chromosome. Any person with an X chromosome that carries the SRY gene will develop male characteristics despite not having a Y chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution">Evolution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Evolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sex chromosomes evolve from standard pairs of autosomal chromosomes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a large number of organisms, the sex-determination systems presently observed are products of sex chromosome turnover. Sex chromosome turnover is a process defined as when the type of the sex chromosome changes as a product of a change in the identity of the sex-determining genes (such as by mutation) or by a change in their location.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other cases, sex chromosomes may grow substantially with respect to their ancestral forms as a result of fusion events with autosomes, and autosome-sex chromosome fusions result in what are called neo-sex chromosomes. Five examples of this are now known in the songbird superfamily <a href="/wiki/Sylvioidea" title="Sylvioidea">Sylvioidea</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is one experimentally documented case of sex chromosome turnover occurring during a 30-year evolutionary experiment involving <a href="/wiki/Teleost" title="Teleost">teleost</a> fish (specifically the <a href="/wiki/Xiphophorus" title="Xiphophorus">swordtails</a>), in which hybridization experiments resulted in a translocation of the sex-determiner region of a sex chromosome into an autosome. This resulted in the autosome becoming a novel W sex chromosome.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fisher%27s_principle" title="Fisher's principle">Fisher's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_rule" title="Haldane's rule">Haldane's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY sex-determination system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW sex-determination system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X0_sex-determination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="X0 sex-determination system">X0 sex-determination system</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sex_chromosome&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-bionline-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bionline_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-bionline_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Allosome">"Allosome - Biology-Online Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.biology-online.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180211125713/https://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/Allosome">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-02-11<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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<li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_8" title="Chromosome 8">8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_9" title="Chromosome 9">9</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_10" title="Chromosome 10">10</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_11" title="Chromosome 11">11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_12" title="Chromosome 12">12</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_13" title="Chromosome 13">13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_14" title="Chromosome 14">14</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_15" title="Chromosome 15">15</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_16" title="Chromosome 16">16</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_17" title="Chromosome 17">17</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_18" title="Chromosome 18">18</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_19" title="Chromosome 19">19</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_20" title="Chromosome 20">20</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_21" title="Chromosome 21">21</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromosome_22" title="Chromosome 22">22</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Allosome" class="mw-redirect" title="Allosome">Sex chromosome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">Mitochondrial genome</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics" title="Human mitochondrial genetics">Human mitochondrial DNA</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human genome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_genes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of human genes">List of human genes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeogenetics#Human_archaeology" title="Archaeogenetics">Human archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Sex_determination_and_differentiation250" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" 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id="Sex_determination_and_differentiation250" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex determination</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">differentiation</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation" title="Sexual differentiation">Sexual differentiation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_differentiation_in_humans" title="Sexual differentiation in humans">humans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_reproductive_system" title="Development of the reproductive system">Development of the reproductive system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_gonads" title="Development of the gonads">gonads</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesonephric_duct" title="Mesonephric duct">Mesonephric duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paramesonephric_duct" title="Paramesonephric duct">Paramesonephric duct</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genetic basis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex-determination_system" title="Sex-determination system">Sex-determination system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/XY_sex-determination_system" title="XY sex-determination system">XY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X0_sex-determination_system" class="mw-redirect" title="X0 sex-determination system">X0</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ZW_sex-determination_system" title="ZW sex-determination system">ZW</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature-dependent_sex_determination" title="Temperature-dependent sex determination">Temperature-dependent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplodiploidy" title="Haplodiploidy">Haplodiploidy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sex chromosome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a></li></ul></li> <li>Sex determining gene: <a href="/wiki/Testis-determining_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Testis-determining factor">SRY</a> (mammal) <a href="/wiki/DMRT1" title="DMRT1">DMRT1</a> (birds)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hermaphrodite" title="Hermaphrodite">Hermaphrodite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">Intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disorders_of_sex_development" title="Disorders of sex development">Disorders of sex development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_reversal" title="Sex 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