CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Environmental impact of irrigation - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-sticky-header-enabled vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"bf755e52-0297-4b7e-9d14-228e19673a6e","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Environmental_impact_of_irrigation","wgTitle":"Environmental impact of irrigation","wgCurRevisionId":1265963497,"wgRevisionId":1265963497,"wgArticleId":22373877,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["CS1: long volume value","Webarchive template wayback links","CS1 maint: archived copy as title","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Irrigation","Environmental issues with water","Environmental issues with soil","Environmental impact of agriculture"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Environmental_impact_of_irrigation", "wgRelevantArticleId":22373877,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":30000,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q5381246","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true ,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","ext.tmh.player.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.tmh.player","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar", "ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.tmh.player.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.16"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/1200px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="900"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/800px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="600"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/640px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="480"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Environmental impact of irrigation - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Environmental_impact_of_irrigation rootpage-Environmental_impact_of_irrigation skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" title="Main menu" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li><li id="n-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages"><span>Special pages</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Environmental+impact+of+irrigation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Environmental+impact+of+irrigation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?wmf_source=donate&wmf_medium=sidebar&wmf_campaign=en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Environmental+impact+of+irrigation" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Environmental+impact+of+irrigation" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Direct_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Direct_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Direct effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Direct_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Indirect_Effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indirect_Effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Indirect Effects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indirect_Effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverse_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverse_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Adverse impacts</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adverse_impacts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Adverse impacts subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Adverse_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reduced_river_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_river_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Reduced river flow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduced_river_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increased_groundwater_recharge,_waterlogging,_soil_salinity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increased_groundwater_recharge,_waterlogging,_soil_salinity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Increased groundwater recharge, waterlogging, soil salinity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increased_groundwater_recharge,_waterlogging,_soil_salinity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduced_downstream_river_water_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_downstream_river_water_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Reduced downstream river water quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduced_downstream_river_water_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Affected_downstream_water_users" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Affected_downstream_water_users"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Affected downstream water users</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Affected_downstream_water_users-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lost_land_use_opportunities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lost_land_use_opportunities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Lost land use opportunities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lost_land_use_opportunities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Groundwater_mining_with_wells,_land_subsidence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groundwater_mining_with_wells,_land_subsidence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Groundwater mining with wells, land subsidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groundwater_mining_with_wells,_land_subsidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Simulation_and_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Simulation_and_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Simulation and prediction</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Simulation_and_prediction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Simulation and prediction subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Simulation_and_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Case_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Case studies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduced_downstream_drainage_and_groundwater_quality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_downstream_drainage_and_groundwater_quality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Reduced downstream drainage and groundwater quality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduced_downstream_drainage_and_groundwater_quality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitigation_of_adverse_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitigation_of_adverse_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Mitigation of adverse effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mitigation_of_adverse_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Mitigation of adverse effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Mitigation_of_adverse_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Delayed_environmental_impacts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Delayed_environmental_impacts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Delayed environmental impacts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Delayed_environmental_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Case_study_in_Malawi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Case_study_in_Malawi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Case study in Malawi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Case_study_in_Malawi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of irrigation</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 7 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-7" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">7 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D9%8A_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="الأثر البيئي للري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الأثر البيئي للري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_medioambiental_del_riego" title="Impacto medioambiental del riego – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Impacto medioambiental del riego" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AB%D8%B1_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%A2%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="اثر زیست‌محیطی آبیاری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اثر زیست‌محیطی آبیاری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dampak_lingkungan_dari_irigasi" title="Dampak lingkungan dari irigasi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dampak lingkungan dari irigasi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%9A%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%86_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%98%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%82" title="ജലസേചനത്തിന്റെ പാരിസ്ഥിതിക ആഘാതം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജലസേചനത്തിന്റെ പാരിസ്ഥിതിക ആഘാതം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milieueffecten_van_irrigatie" title="Milieueffecten van irrigatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Milieueffecten van irrigatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impacto_ambiental_da_irriga%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Impacto ambiental da irrigação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impacto ambiental da irrigação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5381246#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&oldid=1265963497" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&id=1265963497&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnvironmental_impact_of_irrigation"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FEnvironmental_impact_of_irrigation"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5381246" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Land & irrigation</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rubaksa_gardens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/220px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/330px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg/440px-Rubaksa_gardens.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="3096" /></a><figcaption>The first environmental effect is increased crop growth, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Rubaksa" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubaksa">Rubaksa</a> gardens in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/220px--Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="77" data-mwtitle="Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, opus"" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.1080p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="1080p.vp9.webm" data-width="1920" data-height="1080" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/0/02/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm/Crop_Irrigation_Is_Closely_Tied_to_Groundwater_Depletion_Around_the_World.webm.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>The irrigation that grows crops, especially in dry countries, can also be responsible for taxing aquifers beyond their capacities. Groundwater depletion is embedded in the international food trade, with countries exporting crops grown from overexploited aquifers and setting up potential future food crises if the aquifers run dry.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>environmental impact of irrigation</b> relates to the changes in quantity and quality of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> as a result of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> and the subsequent effects on natural and social conditions in <a href="/wiki/River_basin" class="mw-redirect" title="River basin">river basins</a> and downstream of an <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">irrigation scheme</a>. The effects stem from the altered <a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">hydrological conditions</a> caused by the installation and operation of the irrigation scheme. </p><p>Amongst some of these problems is the depletion of underground <a href="/wiki/Aquifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a> through <a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">overdrafting</a>. Soil can be over-irrigated due to poor <a href="/wiki/Distribution_uniformity" title="Distribution uniformity">distribution uniformity</a> or <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheduling" title="Irrigation scheduling">management</a> <a href="/wiki/Waste" title="Waste">wastes</a> water, chemicals, and may lead to <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. Over-irrigation can cause deep drainage from rising water tables that can lead to problems of irrigation <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salinity</a> requiring <a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">watertable control</a> by some form of <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">subsurface land drainage</a>. However, if the soil is under-irrigated, it gives poor <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">soil salinity control</a>, which leads to increased <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">soil salinity</a> with the consequent buildup of toxic <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a> on the soil surface in areas with high <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a>. This requires either <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a> to remove these salts or a method of <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> to carry the salts away. Irrigation with <a href="/wiki/Saline_water" title="Saline water">saline</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sodium_adsorption_ratio" title="Sodium adsorption ratio">high-sodium</a> water may damage soil structure owing to the formation of <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_soil" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkaline soil">alkaline soil</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Direct_effects">Direct effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Direct effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal,_Top_Countries_(2020).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/440px-Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/660px-Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg/880px-Share_Of_Water_Withdrawal_By_Agriculture_In_Total_Withdrawal%2C_Top_Countries_%282020%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="266" /></a><figcaption>Countries with the highest share of water withdrawal by agriculture in total withdrawal.</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">irrigation scheme</a> draws water from groundwater, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Overland_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Overland flow">overland flow</a>, and distributes it over a certain area. <a href="/wiki/Hydrological" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrological">Hydrological</a>, or direct, effects of doing this<sup id="cite_ref-Direct_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Direct-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> include reduction in downstream river flow, increased <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> in the irrigated area, increased level in the <a href="/wiki/Watertable" class="mw-redirect" title="Watertable">water table</a> as <a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">groundwater recharge</a> in the area is increased and flow increased in the irrigated area. Likewise, irrigation has immediate effects on providing moisture to the atmosphere, inducing atmospheric instabilities, and increasing rainfall downwind,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or in other cases modifies the atmospheric circulation, delivering rain to different downwind areas.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increases or decreases in irrigation are a key area of concern in <a href="/wiki/Precipitationshed" title="Precipitationshed">precipitationshed</a> studies, that examine how significant modifications to the delivery of evaporation to the atmosphere can alter downwind rainfall.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Indirect_Effects">Indirect Effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Indirect Effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Indirect effects are those that have consequences that take longer to develop and may also be longer-lasting. The indirect effects of irrigation include the following: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">Waterlogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salination" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salination">Soil salination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecological damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomy">Socioeconomic</a> impacts</li></ul> <p>The indirect effects of <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_salination" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil salination">soil salination</a> occur directly on the land being irrigated. The <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> consequences take longer to happen but can be more far-reaching. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">irrigation schemes</a> use <a href="/wiki/Water_wells" class="mw-redirect" title="Water wells">water wells</a> for irrigation. As a result, the overall water level decreases. This may cause <a href="/wiki/Water_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mining">water mining</a>, land/soil <a href="/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence" title="Groundwater-related subsidence">subsidence</a>, and, along the coast, <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_intrusion" title="Saltwater intrusion">saltwater intrusion</a>. </p><p>Irrigated land area worldwide occupies about 16% of the total agricultural area, and the crop yield of irrigated land is roughly 40% of the total yield.<sup id="cite_ref-Bruce_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bruce-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, irrigated land produces 2.5 times more product than non-irrigated land. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adverse_impacts">Adverse impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Adverse impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_river_flow">Reduced river flow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reduced river flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The reduced downstream river flow may cause: </p> <ul><li>reduced downstream flooding</li> <li>disappearance of ecologically and economically important wetlands or flood forests<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>reduced availability of industrial, municipal, household, and drinking water</li> <li>reduced shipping routes. Water withdrawal poses a serious threat to the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a>. In India, <a href="/wiki/Barrage_(dam)" title="Barrage (dam)">barrages</a> control all of the tributaries to the Ganges and divert roughly 60 percent of river flow to irrigation<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>reduced fishing opportunities. The <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> River in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> faces scarcity due to the over-extraction of water for agriculture. The Indus is inhabited by 25 amphibian species and 147 fish species, of which 22 are found nowhere else. It harbors the endangered <a href="/wiki/Indus_river_dolphin" title="Indus river dolphin">Indus river dolphin</a>, one of the world's rarest mammals. Fish populations, the main source of <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> and overall life support systems for many communities are also being threatened<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>reduced discharge into the sea, which may have various consequences like <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a> (e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and saltwater intrusion in delta's and estuaries (e.g. in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Aswan_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Aswan dam">Aswan dam</a>). Current water withdrawal from the river <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> for irrigation is so high that, despite its size, the river does not reach the sea in dry periods.<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a> has suffered an "environmental catastrophe" due to the interception of river water for irrigation purposes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increased_groundwater_recharge,_waterlogging,_soil_salinity"><span id="Increased_groundwater_recharge.2C_waterlogging.2C_soil_salinity"></span>Increased groundwater recharge, waterlogging, soil salinity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Increased groundwater recharge, waterlogging, soil salinity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Soil_Salinity2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Soil_Salinity2.jpg/220px-Soil_Salinity2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Soil_Salinity2.jpg/330px-Soil_Salinity2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Soil_Salinity2.jpg/440px-Soil_Salinity2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1555" data-file-height="1166" /></a><figcaption>Looking over the shoulder of a Peruvian farmer in the <a href="/wiki/Huarmey" title="Huarmey">Huarmey</a> delta at <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogged</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salinised</a> irrigated land with a poor crop stand. <br /> This illustrates an environmental impact of upstream irrigation developments causing an increased flow of <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> to this lower-lying area, leading to adverse conditions.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/220px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/330px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg/440px-1960-_Groundwater_loss_-_depletion_-_Central_Valley_of_California.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="675" /></a><figcaption>Within a long period of groundwater depletion in California's <a href="/wiki/Central_Valley_(California)" title="Central Valley (California)">Central Valley</a>, short periods of recovery have been mostly driven by extreme weather events that typically caused flooding and had negative social, environmental and economic consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-NatureComms_20221219_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NatureComms_20221219-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Increased groundwater recharge stems from the unavoidable <a href="/wiki/Deep_percolation" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep percolation">deep percolation</a> losses in the irrigation scheme. The lower the irrigation efficiency, the higher the losses. Although reasonably high irrigation efficiencies of 70% or more (i.e., losses of 30% or less) can occur with sophisticated techniques like <a href="/wiki/Irrigation#Sprinkler" title="Irrigation">sprinkler irrigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">drip irrigation</a> or by well-managed <a href="/wiki/Surface_irrigation" title="Surface irrigation">surface irrigation</a>, in practice the losses are commonly in the order of 40% to 60%. This may cause the following issues: </p> <ul><li>rising water tables</li> <li>increased storage of groundwater that may be used for irrigation, municipal, household, and drinking water by pumping from <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> and drainage problems in villages, agricultural lands, and along roads - with mostly negative consequences. The increased level of the water table can lead to reduced agricultural production.</li> <li>shallow water tables - a sign that the aquifer is unable to cope with the groundwater recharge stemming from the deep percolation losses</li> <li>where water tables are shallow, the irrigation applications are reduced. As a result, the soil is no longer <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">leached</a> and <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">soil salinity</a> problems develop</li> <li>stagnant water tables at the soil surface are known to increase the incidence of water-borne diseases like <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Filariasis" title="Filariasis">filariasis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dengue" class="mw-redirect" title="Dengue">dengue</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a> (Bilharzia) in many areas.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Health costs, appraisals of health impacts, and mitigation measures are rarely part of irrigation projects.<sup id="cite_ref-Thakkar_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thakkar-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>to mitigate the adverse effects of shallow water tables and soil salinization, some form of <a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">watertable control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">soil salinity control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">drainage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">drainage system</a> is needed</li> <li>as drainage water moves through the soil profile, it may dissolve nutrients (either fertilizer-based or naturally occurring) such as nitrates, leading to a buildup of those nutrients in the ground-water aquifer. High nitrate levels in drinking water can be harmful to humans, particularly infants under six months, where it is linked to "blue-baby syndrome" (see <a href="/wiki/Methemoglobinemia" title="Methemoglobinemia">Methemoglobinemia</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_downstream_river_water_quality">Reduced downstream river water quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Reduced downstream river water quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Owing to drainage of surface and groundwater in the project area, which waters may be salinized and polluted by <a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">agricultural chemicals</a> like <a href="/wiki/Biocides" class="mw-redirect" title="Biocides">biocides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, the quality of the river water below the project area can deteriorate, which makes it less fit for industrial, municipal and household use. It may lead to reduced public health.<br /> Polluted river water entering the sea may adversely affect the ecology along the seashore (see <a href="/wiki/Aswan_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Aswan dam">Aswan dam</a>). </p><p>The detention of sediments behind the dams can eliminate the natural contribution of sediments, which is critical to surface water irrigation diversions. Sedimentation is an essential part of the ecosystem that requires the natural flux of the river flow. This natural cycle of sediment dispersion replenishes the nutrients in the soil, which will, in turn, determine the livelihood of the plants and animals that rely on the sediments carried downstream. The benefits of heavy sedimentation deposits can be seen in large rivers like the Nile River. The sediment from the delta has built up to form a giant aquifer during flood season and retains water in the wetlands. The wetlands created and sustained due to built-up sediment are a habitat for numerous species of birds.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, heavy sedimentation can reduce downstream river water quality and can exacerbate floods upstream. This has been known to happen in the Sanmenxia reservoir in China. The Sanmenxia reservoir is part of a larger man-made project of hydroelectric dams called the Three Gorge Project <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1998, uncertain calculations and heavy sediment greatly affected the reservoir's ability to fulfill its flood-control function properly <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also reduces the downstream river water quality. Shifting more towards mass irrigation installments to meet more socioeconomic demands is going against the natural balance of nature, and use water pragmatically- use it where it is found<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Affected_downstream_water_users">Affected downstream water users</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Affected downstream water users"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BaluchNomads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/220px-BaluchNomads.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/330px-BaluchNomads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/440px-BaluchNomads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1714" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>Water becomes scarce for nomadic pastoralist in Baluchistan due to new irrigation developments</figcaption></figure> <p>Downstream water users often have no legal water rights and may fall victim to irrigation development. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pastoralists" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoralists">Pastoralists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nomads" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomads">nomadic tribes</a> may find their land and water resources blocked by new irrigation developments without having legal recourse. </p><p>Flood-recession cropping may be seriously affected by the upstream interception of river water for irrigation purposes. </p> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (Pakistan)">Baluchistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, the development of new small-scale irrigation projects depleted the water resources of <a href="/wiki/Nomads" class="mw-redirect" title="Nomads">nomadic tribes</a> traveling annually between Baluchistan and <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, India<sup id="cite_ref-oost_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oost-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>After the closure of the <a href="/wiki/Kainji_Dam" title="Kainji Dam">Kainji</a> dam, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, 50 to 70 percent of the downstream area of flood-recession cropping was lost<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10.34748W_13.10430N.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/220px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/330px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/440px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>Lake Manantali, 477 km<sup>2</sup>, displaced 12,000 people.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lost_land_use_opportunities">Lost land use opportunities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Lost land use opportunities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Irrigation projects may reduce the fishing opportunities of the original population and the grazing opportunities for cattle. The <a href="/wiki/Livestock" title="Livestock">livestock</a> pressure on the remaining lands may increase considerably because the ousted traditional pastoralist tribes will have to find their <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence</a> and existence elsewhere, <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a> may increase, followed by serious <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">soil erosion</a> and the loss of <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /> The <a href="/wiki/Lake_Manantali" title="Lake Manantali">Manatali reservoir</a> formed by the <a href="/wiki/Manantali_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Manantali dam">Manantali dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a> intersects the migration routes of nomadic pastoralists and destroyed 43000 ha of <a href="/wiki/Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a>, probably leading to overgrazing and erosion elsewhere. Further, the reservoir destroyed 120 km<sup>2</sup> of <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a>. The depletion of groundwater aquifers, which is caused by the suppression of the seasonal flood cycle, is damaging the forests downstream of the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Groundwater_mining_with_wells,_land_subsidence"><span id="Groundwater_mining_with_wells.2C_land_subsidence"></span>Groundwater mining with wells, land subsidence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Groundwater mining with wells, land subsidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BodemVerzakking.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/BodemVerzakking.jpg/220px-BodemVerzakking.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/62/BodemVerzakking.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="237" data-file-height="165" /></a><figcaption>Flooding as a consequence of land subsidence</figcaption></figure> <p>When more groundwater is pumped from wells than replenished, storage of water in the <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> is being <a href="/wiki/Water_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mining">mined</a>, and the use of that water is no longer sustainable. As levels fail, it becomes more difficult to extract water, and pumps will struggle to maintain the design flow rate, which may consume more energy per unit of water. Eventually, extracting groundwater may become so difficult that farmers may be forced to abandon irrigated agriculture.<br /> Some notable examples include: </p> <ul><li>The hundreds of <a href="/wiki/Tube_well" title="Tube well">tube wells</a> installed in <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, India, with World Bank funding, have operating periods of 1.4 to 4.7 hours/day. In contrast, they were designed to operate 16 hours/day<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Balochistan_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Balochistan (Pakistan)">Baluchistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, the development of tube well irrigation projects was at the expense of the traditional <a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">qanat</a> or <a href="/wiki/Karez" class="mw-redirect" title="Karez">karez</a> users<sup id="cite_ref-oost_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-oost-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater-related_subsidence" title="Groundwater-related subsidence">groundwater-related subsidence</a><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the land due to mining of groundwater occurred in the United States at a rate of 1m for every 13m that the water table was lowered<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Homes at Greens Bayou near <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>, where 5 to 7 feet of subsidence has occurred, were flooded during a storm in June 1989 as shown in the picture<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Simulation_and_prediction">Simulation and prediction</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Simulation and prediction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The effects of irrigation on the water table, soil salinity, and salinity of drainage and groundwater, and the effects of <a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">mitigative measures</a> can be simulated and predicted using agro-hydro-salinity models like <a href="/wiki/SaltMod" title="SaltMod">SaltMod</a> and <a href="/wiki/SahysMod" title="SahysMod">SahysMod</a><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_studies">Case studies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Case studies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ol><li>In India, 2.19 million ha of land has been reported to suffer from waterlogging in irrigation canal commands. Also, 3.47 million ha were reported to be seriously salt-affected,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> Plains in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, more than 2 million hectares of land are waterlogged.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The soil of 13.6 million hectares within the Gross Command Area was surveyed, which revealed that 3.1 million hectares (23%) were saline. 23% of this was in <a href="/wiki/Sindh" title="Sindh">Sindh</a> and 13% in the <a href="/wiki/Punjab_(Pakistan)" class="mw-redirect" title="Punjab (Pakistan)">Punjab</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Green_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 3 million ha of water-logged lands have been provided with tube-wells and drains at the cost of billions of rupees. Still, the reclamation objectives were only partially achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Asian_Development_Bank" title="Asian Development Bank">Asian Development Bank</a> (ADB) states that 38% of the irrigated area is now waterlogged and 14% of the surface is too saline for use<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In the <a href="/wiki/Nile_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nile delta">Nile delta</a> of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, drainage is being installed in millions of hectares to combat the water-logging resulting from the introduction of massive perennial irrigation after the completion of the High Dam at <a href="/wiki/Aswan_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Aswan dam">Assuan</a><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In Mexico, 15% of the 3 million ha of irrigable land is salinized, and 10% is waterlogged<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> some 0.3 million ha of the 1.05 million ha of irrigable land suffers from degradation (see <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_in_Peru" title="Irrigation in Peru">Irrigation in Peru</a>).</li> <li>Estimates indicate that roughly one-third of the irrigated land in the major irrigation countries is already badly affected by salinity or is expected to become so in the near future. Present estimates for Israel are 13% of the irrigated land, Australia 20%, China 15%, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> 50%, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> 30%. Irrigation-induced salinity occurs in large and small irrigation systems alike<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>FAO has estimated that by 1990 about 52 million ha of irrigated land will need to have improved drainage systems installed, much of it <a href="/wiki/Subsurface_drainage" class="mw-redirect" title="Subsurface drainage">subsurface drainage</a> to control salinity<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_downstream_drainage_and_groundwater_quality">Reduced downstream drainage and groundwater quality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reduced downstream drainage and groundwater quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>The downstream drainage water quality may deteriorate owing to <a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">leaching</a> of salts, <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a>, <a href="/wiki/Herbicides" class="mw-redirect" title="Herbicides">herbicides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pesticides" class="mw-redirect" title="Pesticides">pesticides</a> with high salinity and alkalinity. There is the threat of soils converting into saline or <a href="/wiki/Alkali_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali soils">alkali soils</a>. This may negatively affect the health of the population at the tail-end of the river basin and downstream of the irrigation scheme, as well as the ecological balance. The <a href="/wiki/Aral_Sea" title="Aral Sea">Aral Sea</a>, for example, is seriously <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">polluted</a> by drainage water.</li> <li>The downstream quality of the groundwater may deteriorate in a similar way as the downstream drainage water and have similar consequences</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mitigation_of_adverse_effects">Mitigation of adverse effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mitigation of adverse effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Irrigation can have a variety of negative impacts on <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomy">socioeconomy</a>, which may be mitigated in a number of ways. These include siting the irrigation project in a location that minimizes negative impacts.<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The efficiency of existing projects can be improved and existing degraded <a href="/wiki/Croplands" class="mw-redirect" title="Croplands">croplands</a> can be improved rather than establishing a new irrigation project<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Developing small-scale, individually owned irrigation systems as an alternative to large-scale, publicly owned and managed schemes.<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The use of <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_sprinkler" title="Irrigation sprinkler">sprinkler irrigation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micro-irrigation" title="Micro-irrigation">micro-irrigation</a> systems decreases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Waterlogging_(agriculture)" title="Waterlogging (agriculture)">waterlogging</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where practicable, using treated <a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">wastewater</a> makes more water available to other users<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Maintaining <a href="/wiki/Flow_routing" class="mw-redirect" title="Flow routing">flood flows</a> downstream of the dams can ensure that an adequate area is flooded each year, supporting, amongst other objectives, <a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">fishery</a> activities.<sup id="cite_ref-FAO_34-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Delayed_environmental_impacts">Delayed environmental impacts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Delayed environmental impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It often takes time to accurately predict the impact that new irrigation schemes will have on the <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomy">socioeconomy</a> of a region. By the time these predictions are available, a considerable amount of time and resources may have already been expended in the implementation of that <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">project</a>. When that is the case, the project managers will often only change the project if the impact would be considerably more than they had originally expected.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Case_study_in_Malawi">Case study in Malawi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Case study in Malawi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Frequently <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation schemes</a> are seen as extremely necessary for <a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Socioeconomic">socioeconomic</a> well-being especially in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>. One example of this can be demonstrated from a proposal for an <a href="/wiki/Irrigation_scheme" class="mw-redirect" title="Irrigation scheme">irrigation scheme</a> in <a href="/wiki/Malawi" title="Malawi">Malawi</a>. Here it was shown that the potential positive effects of the <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a> project that was being proposed "outweighed the potential negative impacts". It was stated that the impacts would mostly "be localized, minimal, a short term occurring during the construction and operation phases of the Project". In order to help alleviate and prevent major environmental impacts, they would use techniques that minimize the potential negative impacts. As far as the region's socioeconomic well-being, there would be no "displacement and/or resettlement envisioned during the implementation of the project activities". The original primary purposes of the irrigation project were to reduce poverty, improve food security, create local employment, increase household income and enhance the sustainability of land use.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Due to this careful planning, this project was successful both in improving the socioeconomic conditions in the region and ensuring that land and water are sustainable into the future. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_agriculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental issues with agriculture">Environmental issues with agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impacts of reservoirs">Environmental impacts of reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali soils">Alkali soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_in_viticulture" title="Irrigation in viticulture">Irrigation in viticulture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Routing_(hydrology)" title="Routing (hydrology)">Routing (hydrology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Forestry_Research_and_Education" title="Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education">Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>T.C. Dougherty and A.W. Hall, 1995. Environmental impact assessment of irrigation and drainage projects. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 53. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-5-103731-0" title="Special:BookSources/92-5-103731-0">92-5-103731-0</a>. On line: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/v8350e/v8350e00.htm">http://www.fao.org/docrep/v8350e/v8350e00.htm</a></li> <li>R.E. Tillman, 1981. Environmental guidelines for irrigation. New York Botanical Garden Cary Arboretum.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hss.caltech.edu/~tzs/50%20Dam%20Survey.pdf"><i>A comparative survey of dam-induced resettlement in 50 cases</i></a> by Thayer Scudder and John Gray</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Download of simulation and prediction model SaltMod from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/saltmod.htm">[9]</a></li> <li>Download of simulation and prediction model SahysMod from: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/sahysmod.htm">[10]</a></li> <li>"SaltMod: A tool for the interweaving of irrigation and drainage for salinity control": <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/toolsalt.pdf">[11]</a></li> <li>"Modern interferences with traditional irrigation in Baluchistan": <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/baluchistan.pdf">[12]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Direct-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Direct_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosenburgPatrick_McCullyCatherine_Pringle2000" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Rosenburg, David; Patrick McCully; Catherine Pringle (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mspace.lib.umanitoba.ca/xmlui/bitstream/1993/33953/1/2000_Rosenberg_Global_Scale_hydrological_Alterations.pdf">"Global-Scale Environmental Effects of Hydrological Alterations: Introduction"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>BioScience</i>. Sep 2000 (9): <span class="nowrap">746–</span>751. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1641%2F0006-3568%282000%29050%5B0746%3AGSEEOH%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.1641/0006-3568(2000)050[0746:GSEEOH]2.0.CO;2</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1993%2F33953">1993/33953</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Global-Scale+Environmental+Effects+of+Hydrological+Alterations%3A+Introduction&rft.volume=Sep+2000&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E746-%3C%2Fspan%3E751&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1993%2F33953&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1641%2F0006-3568%282000%29050%5B0746%3AGSEEOH%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Rosenburg&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Patrick+McCully&rft.au=Catherine+Pringle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmspace.lib.umanitoba.ca%2Fxmlui%2Fbitstream%2F1993%2F33953%2F1%2F2000_Rosenberg_Global_Scale_hydrological_Alterations.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M. H. Lo and J. S. Famiglietti, <i>Irrigation in California's Central Valley strengthens the southwestern U.S. water cycle,</i> Geophysical Research Letters, Volume 40, Issue 2, pages 301–306, 28 January 20132 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/grl.50108/full">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O. A. Tuinenburg et al., <i>The fate of evaporated water from the Ganges basin,</i> Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Volume 117, Issue D1, 16 January 2012 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2011JD016221/abstract">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">P. W. Keys et al., <i>Analyzing precipitation sheds to understand the vulnerability of rainfall dependent regions,</i> Biogeosciences, 9, 733–746, 2012 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biogeosciences.net/9/733/2012/bg-9-733-2012.pdf">PDF</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bruce-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bruce_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bruce Sundquist, 2007. Chapter 1- <i>Irrigation overview</i>. In: The earth's carrying capacity, Some related reviews, and analysis. On line: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120217192619/http://home.windstream.net/bsundquist1/ir1.html">"Chapter 1 -- Irrigation Overview"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.windstream.net/bsundquist1/ir1.html">the original</a> on 2012-02-17<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-17</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chapter+1+--+Irrigation+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.windstream.net%2Fbsundquist1%2Fir1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WWF-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WWF_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WWF_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WWF_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WWF_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">World Wildlife Fund, <i>WWF Names World's Top 10 Rivers at Greatest Risk</i>, online: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/mar2007/2007-03-21-01.asp">http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/mar2007/2007-03-21-01.asp</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Timberlake, L. 1985. <i>Africa in Crisis - The Causes, Cures of Environmental Bankruptcy</i>. Earthscan Paperback, IIED, London</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NatureComms_20221219-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NatureComms_20221219_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuFamigliettiPurdyAdams2022" class="citation journal cs1">Liu, Pang-Wei; Famiglietti, James S.; Purdy, Adam J.; Adams, Kyra H.; et al. (19 December 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9763392">"Groundwater depletion in California's Central Valley accelerates during megadrought"</a>. <i>Nature Communications</i>. <b>13</b> (7825): 7825. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2022NatCo..13.7825L">2022NatCo..13.7825L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41467-022-35582-x">10.1038/s41467-022-35582-x</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9763392">9763392</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36535940">36535940</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=Groundwater+depletion+in+California%27s+Central+Valley+accelerates+during+megadrought&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=7825&rft.pages=7825&rft.date=2022-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9763392%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F36535940&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41467-022-35582-x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2022NatCo..13.7825L&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=Pang-Wei&rft.au=Famiglietti%2C+James+S.&rft.au=Purdy%2C+Adam+J.&rft.au=Adams%2C+Kyra+H.&rft.au=McEvoy%2C+Avery+L.&rft.au=Reager%2C+John+T.&rft.au=Bindlish%2C+Rajat&rft.au=Wiese%2C+David+N.&rft.au=David%2C+C%C3%A9dric+H.&rft.au=Rodell%2C+Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9763392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230130223801/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-35582-x/figures/4">Archive</a> of chart itself)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">World Health Organization (WHO), 1983. <i>Environmental health impact assessment of irrigated Agriculture</i>. Geneva, Switzerland.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thakkar-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thakkar_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Himanshu Thakkar. <i>Assessment of Irrigation in India</i>. World Commission on Dams. On line: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.dams.org/docs/kbase/contrib/opt161.pdf">http://www.dams.org/docs/kbase/contrib/opt161.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090824024422/http://www.dams.org/docs/kbase/contrib/opt161.pdf">Archived</a> 2009-08-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><r/r Ellen Wohl, “The Nile: Lifeline in the Desert”, A World of Rivers p. 98f></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"></Allen Wohl, “The Chang Jiang: Bridling a Dragon”, A World of Rivers p 275, p.283. Calculating the amount of sediment that will be carried downstream to the Sanmenxia reservoir is difficult to estimate.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><Ellen Wohl, “The Chang Jiang: Bridling a Dragon”, A World of Rivers p284</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"></Donald Worster, “ Thinking Like a River,” in The Wealth of Nature: Environmental History and the Ecological Imagination (New York: Oxford University Press, (1993), p133ef></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-oost-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oost_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-oost_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Modern interferences in traditional water resources in Baluchistan</i>. In: Annual Report 1982, pp. 23-34. ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Reprinted in Water International 9 (1984), pp. 106- 111. Elsevier Sequoia, Amsterdam. Also reprinted in Water Research Journal (1983) 139, pp. 53-60. Download from : <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/annrep.htm">[3]</a>, under nr. 10, or directly as PDF : <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/baluchistan.pdf">[4]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">C.A. Drijver and M. Marchand, 1985. <i>Taming the floods. Environmental aspects of the floodplain developments of Africa</i>. Centre of Environmental Studies, University of Leiden, The Netherlands.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ecosystems Ltd., 1983. <i>Tana delta ecological impact study. Nairobi, Kenya</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A. deGeorges and B.K. Reilly, 2006. <i>Dams and large scale irrigation on the Senegal river: impacts on man and the environment</i>. UNDP Human Development Report. On line: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006/papers/DeGeorges%20Andre.pdf">http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006/papers/DeGeorges%20Andre.pdf</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Bosshard. <i>A Case Study on the Manantali Dam Project (Mali, Mauritania, Senegal)</i>, <a href="/wiki/Erkl%C3%A4rung_von_Bern" class="mw-redirect" title="Erklärung von Bern">Erklärung von Bern</a>/internationalrivers: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.internationalrivers.org/resources/a-case-study-on-the-manantali-dam-project-mali-mauritania-senegal-2011">[5]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Center for Development Studies (CDS), 1988. <i>A study of water distribution and management in new design public tubewells in eastern Uttar Pradesh</i>. Lucknow, UP, India</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geochange.er.usgs.gov/sw/changes/anthropogenic/subside/">Anthropogenic subsidence</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">D.K. Todd, 1980. <i>Groundwater hydrology</i>. 2nd edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">US Geological Survey, <i>Land Subsidence in the United States</i>. on line: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://water.usgs.gov/ogw/pubs/fs00165/">http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/pubs/fs00165/</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i> SaltMod: A tool for the interweaving of irrigation and drainage for salinity control</i>. In: W.B. Snellen (ed.), <i>Towards integration of irrigation, and drainage management</i>. ILRI Special report, pp. 41-43. Free download from : <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/articles.htm">[6]</a>, under nr. 8: Salted application, or directly as PDF : <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/toolsalt.pdf">[7]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.K. Tyagi, 1996. <i>Salinity management: the CSSRI experience and future research agenda</i>. In: W.B. Snellen (Ed.), Towards integration of irrigation and drainage management. ILRI, Wageningen, The Netherlands, 1997, pp. 17-27.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">N.T. Singh, 2005. <i>Irrigation and soil salinity in the Indian subcontinent: past and present</i>. Lehigh University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-934223-78-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-934223-78-5">0-934223-78-5</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-934223-78-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-934223-78-2">978-0-934223-78-2</a>, 404 p.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Green-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Green_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Green_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Green Living Association Pakistan, <i>Environmental Issues</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A.K. Bhatti, 1987. <i>A review of planning strategies of salinity control and reclamation projects in Pakistan</i>. In: J. Vos (Ed.) Proceedings, Symposium 25th International Course on Land Drainage. ILRI publ. 42. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Asian Development Bank (ADB), <i>Water in the 21st Century: Imperatives for Wise Water Management, From Public Good to Priced Commodity</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">M.S. Abdel-Dayem, 1987. <i>Development of land drainage in Egypt</i>. In: J. Vos (Ed.) Proceedings, Symposium 25th International Course on Land Drainage. ILRI publ. 42. International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L. Pulido Madrigal, 1994. (in Spanish) <i>Anexo Tecnico: Estudio general de salinidad analizada</i>. CNA-IMTA, Cuernavaca, Mexico. The data can be seen online in the article: "Land drainage and soil salinity: some Mexican experiences". In: Annual Report 1995, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands, pp. 44-52, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/mexican.pdf">[8]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Claudio O. Stockle. <i>Environmental impact of irrigation: a review</i>. State of Washington Water Research Center, Washington State University. On line: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070813155125/http://www.swwrc.wsu.edu/newsletter/fall2001/IrrImpact2.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.swwrc.wsu.edu/newsletter/fall2001/irrimpact2.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-08-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-04-04</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.swwrc.wsu.edu%2Fnewsletter%2Ffall2001%2Firrimpact2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Nations, 1977. <i>Water for Agriculture</i>. In: Water Development and Management, Proceedings of the United Nations Water Conference, Part 3. Mar del Plata, Argentina.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FAO-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FAO_34-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fao.org/docrep/W4347E/W4347E00.htm">"Irrigation potential in Africa: A basin approach"</a>. Natural Resources Management and Environment Department<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Irrigation+potential+in+Africa%3A+A+basin+approach&rft.pub=Natural+Resources+Management+and+Environment+Department&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fao.org%2Fdocrep%2FW4347E%2FW4347E00.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDougherty" class="citation web cs1">Dougherty, T.C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170518114314/ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/AGLW/Morini/05_EIA.pdf">"FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 53"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Environmental Impact Assessment of Irrigation and Drainage Projects</i>. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/AGLW/Morini/05_EIA.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2017-05-18<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Impact+Assessment+of+Irrigation+and+Drainage+Projects&rft.atitle=FAO+Irrigation+and+Drainage+Paper+53&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=T.C.&rft_id=ftp%3A%2F%2Fftp.fao.org%2Fagl%2FAGLW%2FMorini%2F05_EIA.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Environmental-and-Social-Assessments/Malawi%20-%20Smallholder%20Irrigation%20and%20Value%20Addition%20Project%20(SIVAP)%20-%20ESMP%20Summary.pdf">"Smallholder Irrigation and Value Addition Project (SIVAP)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 March</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Smallholder+Irrigation+and+Value+Addition+Project+%28SIVAP%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.afdb.org%2Ffileadmin%2Fuploads%2Fafdb%2FDocuments%2FEnvironmental-and-Social-Assessments%2FMalawi%2520-%2520Smallholder%2520Irrigation%2520and%2520Value%2520Addition%2520Project%2520%28SIVAP%29%2520-%2520ESMP%2520Summary.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+irrigation" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment505" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs" title="Environmental impact of reservoirs">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_breadbasket_failure" title="Multiple breadbasket failure">Multiple breadbasket failure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultured_meat" title="Cultured meat">Cultured meat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eco-economic_decoupling" title="Eco-economic decoupling">Decoupling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_engineering" title="Ecological engineering">Ecological engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_mitigation" title="Environmental mitigation">Environmental mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitigation_banking" title="Mitigation banking">Mitigation banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organic_farming" title="Organic farming">Organic farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recycling" title="Recycling">Recycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reforestation" title="Reforestation">Reforestation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_reforestation" title="Urban reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Environmental impact">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_source" title="Category:Environmental impact by source">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_by_country" title="Category:Environmental impact by country">by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Category:Environmental impact assessment">assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_mitigation" title="Category:Environmental mitigation">mitigation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Agricultural_water_management181" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Agricultural_water_management" title="Template:Agricultural water management"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Agricultural_water_management" title="Template talk:Agricultural water management"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Agricultural_water_management" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Agricultural water management"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Agricultural_water_management181" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Agricultural water management</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_irrigation" title="Surface irrigation">Surface irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drip_irrigation" title="Drip irrigation">Drip irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_irrigation" title="Tidal irrigation">Tidal irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_statistics" title="Irrigation statistics">Irrigation statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_management" title="Irrigation management">Irrigation management</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Irrigation environmental impacts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Drainage" title="Drainage">Subsurface drainage</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ditch" title="Ditch">Ditch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tile_drainage" title="Tile drainage">Tile drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_equation" title="Drainage equation">Drainage equation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_system_(agriculture)" title="Drainage system (agriculture)">Drainage system (agriculture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Watertable_control" title="Watertable control">Watertable control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_research" title="Drainage research">Drainage research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Well_drainage" title="Well drainage">Drainage by wells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface water/runoff</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contour_trenching" title="Contour trenching">Contour trenching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_model" title="Hydrological model">Hydrological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrological_transport_model" title="Hydrological transport model">Hydrological transport model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runoff_model_(reservoir)" title="Runoff model (reservoir)">Runoff model (reservoir)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_flow" title="Groundwater flow">Groundwater flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_energy_balance" title="Groundwater energy balance">Groundwater energy balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_model" title="Groundwater model">Groundwater model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydraulic_conductivity" title="Hydraulic conductivity">Hydraulic conductivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">Watertable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Problem soils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_sulfate_soil" title="Acid sulfate soil">Acid sulphate soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali soils">Alkali soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">Saline soils</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agro-hydro-salinity group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology_(agriculture)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrology (agriculture)">Hydrology (agriculture)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">Soil salinity control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_model_(soil)" title="Leaching model (soil)">Leaching model (soil)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SaltMod" title="SaltMod">SaltMod integrated model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SahysMod" title="SahysMod">SahysMod polygonal model</a>: Saltmod coupled to a groundwater model</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sand_dam" title="Sand dam">Sand dam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&oldid=1265963497">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&oldid=1265963497</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Irrigation" title="Category:Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_issues_with_water" title="Category:Environmental issues with water">Environmental issues with water</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_issues_with_soil" title="Category:Environmental issues with soil">Environmental issues with soil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Category:Environmental impact of agriculture">Environmental impact of agriculture</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">CS1 maint: archived copy as title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 29 December 2024, at 12:44<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_irrigation&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" lang="en" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><picture><source media="(min-width: 500px)" srcset="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" width="88" height="31"><img src="/w/resources/assets/mediawiki_compact.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="25" height="25" loading="lazy"></picture></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-header-container vector-sticky-header-container"> <div id="vector-sticky-header" class="vector-sticky-header"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-start"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-start vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" aria-hidden="true"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-sticky-header-search-toggle" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.vector-sticky-search-form.icon"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </button> </div> <div role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box"> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="vector-sticky-search-form" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia"> <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-sticky-header-toc vector-sticky-header-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-sticky-header-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-sticky-header-toc-label" for="vector-sticky-header-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-sticky-header-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div class="vector-sticky-header-context-bar-primary" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="mw-page-title-main">Environmental impact of irrigation</span></div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-end" aria-hidden="true"> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icons"> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-talk-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="talk-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbles mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbles"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-subject-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="subject-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-article mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-article"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-history-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="history-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-history mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-history"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only mw-watchlink" id="ca-watchstar-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="watch-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-star mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-star"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="wikitext-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikiText mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-wikiText"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-ve-edit-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-edit mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-edit"></span> <span></span> </a> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only" id="ca-viewsource-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ve-edit-protected-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-editLock mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-editLock"></span> <span></span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-buttons"> <button class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet mw-interlanguage-selector" id="p-lang-btn-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-wikimedia-language"></span> <span>7 languages</span> </button> <a href="#" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive" id="ca-addsection-sticky-header" tabindex="-1" data-event-name="addsection-sticky-header"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-w5nvn","wgBackendResponseTime":109,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.431","walltime":"0.535","ppvisitednodes":{"value":2009,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":54315,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":883,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":16,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":1,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":69092,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 378.687 1 -total"," 37.54% 142.159 1 Template:Reflist"," 26.13% 98.942 1 Template:Human_impact_on_the_environment"," 25.55% 96.750 2 Template:Navbox"," 18.36% 69.535 2 Template:Cite_journal"," 17.85% 67.601 1 Template:Short_description"," 12.80% 48.490 3 Template:ISBN"," 10.13% 38.356 3 Template:Catalog_lookup_link"," 10.04% 38.025 2 Template:Pagetype"," 6.57% 24.862 5 Template:Cite_web"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.202","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":5571415,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-84b999ff94-dwc6q","timestamp":"20250204102553","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Environmental impact of irrigation","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5381246","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q5381246","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2009-04-11T20:24:20Z","dateModified":"2024-12-29T12:44:20Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/97\/Rubaksa_gardens.jpg"}</script> </body> </html>