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<li id="toc-Private_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Private_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Private institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Private_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Public_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Public_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Public institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Public_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predominantly_black_institutions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predominantly_black_institutions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Predominantly black institutions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predominantly_black_institutions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jewish_refugees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_refugees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Jewish refugees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_refugees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Florida's_Black_junior_colleges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Florida's_Black_junior_colleges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Florida's Black junior colleges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Florida's_Black_junior_colleges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Since_1965" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Since_1965"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Since 1965</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Since_1965-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Current_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Current_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Current status</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Current_status-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Current status subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Current_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Racial_diversity_post-2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_diversity_post-2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Racial diversity post-2000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Racial_diversity_post-2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Special_academic_programs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Special_academic_programs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Special academic programs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Special_academic_programs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intercollegiate_sports" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intercollegiate_sports"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Intercollegiate sports</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intercollegiate_sports-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_HBCU_alumni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_HBCU_alumni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Notable HBCU alumni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_HBCU_alumni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_presidential_and_federal_support" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_presidential_and_federal_support"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Modern presidential and federal support</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_presidential_and_federal_support-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HBCU_homecomings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HBCU_homecomings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>HBCU homecomings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HBCU_homecomings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Primary sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Historically black colleges and universities</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" 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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%88%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جامعات وكليات السود التاريخية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جامعات وكليات السود التاريخية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%B6%D0%B8_%D0%B8_%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Исторически черни колежи и университети – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Исторически черни колежи и университети" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historisch_afroamerikanische_Colleges_und_Hochschulen" title="Historisch afroamerikanische Colleges und Hochschulen – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Historisch afroamerikanische Colleges und Hochschulen" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBCU" title="HBCU – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="HBCU" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBCU" title="HBCU – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="HBCU" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A9s_historiquement_noires" title="Universités historiquement noires – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Universités historiquement noires" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC%EC%A0%81_%ED%9D%91%EC%9D%B8_%EB%8C%80%ED%95%99" title="역사적 흑인 대학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="역사적 흑인 대학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universit%C3%A0_storicamente_afroamericane" title="Università storicamente afroamericane – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Università storicamente afroamericane" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E9%BB%92%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6" title="歴史的黒人大学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="歴史的黒人大学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tradisjonelt_svarte_l%C3%A6resteder_i_USA" title="Tradisjonelt svarte læresteder i USA – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Tradisjonelt svarte læresteder i USA" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faculdades_e_universidades_historicamente_negras" title="Faculdades e universidades historicamente negras – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Faculdades e universidades historicamente negras" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%87%D1%91%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Исторически чёрные высшие учебные заведения – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Исторически чёрные высшие учебные заведения" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historijski_crni_koled%C5%BEi_i_univerziteti" title="Historijski crni koledži i univerziteti – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historijski crni koledži i univerziteti" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%81_%D9%81%D8%A7%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="تاریخی سیاہ فام کالج اور جامعات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخی سیاہ فام کالج اور جامعات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%82%B3%E7%B5%B1%E9%BB%91%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%B8" title="傳統黑人大學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="傳統黑人大學" data-language-autonym="中文" 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Periods</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Slavery in the colonial history of the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_the_Revolutionary_War" title="African Americans in the Revolutionary War">Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Antebellum period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_during_the_American_Civil_War" title="Slavery during the American Civil War">Slavery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Military history of African Americans in the American Civil War">military history</a> during the Civil War</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_officeholders_during_Reconstruction" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American officeholders during Reconstruction">Politicians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement (1865–1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Jim Crow era (1896–1954)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement (1954–1968)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Black power movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Aspects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_agriculture_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American history of agriculture in the United States">Agriculture history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Belt_in_the_American_South" title="Black Belt in the American South">Black Belt in the American South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">Business history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment of the enslaved</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Migrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second Great Migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New Great Migration</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Lifeways</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_cinema" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American cinema">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_newspapers" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Schools</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Education_during_the_slave_period_in_the_United_States" title="Education during the slave period in the United States">Education during the slave period in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_of_freed_people_during_the_Civil_War" title="Education of freed people during the Civil War">Education of freed people during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">History of African-American education</a>, after the Civil War</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_fraternities" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American fraternities">Fraternities</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Academic study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_studies" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American studies">Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Celebrations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_History_Month" title="Black History Month">Black History Month</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Economic class</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_businesses" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American businesses">African-American businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Symbols and ideas</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_beauty" title="African-American beauty">African-American beauty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_is_beautiful" title="Black is beautiful">Black is beautiful</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_pride" title="Black pride">Black pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">African-American hair</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Good_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Good hair">Good hair</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stepping_(African-American)" title="Stepping (African-American)">Stepping</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Lift Every Voice and Sing</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Institutions</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Theologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist theology</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Non-Christian groups</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">African-American Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">African Diaspora Religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Black_Caucus" title="Congressional Black Caucus">Congressional Black Caucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Center_for_Political_and_Economic_Studies" title="Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies">Joint Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Caucus_of_State_Legislators" title="National Black Caucus of State Legislators">National Black Caucus of State Legislators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Conference_of_Black_Mayors" title="National Conference of Black Mayors">National Conference of Black Mayors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Ideologies</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garveyism" title="Garveyism">Garveyism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_liberalism" title="Black liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_patriotism" title="African-American patriotism">Patriotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Civic/economic groups</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Organizations</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African<br />American Life and History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conductors" title="Black conductors">Black conductors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TransAfrica" title="TransAfrica">TransAfrica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">UNCF</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sports</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-weight:normal;font-style:italic;"> Athletic associations and conferences</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU (HBCUAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Sub-communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Multiethnic</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Ricans" class="mw-redirect" title="Afro-Puerto Ricans">Afro-Puerto Ricans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mascogos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brass_Ankles" title="Brass Ankles">Brass Ankles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominickers" title="Dominickers">Dominickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen_(ethnic_group)" title="Freedmen (ethnic group)">Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carmel_Indians" title="Carmel Indians">Carmel Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Specific ancestries</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Americo-Liberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Merikins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Samaná Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Sexual orientation</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Dialects and languages</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> English dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberian_English" title="Liberian English">Liberian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_English" title="Samaná English">Samaná English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tutnese" title="Tutnese">Tutnese</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Languages and other dialects</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_Dutch" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey Dutch">Negro Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Population</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US states</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia_(U.S._state)" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> US cities</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">List of neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas-Fort_Worth" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth">Dallas-Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville,_Florida" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville, Florida">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_the_District_of_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American historic places in the District of Columbia">District of Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Florida" title="List of African-American historic places in Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Georgia" title="List of African-American historic places in Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Mississippi" title="List of African-American historic places in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Missouri" title="List of African-American historic places in Missouri">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="List of African-American historic places in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_North_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_South_Carolina" title="List of African-American historic places in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_Texas" title="List of African-American historic places in Texas">Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places_in_West_Virginia" title="List of African-American historic places in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Population count</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">US states and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">US metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_African-American_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. cities with large African-American populations">US cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations">US communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States_with_African-American_plurality_populations" title="List of populated places in the United States with African-American plurality populations">Places by plurality of population</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Canada" title="African Americans in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;border-top:solid 1px #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Prejudice</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Racism</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States_census" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States census">Race and ethnicity in the US census</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Black_Americans" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism against Black Americans">Racism against Black Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">School segregation in the US</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_unarmed_African_Americans_killed_by_law_enforcement_officers_in_the_United_States" title="List of unarmed African Americans killed by law enforcement officers in the United States">Unarmed African Americans killed by police officers</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Representation_of_African_Americans_in_media" title="Representation of African Americans in media">media depictions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackface" title="Blackface">Blackface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_stereotype_of_African_Americans" title="Criminal stereotype of African Americans">Criminal stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_representation_in_Hollywood" title="African-American representation in Hollywood">Hollywood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_Negro" title="Magical Negro">Magical Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel_show" title="Minstrel show">Minstrel show</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;font-size:97%;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_people" title="Category:African-American people">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Template talk:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Historically black colleges and universities</b> (<b>HBCUs</b>) are institutions of <a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_the_United_States" title="Higher education in the United States">higher education in the United States</a> that were established before the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> with the intention of primarily serving <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most of these institutions were founded during the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a> after the Civil War and are concentrated in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern United States</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were primarily founded by Protestant religious groups, until the Second <a href="/wiki/Morill_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Morill Act">Morill Act</a> of 1890 required <a href="/wiki/School_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="School segregation in the United States">educationally segregated</a> <a href="/wiki/U.S._states" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. states">states</a> (all in the South) to provide African American, public higher-education schools (i.e. state funded schools) in order to receive the Act's benefits (19, generally larger institutions, fall under this Act). </p><p>During the period of <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation in the United States</a>, the majority of American institutions of higher education served predominantly white students, and disqualified or limited black American enrollment.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later on some universities, either after expanding their inclusion of <a href="/wiki/Black_people" title="Black people">black people</a> and African Americans into their institutions or gaining the status of <a href="/wiki/Minority-serving_institution" title="Minority-serving institution">minority-serving institution</a>, became <b>predominantly black institutions</b> (<b>PBIs</b>).<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a century after <a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">the abolition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">American slavery</a> in 1865, almost all colleges and universities in the Southern United States prohibited all African Americans from attending as required by <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a> in the South, while institutions in other parts of the country regularly employed quotas to limit admissions of black people.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HBCUs were established to provide more opportunities to African Americans and are largely responsible for establishing and expanding the <a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">African-American middle class</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1950s and 1960s, enforced racial segregation in education was generally outlawed across the United States. </p><p>There are <a href="/wiki/List_of_historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="List of historically black colleges and universities">101 HBCUs</a> in the United States (of 121 institutions that existed during the 1930s), representing three percent of the nation's colleges,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including public and private institutions.<sup id="cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Twenty-seven offer doctoral programs, 52 offer master's programs, 83 offer bachelor's degree programs, and 38 offer associate degrees.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-auto1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HBCUs currently produce nearly 20% of all African American college graduates and 25% of African American <a href="/wiki/STEM" class="mw-redirect" title="STEM">STEM</a> graduates.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Among the graduates of HBCUs are civil rights leader <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, United States Supreme Court Justice <a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, and United States Vice President <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_(DSC_2640).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg/220px-Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg/330px-Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg/440px-Institute_for_Colored_Youth_Building_Historical_Marker_915_Bainbridge_St_Philadelphia_PA_%28DSC_2640%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney University of Pennsylvania</a> was founded in 1837 as the <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Colored_Youth" title="Institute for Colored Youth">Institute for Colored Youth</a>, making it the oldest HBCU in the nation</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Private_institutions">Private institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Private institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>HBCUs established prior to the American Civil War include <a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney University of Pennsylvania</a> in 1837,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/University_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="University of the District of Columbia">University of the District of Columbia</a> (then known as Miner School for Colored Girls) in 1851, and <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a> in 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce University</a> was also established prior to the American Civil War.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The university was founded in 1856 via a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church of Ohio and the predominantly white Methodist Episcopal Church.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>HBCUs were controversial in their early years. At the <a href="/wiki/1847_National_Convention_of_Colored_People_and_Their_Friends" title="1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends">1847 National Convention of Colored People and Their Friends</a>, the famed black orators <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Crummell" title="Alexander Crummell">Alexander Crummell</a> debated the need for such institutions, with Crummell arguing that HBCUs were necessary to provide freedom from discrimination, and Douglass and Garnet arguing that self-segregation would harm the black community. A majority of the convention voted that HBCUs should be supported. </p><p>Most HBCUs were established in the <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">South</a> after the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>, often with the assistance of religious missionary organizations based in the North, especially the <a href="/wiki/American_Missionary_Association" title="American Missionary Association">American Missionary Association</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a> played a major role in financing the new schools.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atlanta University – now <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark Atlanta University</a> – was founded on September 19, 1865, as the first HBCU in the Southern United States. Atlanta University was the first graduate institution to award degrees to African Americans in the nation and the first to award bachelor's degrees to African Americans in the South; Clark College (1869) was the nation's first four-year liberal arts college to serve African-American students. The two consolidated in 1988 to form Clark Atlanta University.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw University</a>, founded December 1, 1865, was the second HBCU to be established in the South. The year 1865 also saw the foundation of <a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer College</a> (1865–1955) in <a href="/wiki/Harper%27s_Ferry,_West_Virginia" class="mw-redirect" title="Harper's Ferry, West Virginia">Harper's Ferry</a>, West Virginia.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Storer's former campus and buildings have since been incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Harpers_Ferry_National_Historical_Park" title="Harpers Ferry National Historical Park">Harpers Ferry National Historical Park</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some of these universities eventually became public universities with assistance from the government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Public_institutions">Public institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Public institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1862,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the federal government's <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Morrill Act">Morrill Act</a> provided for <a href="/wiki/Land_grant_college" class="mw-redirect" title="Land grant college">land grant colleges</a> in each state. Educational institutions established under the Morrill Act in the <a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">North</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">West</a> were open to blacks. But 17 states, almost all in the South, required their post-Civil war systems to be segregated and excluded black students from their land grant colleges. In the 1870s, Mississippi, Virginia, and South Carolina each assigned one African American college land-grant status: Alcorn University, Hampton Institute, and Claflin University, respectively.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response, Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Morrill_Land-Grant_Acts#Expansion" title="Morrill Land-Grant Acts">second Morrill Act of 1890</a>, also known as the <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_College_Act_of_1890" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural College Act of 1890">Agricultural College Act of 1890</a>, requiring states to establish a separate land grant college for blacks if blacks were being excluded from the existing land grant college. Many of the HBCUs were founded by states to satisfy the Second Morrill Act.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These land grant schools continue to receive annual federal funding for their research, <a href="/wiki/Continuing_education" title="Continuing education">extension</a>, and outreach activities.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predominantly_black_institutions">Predominantly black institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Predominantly black institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Predominantly black institutions (PBI) are institutions that do not meet the legal definition of HBCUs, but primarily serve African Americans.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some examples of PBIs are <a href="/wiki/Georgia_State_University" title="Georgia State University">Georgia State University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chicago_State_University" title="Chicago State University">Chicago State University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trinity_Washington_University" title="Trinity Washington University">Trinity Washington University</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Community_College_of_Philadelphia" title="Community College of Philadelphia">Community College of Philadelphia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2022MSIList_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2022MSIList-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sports">Sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1920s and 1930s, historically black colleges developed a strong interest in athletics. Sports were expanding rapidly at state universities, but very few black stars were recruited there. Race newspapers hailed athletic success as a demonstration of racial progress. Black schools hired coaches, recruited and featured stellar athletes, and set up their own leagues.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jewish_refugees">Jewish refugees</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Jewish refugees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1930s, many Jewish intellectuals fleeing Europe after the rise of <a href="/wiki/Hitler" class="mw-redirect" title="Hitler">Hitler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-Jewish_legislation_in_prewar_Nazi_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany">anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany</a> following Hitler's elevation to power emigrated to the United States and found work teaching in historically black colleges.<sup id="cite_ref-African_American_Registry_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-African_American_Registry-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In particular, 1933 was a challenging year for many Jewish academics who tried to escape increasingly oppressive Nazi policies,<sup id="cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoch_217–246-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> particularly after legislation was passed stripping them of their positions at universities.<sup id="cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoch_217–246-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jews looking outside of Germany could not find work in other European countries because of calamities like the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> and general antisemitism in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-timeline.com_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-timeline.com-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hoch_217–246-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the US, they hoped to continue their academic careers, but barring a scant few, found little acceptance in elite institutions in <a href="/wiki/Great_Depression_in_the_United_States" title="Great Depression in the United States">Depression-era America</a>, which also had their own undercurrent of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-African_American_Registry_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-African_American_Registry-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result of these phenomena, more than two-thirds of the faculty hired at many HBCUs from 1933 to 1945 had come to the United States to escape from Nazi Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HBCUs believed the Jewish professors were valuable faculty that would help strengthen their institutions' credibility.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HBCUs had a firm belief in diversity and giving opportunity no matter the race, religion, or country of origin.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HBCUs were open to Jews because of their ideas of equal learning spaces. They sought to create an environment where all people felt welcome to study, including women.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_II">World War II</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>HBCUs made substantial contributions to the US war effort. One example is <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a> in Alabama, where the <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a> trained and attended classes.<sup id="cite_ref-jbhe_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jbhe-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Florida's_Black_junior_colleges"><span id="Florida.27s_Black_junior_colleges"></span>Florida's Black junior colleges</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Florida's Black junior colleges"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the landmark <i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> decision of 1954, the legislature of Florida, with support from various counties, opened eleven <a href="/wiki/Junior_college" title="Junior college">junior colleges</a> serving the African-American population. Their purpose was to show that <a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">separate but equal</a> education was working in Florida. Prior to this, there had been only one junior college in Florida serving African Americans, <a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_Junior_College" title="Booker T. Washington Junior College">Booker T. Washington Junior College</a>, in Pensacola, founded in 1949. The new ones were <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_Junior_College" title="Gibbs Junior College">Gibbs Junior College</a> (1957), <a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Junior_College" title="Roosevelt Junior College">Roosevelt Junior College</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Volusia_County_Junior_College" title="Volusia County Junior College">Volusia County Junior College</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Junior_College" title="Hampton Junior College">Hampton Junior College</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Junior_College" title="Rosenwald Junior College">Rosenwald Junior College</a> (1958), <a href="/wiki/Suwannee_River_Junior_College" title="Suwannee River Junior College">Suwannee River Junior College</a> (1959), <a href="/wiki/Carver_Junior_College" title="Carver Junior College">Carver Junior College</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Collier-Blocker_Junior_College" title="Collier-Blocker Junior College">Collier-Blocker Junior College</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Junior_College" title="Lincoln Junior College">Lincoln Junior College</a> (1960), <a href="/wiki/Jackson_Junior_College" title="Jackson Junior College">Jackson Junior College</a> (1961), and <a href="/wiki/Johnson_Junior_College" title="Johnson Junior College">Johnson Junior College</a> (1962). </p><p>The new junior colleges began as extensions of black high schools. They used the same facilities and often the same faculty. Some built their own buildings after a few years. After the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> mandated an end to school segregation, the colleges were all abruptly closed. Only a fraction of the students and faculty were able to transfer to the previously all-white junior colleges, where they found, at best, an indifferent reception.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Since_1965">Since 1965</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Since 1965"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg/220px-President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg/330px-President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg/440px-President_George_H._W._Bush_signs_a_new_Executive_Order_on_historically_black_colleges_and_universities.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="403" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President</a> George H. W. Bush signs a new Executive Order on historically black colleges and universities in the <a href="/wiki/White_House_Rose_Garden" title="White House Rose Garden">White House Rose Garden</a>, April 1989</figcaption></figure> <p>A reauthorization of the <a href="/wiki/Higher_Education_Act_of_1965" title="Higher Education Act of 1965">Higher Education Act of 1965</a> established a program for direct federal grants to HBCUs, to support their academic, financial, and administrative capabilities.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Part B specifically provides for formula-based grants, calculated based on each institution's Pell grant eligible enrollment, graduation rate, and percentage of graduates who continue post-baccalaureate education in fields where African Americans are underrepresented. Some colleges with a predominantly black student body are not classified as HBCUs because they were founded (or opened their doors to African Americans) after the implementation of the <i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950) and <i>Brown v. Board of Education</i> (1954) rulings by the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> (the court decisions which outlawed <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> of public education facilities) and the Higher Education Act of 1965. </p><p>In 1980, <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Carter" title="Jimmy Carter">Jimmy Carter</a> signed an executive order to distribute adequate resources and funds to strengthen the nation's public and private HBCUs. His executive order created the White House Initiative on historically black colleges and universities (WHIHBCU), which is a federally funded program that operates within the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education" title="United States Department of Education">U.S. Department of Education</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1989, <a href="/wiki/George_H._W._Bush" title="George H. W. Bush">George H. W. Bush</a> continued Carter's pioneering spirit by signing Executive Order 12677, which created the presidential advisory board on HBCUs, to counsel the government and the secretary on the future development of these organizations.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in 2001, directors of libraries of several HBCUs began discussions about ways to pool their resources and work collaboratively. In 2003, this partnership was formalized as the <a href="/wiki/HBCU_Library_Alliance" title="HBCU Library Alliance">HBCU Library Alliance</a>, "a consortium that supports the collaboration of information professionals dedicated to providing an array of resources designed to strengthen historically black colleges and Universities and their constituents."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the Bipartisan Congressional Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU) <a href="/wiki/Caucus" title="Caucus">Caucus</a> was established by U.S. Representatives <a href="/wiki/Alma_S._Adams" class="mw-redirect" title="Alma S. Adams">Alma S. Adams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bradley_Byrne" title="Bradley Byrne">Bradley Byrne</a>. The caucus advocates for HBCUs on <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Capitol Hill</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of May 2022<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, there are over 100 elected politicians who are members of the caucus.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status">Current status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Current status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="List of historically black colleges and universities">List of historically black colleges and universities</a></div><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg/220px-North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg/330px-North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg/440px-North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University_Springtime.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3612" data-file-height="2032" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University" title="North Carolina A&T State University">North Carolina A&T State University</a> is the nation's largest HBCU by enrollment.</figcaption></figure> <p>Annually, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Education">U.S. Department of Education</a> designates one week in the <a href="/wiki/Autumn" title="Autumn">fall</a> as "National HBCU Week". During this week, conferences and events are held in <a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a> to discuss and celebrate HBCUs, as well as recognize some notable HBCU scholars and alumni.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of 2024, <a href="/wiki/Alabama" title="Alabama">Alabama</a> has the most active HBCUs of any state, with 14.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a> is second with 11.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, the average HBCU 6-year undergraduate graduation rate was 35% while the national average was 64%. <a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman College</a> had the highest graduation rate among HBCUs at 74%.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also in 2023, 73% of students attending HBCUs were <a href="/wiki/Pell_Grant" title="Pell Grant">Pell Grant</a> eligible while the national average was 34%.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Talladega_College" title="Talladega College">Talladega College</a> had the highest percent of Pell Grant eligible students among HBCUs at 95%.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2015, the share of black students attending HBCUs had dropped to 9% of the total number of black students enrolled in degree-granting institutions nationwide. This figure is a decline from the 13% of black students who enrolled in an HBCU in 2000 and 17% who enrolled in 1980. This is a result of desegregation, rising incomes and increased access to financial aid, which has created more college options for black students.<sup id="cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The percentages of bachelor's and master's degrees awarded to black students by HBCUs has decreased over time. HBCUs awarded 35% of the bachelor's degrees and 21% of the master's degrees earned by blacks in 1976–77, compared with the 14% and 6% respectively of bachelor's and master's degrees earned by blacks in 2014–15. Additionally, the percentage of black doctoral degree recipients who received their degrees from HBCUs was lower in 2014–15 (12%) than in 1976–77 (14%).<sup id="cite_ref-ed.gov_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ed.gov-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The number of total students enrolled at an HBCU rose by 32% between 1976 and 2015, from 223,000 to 293,000. Total enrollment in degree-granting institutions nationwide increased by 81%, from 11 million to 20 million, in the same period.<sup id="cite_ref-ed.gov_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ed.gov-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although HBCUs were originally founded to educate black students, their diversity has increased over time. In 2015, students who were either white, Hispanic, Asian or Pacific Islander, or Native American made up 22% of total enrollment at HBCUs, compared with 15% in 1976.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2006, the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Education_Statistics" title="National Center for Education Statistics">National Center for Education Statistics</a> released a study showing that HBCUs had a $10.2 billion positive impact on the nation's economy with 35% coming from the <a href="/wiki/Multiplier_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Multiplier effect">multiplier effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are also developments in how African Americans may choose or not choose an HBCU. HBCUs are at risk of losing ground in terms of quality of their applicants as well.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The current admission policies of predominately White institutions (PWIs) ensure that qualified applicants of any color are accepted and most top institutions actively recruit minority students.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Well qualified minority students are often the target of frenzied competition (Cross, 2007).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This competition is reflected in the inducements offered by PWIs to qualified black applicants, most notably monetary incentives, which many students and their parents find too attractive to turn down.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this reason and others, fewer black undergraduates are choosing to attend HBCUs, this figure has gradually declined to 22% as of 2002 (U.S. Department of Education, 2004).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This dwindling percentage, coupled with opportunities at PWIs, have led some to speculate whether the HBCU has outlived its purpose and lost its relevance for black youth (Lemelle, 2002; Sowell 1993; Suggs, 1997b).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_62-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Racial_diversity_post-2000">Racial diversity post-2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Racial diversity post-2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the enactment of Civil Rights laws in the 1960s, many educational institutions in the United States that receive federal funding have undertaken <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">affirmative action</a> to increase their racial diversity. Some historically black colleges and universities now have non-black majorities, including <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bluefield_State_University" title="Bluefield State University">Bluefield State University</a>, whose student bodies have had large <a href="/wiki/White_Americans" title="White Americans">white</a> majorities since the mid-1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pewresearch.org-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As many HBCUs have made a concerted effort to maintain enrollment levels and often offer relatively affordable tuition, the percentage of non–African-American enrollment has risen.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following table highlights HBCUs with high non–African American enrollments: </p> <table style="text-align:center; font-size:85%; margin-left:2em; margin:auto;" class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Racial diversity at HBCUs, 2016–2017 school year<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">College name </th> <th rowspan="2">State </th> <th colspan="2">Percentage </th></tr> <tr> <th>African<br />American </th> <th>Non-African<br />American </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Bluefield_State_University" title="Bluefield State University">Bluefield State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>West Virginia</td> <td>8</td> <td>92 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>West Virginia</td> <td>8</td> <td>92 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_State_University" title="Kentucky State University">Kentucky State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Kentucky</td> <td>46</td> <td>54 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="University of the District of Columbia">University of the District of Columbia</a><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>District of Columbia</td> <td>59</td> <td>41 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Delaware_State_University" title="Delaware State University">Delaware State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Delaware</td> <td>64</td> <td>36 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_State_University" title="Fayetteville State University">Fayetteville State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>North Carolina</td> <td>60</td> <td>40 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Winston-Salem_State_University" title="Winston-Salem State University">Winston-Salem State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>North Carolina</td> <td>71</td> <td>29 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_City_State_University" title="Elizabeth City State University">Elizabeth City State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>North Carolina</td> <td>76</td> <td>24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Xavier_University_of_Louisiana" title="Xavier University of Louisiana">Xavier University of Louisiana</a><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Louisiana</td> <td>70</td> <td>30 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University" title="North Carolina A&T State University">North Carolina A&T State University</a><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>North Carolina</td> <td>80</td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>Pennsylvania</td> <td>84</td> <td>16 </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Other HBCUs with relatively high non–African American student populations</b> </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report_Best_Colleges_Ranking" title="U.S. News & World Report Best Colleges Ranking"><i>U.S. News & World Report</i> Best Colleges</a> 2011 edition, the proportion of white American students at <a href="/wiki/Langston_University" title="Langston University">Langston University</a> was 12%; at <a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw University</a>, 12%; at <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_State_University" title="Tennessee State University">Tennessee State University</a>, 12%; at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland_Eastern_Shore" title="University of Maryland Eastern Shore">University of Maryland Eastern Shore</a>, 12%; and at <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Central_University" title="North Carolina Central University">North Carolina Central University</a>, 10%. The <i>U.S. News & World Report</i><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s statistical profiles indicate that several other HBCUs have relatively significant percentages of non–African American student populations consisting of Asian, Hispanic, white American, and foreign students.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Special_academic_programs">Special academic programs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Special academic programs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>HBCU libraries have formed the <a href="/wiki/HBCU_Library_Alliance" title="HBCU Library Alliance">HBCU Library Alliance</a>. That alliance, together with <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>, have a joint program to digitize HBCU collections. The project is funded by the <a href="/wiki/Andrew_W._Mellon_Foundation" title="Andrew W. Mellon Foundation">Andrew W. Mellon Foundation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, more historically black colleges and universities are offering online education programs. As of November 23, 2010, nineteen historically black colleges and universities offer online degree programs.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The growth in these programs is driven by partnerships with online educational entrepreneurs like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ezell_Brown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ezell Brown (page does not exist)">Ezell Brown</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intercollegiate_sports">Intercollegiate sports</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Intercollegiate sports"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_black_college_football_classics" title="List of black college football classics">List of black college football classics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_college_football_national_championship" title="Black college football national championship">Black college football national championship</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black_College_Football_Hall_of_Fame" title="Black College Football Hall of Fame">Black College Football Hall of Fame</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/NCAA_Division_I" title="NCAA Division I">NCAA Division I</a> has two historically black athletic conferences: <a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern Athletic Conference</a>. The top football teams from the conferences have played each other in postseason bowl games: the <a href="/wiki/Pelican_Bowl" title="Pelican Bowl">Pelican Bowl</a> (1970s), the <a href="/wiki/Heritage_Bowl" title="Heritage Bowl">Heritage Bowl</a> (1990s), and the <a href="/wiki/Celebration_Bowl" title="Celebration Bowl">Celebration Bowl</a> (2015–present). These conferences are home to all Division I HBCUs except for <a href="/wiki/Hampton_Pirates_and_Lady_Pirates" title="Hampton Pirates and Lady Pirates">Hampton University</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_State_Tigers_and_Lady_Tigers" title="Tennessee State Tigers and Lady Tigers">Tennessee State University</a>. Tennessee State has been a member of the <a href="/wiki/Ohio_Valley_Conference" title="Ohio Valley Conference">Ohio Valley Conference</a> since 1986, while Hampton left the MEAC in 2018 for the <a href="/wiki/Big_South_Conference" title="Big South Conference">Big South Conference</a>. In 2021, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_Aggies" title="North Carolina A&T Aggies">North Carolina A&T State University</a> made the same conference move that Hampton made three years earlier (MEAC to Big South).<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both Hampton and North Carolina A&T later moved their athletic programs to the <a href="/wiki/Colonial_Athletic_Association" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial Athletic Association">Colonial Athletic Association</a> and its technically separate football league of CAA Football; Hampton joined both sides of the CAA in 2022,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while A&T joined the all-sports CAA in 2022 before joining CAA Football in 2023.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The mostly HBCU <a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association</a> and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference</a> are part of the <a href="/wiki/NCAA_Division_II" title="NCAA Division II">NCAA Division II</a>, whereas the HBCU <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_Athletic_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf Coast Athletic Conference">Gulf Coast Athletic Conference</a> is part of the <a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Intercollegiate_Athletics" title="National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics">National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_HBCU_alumni">Notable HBCU alumni</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Notable HBCU alumni"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also the "Notable alumni" sections of each institution's article.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg/220px-Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg/330px-Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg/440px-Kamala_Harris_speaks_with_HBCU_students_-_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1796" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Vice President and HBCU alumna <a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a> with students attending HBCUs</figcaption></figure> <p>HBCUs have a rich legacy of matriculating many leaders in the fields of business, law, science, education, military service, entertainment, art, and sports. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a>, civil rights activist, minister – <a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark Atlanta University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama_State_University" title="Alabama State University">Alabama State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ed_Bradley" title="Ed Bradley">Ed Bradley</a>, first black <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a> correspondent for <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a> - <a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney University of Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Braxton" title="Toni Braxton">Toni Braxton</a>, Grammy-winning R&B artist with over 70 million records sold - <a href="/wiki/Bowie_State_University" title="Bowie State University">Bowie State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a>, first African-American elected by popular vote to <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">United States Senate</a> and to serve as <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Attorney_General" title="Massachusetts Attorney General">Massachusetts Attorney General</a> - <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Lee_Browne" title="Roscoe Lee Browne">Roscoe Lee Browne</a>, prolific actor and director - <a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Clyburn" class="mw-redirect" title="James Clyburn">James Clyburn</a>, US Congressman from <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina%27s_6th_congressional_district" title="South Carolina's 6th congressional district">South Carolina's 6th congressional district</a> and <a href="/wiki/Party_leaders_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Party leaders of the United States House of Representatives">Majority Whip</a> of the <a href="/wiki/116th_United_States_Congress" title="116th United States Congress">116th United States Congress</a> – <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_State_University" title="South Carolina State University">South Carolina State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Wiley_Evers" class="mw-redirect" title="Medgar Wiley Evers">Medgar Wiley Evers</a>, civil rights leader - <a href="/wiki/Alcorn_State_University" title="Alcorn State University">Alcorn State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> mathematician <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Johnson" title="Katherine Johnson">Katherine Johnson</a> attended <a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Althea_Gibson" title="Althea Gibson">Althea Gibson</a>, the first African American to win a <a href="/wiki/Grand_Slam_(tennis)" title="Grand Slam (tennis)">Grand Slam</a> title had a full athletic scholarship to <a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" title="Florida A&M University">Florida A&M University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikki_Giovanni" title="Nikki Giovanni">Nikki Giovanni</a>, poet – <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcee_Hastings" title="Alcee Hastings">Alcee Hastings</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">US Congressman</a> from <a href="/wiki/Florida%27s_20th_congressional_district" title="Florida's 20th congressional district">Florida's 20th congressional district</a> – <a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" title="Florida A&M University">Florida A&M University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randy_Jackson" title="Randy Jackson">Randy Jackson</a>, original judge on <a href="/wiki/American_Idol" title="American Idol">American Idol</a> - <a href="/wiki/Southern_University" title="Southern University">Southern University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lonnie_Johnson_(inventor)" title="Lonnie Johnson (inventor)">Lonnie Johnson</a>, inventor, NASA engineer – <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Joyner" title="Tom Joyner">Tom Joyner</a>, first African-American inducted into the <a href="/wiki/National_Radio_Hall_of_Fame" class="mw-redirect" title="National Radio Hall of Fame">National Radio Hall of Fame</a> - <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reginald_Lewis" title="Reginald Lewis">Reginald Lewis</a>, first African-American to build and own a <a href="/wiki/Beatrice_Foods" title="Beatrice Foods">billion dollar company</a> - Virginia State</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_McKay" title="Claude McKay">Claude McKay</a>, poet, <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a> <a href="/wiki/Ronald_McNair" title="Ronald McNair">Ronald McNair</a> graduated from <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University" title="North Carolina A&T State University">North Carolina A&T State University</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rod_Paige" title="Rod Paige">Rod Paige</a>, first African-American to serve as the U.S. education chief - <a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_University" title="Jackson State University">Jackson State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Payton" title="Walter Payton">Walter Payton</a>, considered one of the greatest <a href="/wiki/Running_backs" class="mw-redirect" title="Running backs">running backs</a> in NFL history – <a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_University" title="Jackson State University">Jackson State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anika_Noni_Rose" title="Anika Noni Rose">Anika Noni Rose</a>, the original voice of the first African American <a href="/wiki/Disney" class="mw-redirect" title="Disney">Disney</a> princess (<a href="/wiki/Tiana_(The_Princess_and_the_Frog)" title="Tiana (The Princess and the Frog)">Tiana</a>) - Florida A&M University</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Rice" title="Jerry Rice">Jerry Rice</a>, considered the greatest <a href="/wiki/NFL" class="mw-redirect" title="NFL">NFL</a> wide receiver of all-time - <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Valley_State_University" title="Mississippi Valley State University">Mississippi Valley State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_A._Smith" title="Stephen A. Smith">Stephen A. Smith</a>, well-known sports journalist and television personality - <a href="/wiki/Winston-Salem_State_University" title="Winston-Salem State University">Winston-Salem State University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megan_Thee_Stallion" title="Megan Thee Stallion">Megan Thee Stallion</a>, <a href="/wiki/63rd_Annual_Grammy_Awards" title="63rd Annual Grammy Awards">Grammy-winning</a> rapper and actress - <a href="/wiki/Texas_Southern_University" title="Texas Southern University">Texas Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_H._Sullivan" class="mw-redirect" title="Leon H. Sullivan">Leon H. Sullivan</a>, developer of the Sullivan Principles used to end <a href="/wiki/Apartheid" title="Apartheid">apartheid</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, attended West Virginia State University.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wanda_Sykes" title="Wanda Sykes">Wanda Sykes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emmy" class="mw-redirect" title="Emmy">Emmy</a>-winning comedian, novelist, writer, and actress – <a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Leon_Talley" title="André Leon Talley">André Leon Talley</a>, first African-American editor-at-large of <i><a href="/wiki/Vogue_(magazine)" title="Vogue (magazine)">Vogue</a></i> - <a href="/wiki/Virginia_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia State">Virginia State</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_Airmen" title="Tuskegee Airmen">Tuskegee Airmen</a> were educated at Tuskegee University.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Walker" title="Alice Walker">Alice Walker</a>, novelist and poet – <a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Wallace_(basketball)" title="Ben Wallace (basketball)">Ben Wallace</a>, former 4-time <a href="/wiki/NBA_All-Star" class="mw-redirect" title="NBA All-Star">NBA All-Star</a> and NBA Defensive Player of the Year - <a href="/wiki/Virginia_Union_University" title="Virginia Union University">Virginia Union University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Williams_(quarterback)" title="Doug Williams (quarterback)">Doug Williams</a>, first black NFL quarterback to win a <a href="/wiki/Super_Bowl" title="Super Bowl">Super Bowl</a> - <a href="/wiki/Grambling_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Grambling State">Grambling State</a></li></ul> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Booker T. Washington, educator, orator, and advisor (Hampton)"><img alt="Booker T. Washington, educator, orator, and advisor (Hampton)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/85px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/127px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg/170px-Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2344" data-file-height="3313" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a>, educator, orator, and advisor (<a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="W. E. B. Du Bois, sociologist, historian, and activist (Fisk)"><img alt="W. E. B. Du Bois, sociologist, historian, and activist (Fisk)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/92px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/138px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg/184px-WEB_DuBois_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3627" data-file-height="4725" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociologist</a>, historian, and activist (<a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Thurgood Marshall, first black Supreme Court justice (Lincoln, Howard)"><img alt="Thurgood Marshall, first black Supreme Court justice (Lincoln, Howard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg/81px-Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg/121px-Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg/162px-Thurgoodmarshall1967.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3665" data-file-height="5435" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a>, first black <a href="/wiki/SCOTUS" class="mw-redirect" title="SCOTUS">Supreme Court</a> justice (<a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_University_School_of_Law" title="Howard University School of Law">Howard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Martin Luther King Jr., leader of the civil rights movement (Morehouse)"><img alt="Martin Luther King Jr., leader of the civil rights movement (Morehouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/99px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg" decoding="async" width="99" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/148px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg/198px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2473" data-file-height="3000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, leader of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> (<a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Toni_Morrison.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Toni Morrison, acclaimed novelist and Nobel laureate (Howard)"><img alt="Toni Morrison, acclaimed novelist and Nobel laureate (Howard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Toni_Morrison.jpg/84px-Toni_Morrison.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Toni_Morrison.jpg/126px-Toni_Morrison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Toni_Morrison.jpg/168px-Toni_Morrison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="2195" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a>, acclaimed novelist and Nobel laureate (<a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_(10196120025)_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Jesse Jackson, minister and politician (North Carolina A&T)"><img alt="Jesse Jackson, minister and politician (North Carolina A&T)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg/90px-AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg/135px-AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg/180px-AFGE_Meets_with_Rev._Jesse_Jackson_%2810196120025%29_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1234" data-file-height="1645" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a>, minister and politician (<a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University" title="North Carolina A&T State University">North Carolina A&T</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spike Lee, film director and producer (Morehouse)"><img alt="Spike Lee, film director and producer (Morehouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg/100px-Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg/150px-Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg/199px-Spike_Lee_at_the_2009_Tribeca_Film_Festival.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2072" data-file-height="2493" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Spike_Lee" title="Spike Lee">Spike Lee</a>, film director and producer (<a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Samuel L. Jackson, actor and film producer (Morehouse)"><img alt="Samuel L. Jackson, actor and film producer (Morehouse)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg/92px-SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg/138px-SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg/184px-SamuelLJacksonCCJuly2010.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1895" data-file-height="2465" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_L._Jackson" title="Samuel L. Jackson">Samuel L. Jackson</a>, actor and film producer (<a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ruth_J._Simmons_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruth Simmons, first African American president in the Ivy League (Dillard)"><img alt="Ruth Simmons, first African American president in the Ivy League (Dillard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg/90px-Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg/135px-Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Ruth_J._Simmons_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1303" data-file-height="1737" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Simmons" title="Ruth Simmons">Ruth Simmons</a>, first African American president in the <a href="/wiki/Ivy_League" title="Ivy League">Ivy League</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dillard_University" title="Dillard University">Dillard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Oprah_in_2014.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Oprah Winfrey, talk show host and media mogul (Tenn State)"><img alt="Oprah Winfrey, talk show host and media mogul (Tenn State)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oprah_in_2014.jpg/90px-Oprah_in_2014.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oprah_in_2014.jpg/136px-Oprah_in_2014.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Oprah_in_2014.jpg/181px-Oprah_in_2014.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3108" data-file-height="4123" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a>, talk show host and media mogul (<a href="/wiki/Tennessee_State_University" title="Tennessee State University">Tenn State</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Kamala Harris, Vice President of the United States (Howard)"><img alt="Kamala Harris, Vice President of the United States (Howard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/90px-Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/135px-Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Kamala_Harris_Vice_Presidential_Portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="2051" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a>, Vice President of the United States (<a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:-Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_(NHQ201612100020)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taraji P. Henson, actress (Howard)"><img alt="Taraji P. Henson, actress (Howard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/-Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/84px--Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/-Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/127px--Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/-Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/169px--Hidden_Figures-_Film_Celebration_%28NHQ201612100020%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1663" data-file-height="2361" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Taraji_P._Henson" title="Taraji P. Henson">Taraji P. Henson</a>, actress (<a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Chadwick_Boseman_(28017825484)_(cropped_2).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Chadwick Boseman, actor and playwright (Howard)"><img alt="Chadwick Boseman, actor and playwright (Howard)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/85px-Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/128px-Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg/171px-Chadwick_Boseman_%2828017825484%29_%28cropped_2%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1541" data-file-height="2165" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Chadwick_Boseman" title="Chadwick Boseman">Chadwick Boseman</a>, actor and playwright (<a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_(12964)_(cropped,_Common).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Common, rapper and actor (Florida A&M)"><img alt="Common, rapper and actor (Florida A&M)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg/96px-Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg/144px-Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg/192px-Common_%2812964%29_%28cropped%2C_Common%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1770" data-file-height="2211" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Common_(rapper)" title="Common (rapper)">Common</a>, rapper and actor (<a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" title="Florida A&M University">Florida A&M</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Strahan_2021_FOX_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Michael Strahan, NFL Hall of Famer, entrepreneur, TV personality, and actor (Texas Southern)"><img alt="Michael Strahan, NFL Hall of Famer, entrepreneur, TV personality, and actor (Texas Southern)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg/81px-Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg/121px-Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg/162px-Strahan_2021_FOX_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="689" data-file-height="1020" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Strahan" title="Michael Strahan">Michael Strahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/NFL" class="mw-redirect" title="NFL">NFL</a> Hall of Famer, entrepreneur, TV personality, and actor (<a href="/wiki/Texas_Southern_University" title="Texas Southern University">Texas Southern</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Erykah Badu, singer, entrepreneur, and actress (Grambling State)"><img alt="Erykah Badu, singer, entrepreneur, and actress (Grambling State)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg/120px-Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg/180px-Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg/240px-Erykah_Badu_2008.07.14_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Erykah_Badu" title="Erykah Badu">Erykah Badu</a>, singer, entrepreneur, and actress (<a href="/wiki/Grambling_State_University" title="Grambling State University">Grambling State</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Leontyne_Price_(color)_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leontyne Price, internationally acclaimed soprano (Central State)"><img alt="Leontyne Price, internationally acclaimed soprano (Central State)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg/96px-Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg/144px-Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg/191px-Leontyne_Price_%28color%29_by_Jack_Mitchell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="470" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Leontyne_Price" title="Leontyne Price">Leontyne Price</a>, internationally acclaimed <a href="/wiki/Soprano" title="Soprano">soprano</a> (<a href="/wiki/Central_State_University" title="Central State University">Central State</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Lionel Richie, singer, songwriter, record producer, and TV personality (Tuskegee)"><img alt="Lionel Richie, singer, songwriter, record producer, and TV personality (Tuskegee)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg/116px-Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="116" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg/174px-Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg/232px-Lionel_Richie_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2765" data-file-height="2856" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Richie" title="Lionel Richie">Lionel Richie</a>, singer, songwriter, record producer, and TV personality (<a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Joycelyn Elders, first African American Surgeon General of the U.S. (Philander Smith)"><img alt="Joycelyn Elders, first African American Surgeon General of the U.S. (Philander Smith)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/91px-Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/137px-Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg/183px-Joycelyn_Elders_official_portrait_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="860" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Joycelyn_Elders" title="Joycelyn Elders">Joycelyn Elders</a>, first African American <a href="/wiki/Surgeon_General_of_the_United_States" title="Surgeon General of the United States">Surgeon General of the U.S.</a> (<a href="/wiki/Philander_Smith_University" title="Philander Smith University">Philander Smith</a>)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Stacey Abrams, voting rights leader, lawyer, and author (Spelman)"><img alt="Stacey Abrams, voting rights leader, lawyer, and author (Spelman)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/97px-Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/146px-Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg/195px-Stacey_Abrams_by_Gage_Skidmore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3118" data-file-height="3841" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Stacey_Abrams" title="Stacey Abrams">Stacey Abrams</a>, voting rights leader, lawyer, and author (<a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman</a>)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_presidential_and_federal_support">Modern presidential and federal support</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Modern presidential and federal support"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Federal funding for HBCUs has notably increased in recent years. Proper federal support of HBCUs has become more of a key issue in modern U.S. presidential elections. <sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/President_Barack_Obama" class="mw-redirect" title="President Barack Obama">President Barack Obama</a>'s eight years in office, he invested more than $4 billion to HBCUs.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2019, <a href="/wiki/President_Donald_Trump" class="mw-redirect" title="President Donald Trump">President Donald Trump</a> signed a bipartisan bill that permanently invested more than $250 million a year to HBCUs.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, <a href="/wiki/President_Joe_Biden" class="mw-redirect" title="President Joe Biden">President Joe Biden</a>'s first year in office, he invested a historic $5.8 billion to support HBCUs.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, Biden's administration announced an additional $2.7 billion through his American Rescue Plan.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="HBCU_homecomings">HBCU homecomings</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: HBCU homecomings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Homecoming" title="Homecoming">Homecoming</a> is a tradition at almost every American college and university, however homecoming has a more unique meaning at HBCUs. Homecoming plays a significant role in the culture and identity of HBCUs. The level of pageantry and local black community involvement (parade participation, business vendors, etc.) helps make HBCU homecomings more distinctive. Due to higher campus traffic and activity, classes at HBCUs are usually cancelled on Friday and Saturday of homecoming.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Millions of alumni, students, celebrity guests, and visitors attend HBCU homecomings every year. In addition to being a highly cherished tradition and festive week, homecomings generate strong revenue for HBCUs and many black owned businesses.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Diploma_icon.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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<li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Library_Alliance" title="HBCU Library Alliance">HBCU Library Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honda_Battle_of_the_Bands" title="Honda Battle of the Bands">Honda Battle of the Bands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honda_Campus_All-Star_Challenge" title="Honda Campus All-Star Challenge">Honda Campus All-Star Challenge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority-serving_institution" title="Minority-serving institution">Minority-serving institution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_African_American_History_and_Culture" title="National Museum of African American History and Culture">National Museum of African American History and Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Negro_College_Fund" class="mw-redirect" title="United Negro College Fund">United Negro College Fund</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">20 U.S. Code sec.1061, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://USCode.house.gov">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221220095814/https://uscode.house.gov/">Archived</a> December 20, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://USCode.house.gov">https://USCode.house.gov</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221220095814/https://uscode.house.gov/">Archived</a> December 20, 2022, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> For a compact overview of HBCU history, see Walter R. Allen, Joseph O. Jewell, Kimberly A. Griffin, & De'Sha S. Wolf, <i>Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Honoring the Past, Engaging the Present, Touching the Future,</i> 76 <b>Journal of Negro Education</b>, pp. 263–280 (2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, J.D. (1988). <i>The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935</i>. University of North Carolina Press.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151005211025/http://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/">"White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities"</a>. U.S. Department of Education. April 11, 2008. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ed.gov/edblogs/whhbcu/">the original</a> on October 5, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 23,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=White+House+Initiative+on+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.pub=U.S.+Department+of+Education&rft.date=2008-04-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ed.gov%2Fedblogs%2Fwhhbcu%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWooten2016" class="citation book cs1">Wooten, Melissa E. (2016). <i>In the face of inequality</i>. State Univ of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5690-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-5690-4"><bdi>978-1-4384-5690-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/946968175">946968175</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+the+face+of+inequality.&rft.pub=State+Univ+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F946968175&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-5690-4&rft.aulast=Wooten&rft.aufirst=Melissa+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones" class="citation web cs1">Jones, Brandy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/PBIs.pdf">"Predominantly Black Institutions: Pathways to Black Student Educational Attainment"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Center for Minority Serving Institutions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Predominantly+Black+Institutions%3A+Pathways+to+Black+Student+Educational+Attainment&rft.pub=Center+for+Minority+Serving+Institutions&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Brandy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcmsi.gse.rutgers.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FPBIs.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2015" class="citation magazine cs1">Harris, Leslie M. (March 26, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newrepublic.com/article/121382/forgotten-racist-past-american-universities">"The Long, Ugly History of Racism at American Universities"</a>. <i>The New Republic</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Republic&rft.atitle=The+Long%2C+Ugly+History+of+Racism+at+American+Universities&rft.date=2015-03-26&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Leslie+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewrepublic.com%2Farticle%2F121382%2Fforgotten-racist-past-american-universities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman, <i>Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (eds.), <i>Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities</i> (New York: Palgrave Press, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-50267-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-50267-7">978-1-349-50267-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Favors, J. (2020). <i>Shelter in a time of storm: How Black colleges fostered generations of leadership and activism</i>. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-4833-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-4833-0">978-1-4696-4833-0</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-47234239">"The story of historically black colleges in the US"</a>. BBC News. February 15, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+story+of+historically+black+colleges+in+the+US&rft.date=2019-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-us-canada-47234239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chronicle.com/article/despite-obstacles-black-colleges-are-pipelines-to-the-middle-class-study-finds-heres-its-list-of-the-best/">"Despite Obstacles, Black Colleges Are Pipelines to the Middle Class, Study Finds. Here's Its List of the Best"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Chronicle_of_Higher_Education" title="The Chronicle of Higher Education">The Chronicle of Higher Education</a></i>. September 30, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 15,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Chronicle+of+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=Despite+Obstacles%2C+Black+Colleges+Are+Pipelines+to+the+Middle+Class%2C+Study+Finds.+Here%27s+Its+List+of+the+Best.&rft.date=2019-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.chronicle.com%2Farticle%2Fdespite-obstacles-black-colleges-are-pipelines-to-the-middle-class-study-finds-heres-its-list-of-the-best%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://uncf.org/the-latest/african-americans-and-college-education-by-the-numbers">"African Americans and College Education by the Numbers"</a>. UNCF. November 29, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 17,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+Americans+and+College+Education+by+the+Numbers&rft.pub=UNCF&rft.date=2018-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funcf.org%2Fthe-latest%2Fafrican-americans-and-college-education-by-the-numbers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pewresearch.org-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pewresearch.org_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/02/28/a-look-at-historically-black-colleges-and-universities-as-howard-turns-150/">"A look at historically black colleges and universities as Howard turns 150"</a>. Pewresearch.org. February 28, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+look+at+historically+black+colleges+and+universities+as+Howard+turns+150&rft.pub=Pewresearch.org&rft.date=2017-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pewresearch.org%2Ffact-tank%2F2017%2F02%2F28%2Fa-look-at-historically-black-colleges-and-universities-as-howard-turns-150%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.american-school-search.com/colleges/hbcu">"Historically Black Colleges and Universities – American School Search"</a>. American-school-search.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities+%E2%80%93+American+School+Search&rft.pub=American-school-search.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.american-school-search.com%2Fcolleges%2Fhbcu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman, <i>The Changing Face of Historically Black Colleges and Universities</i>. Philadelphia: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, 2013. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Casey Boland, Marybeth Gasman et al., <i>Contemporary Public HBCUs: A Four State Comparison</i>, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Penn Center for Minority Serving Institutions, University of Pennsylvania, Spring 2014. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gettingsmart.com/2022/11/08/the-tide-that-binds-learning-from-experience-at-hbcus/">"The Tide That Binds: Learning from Experience at HBCU's"</a>. November 8, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Tide+That+Binds%3A+Learning+from+Experience+at+HBCU%27s&rft.date=2022-11-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gettingsmart.com%2F2022%2F11%2F08%2Fthe-tide-that-binds-learning-from-experience-at-hbcus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For detail of the university's early history from its origins as the Institute for Colored Youth, see Milton M. James, <i>The Institute for Colored Youth,</i> 21 <b>Negro History Bulletin</b> p. 83 (1958)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Initially chartered as the Ashmun Institute, it changed its name in 1866. It was the first degree-granting HBCU. See Lincoln University, <i>History,</i> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531043729/https://www.lincoln.edu/about/history">"Archived copy"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lincoln.edu/about/history">the original</a> on May 31, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lincoln.edu%2Fabout%2Fhistory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>)</span>. See also Andrew E. Murray, <i>The Founding of Lincoln University,</i> 51 <b>Journal of Presbyterian History</b> p. 392 (1973).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Originally proposed as Ohio African University, the founders changed the name to Wilberforce University, to honor the English abolitionist <a href="/wiki/William_Wilberforce" title="William Wilberforce">William Wilberforce</a>, before its corporate charter was granted. Frederick Alphonso McGinnis, <b>A History and Interpretation of Wilberforce University</b> p. 33 (1941). See also Charles Killian, <i>Wilberforce University: The Reality of Bishop Payne's Dream,</i> 34 <b>Negro History Bulletin</b> p. 83 (1971).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman, <i>Envisioning Black Colleges: A History of the United Negro College Fund</i> (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8604-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8604-1">978-0-8018-8604-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Lieberman, "The Freedmen's Bureau and the politics of institutional structure." <i>Social Science History</i> 18.3 (1994): 405-437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald E. Butchart, "Freedmen's education during reconstruction." <i>New Georgia Encyclopedia</i> 13 (2016): 4-13 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/freedmens-education-during-reconstruction">online</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrillo2012" class="citation book cs1">Carrillo, Karen Juanita (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=urVzCgAAQBAJ&q=atlanta+university+september+19+1865&pg=PA276"><i>African American History Day By Day – A Reference Guide To Events</i></a>. Abc-Clio. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-361-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59884-361-3"><bdi>978-1-59884-361-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African+American+History+Day+By+Day+%E2%80%93+A+Reference+Guide+To+Events&rft.pub=Abc-Clio&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-59884-361-3&rft.aulast=Carrillo&rft.aufirst=Karen+Juanita&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DurVzCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Datlanta%2Buniversity%2Bseptember%2B19%2B1865%26pg%3DPA276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2013" class="citation web cs1">Roy, Lisa (December 18, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/storer-college-1867-1956/">"Storer College (1867–1956)"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 4,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Storer+College+%281867%E2%80%931956%29&rft.date=2013-12-18&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackpast.org%2Fafrican-american-history%2Fstorer-college-1867-1956%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(7 U.S.C. § 301 et seq.)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John W. Davis, <i>The Negro Land-Grant College,</i> 2 <b>Journal of Negro Education</b> p. 312 (1933).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See generally, John W. Davis, <i>The Negro Land-Grant College,</i> 2 <b>Journal of Negro Education</b> (1933).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Title_20_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 20 of the United States Code">20 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/20/1059e">§ 1059e</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2022MSIList-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2022MSIList_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cmsi.gse.rutgers.edu/sites/default/files/2022%20MSI%20List.pdf">"List of Minority Serving Institutions: 2022"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Center for Minority Serving Institutions.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=List+of+Minority+Serving+Institutions%3A+2022&rft.pub=Center+for+Minority+Serving+Institutions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcmsi.gse.rutgers.edu%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2022%2520MSI%2520List.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1995" class="citation journal cs1">Miller, Patrick B. (1995). "To "Bring the Race along Rapidly": Sport, Student Culture, and Educational Mission at Historically Black Colleges during the Interwar Years". <i>History of Education Quarterly</i>. <b>35</b> (2): 111–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F369629">10.2307/369629</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0018-2680">0018-2680</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/369629">369629</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:147170256">147170256</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Education+Quarterly&rft.atitle=To+%22Bring+the+Race+along+Rapidly%22%3A+Sport%2C+Student+Culture%2C+and+Educational+Mission+at+Historically+Black+Colleges+during+the+Interwar+Years&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=111-33&rft.date=1995&rft.issn=0018-2680&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A147170256%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F369629%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F369629&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Patrick+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMillerWiggins2004" class="citation book cs1">Miller, Patrick B; Wiggins, David Kenneth, eds. (2004). <i>Sport and the color line: black athletes and race relations in twentieth-century America</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94610-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-94610-0"><bdi>978-0-415-94610-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/53155353">53155353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sport+and+the+color+line%3A+black+athletes+and+race+relations+in+twentieth-century+America&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F53155353&rft.isbn=978-0-415-94610-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-African_American_Registry-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-African_American_Registry_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-African_American_Registry_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aaregistry.org/story/jewish-profs-and-hbcus/">"Jewish Prof's and HBCU's – African American Registry"</a>. <i>African American Registry</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 23,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=African+American+Registry&rft.atitle=Jewish+Prof%27s+and+HBCU%27s+%E2%80%93+African+American+Registry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faaregistry.org%2Fstory%2Fjewish-profs-and-hbcus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hoch_217–246-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hoch_217–246_34-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoch1983" class="citation journal cs1">Hoch, Paul K. (May 11, 1983). "The reception of central European refugee physicists of the 1930s: USSR, UK, US". <i>Annals of Science</i>. <b>40</b> (3): 217–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00033798300200211">10.1080/00033798300200211</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-3790">0003-3790</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Science&rft.atitle=The+reception+of+central+European+refugee+physicists+of+the+1930s%3A+USSR%2C+UK%2C+US.&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=217-46&rft.date=1983-05-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00033798300200211&rft.issn=0003-3790&rft.aulast=Hoch&rft.aufirst=Paul+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-timeline.com-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-timeline.com_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilligan2017" class="citation web cs1">Gilligan, Heather (February 10, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timeline.com/jewish-professors-black-colleges-9a61d4603771">"After fleeing the Nazis, many Jewish refugee professors found homes at historically black colleges"</a>. <i>Timeline</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 6,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Timeline&rft.atitle=After+fleeing+the+Nazis%2C+many+Jewish+refugee+professors+found+homes+at+historically+black+colleges&rft.date=2017-02-10&rft.aulast=Gilligan&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimeline.com%2Fjewish-professors-black-colleges-9a61d4603771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman, "Scylla and Charybdis: Navigating the Waters of Academic Freedom at Fisk University during Charles S. Johnson's Administration (1946–1956)", <i>American Educational Research Journal</i> 36, no. 4 (1999): 739–58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillieReddickBrown2006" class="citation book cs1">Willie, Charles Vert; Reddick, Richard J.; Brown, Ronald (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/blackcollegemyst0000will"><i>The Black College Mystique</i></a></span>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4617-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-4617-2"><bdi>978-0-7425-4617-2</bdi></a>. <q>jewish refugees teaching in black colleges.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+College+Mystique&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-4617-2&rft.aulast=Willie&rft.aufirst=Charles+Vert&rft.au=Reddick%2C+Richard+J.&rft.au=Brown%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fblackcollegemyst0000will&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster2001" class="citation journal cs1">Foster, Lenoar (November 11, 2001). "The Not-So-Invisible Professors". <i>Urban Education</i>. <b>36</b> (5): 611–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0042085901365006">10.1177/0042085901365006</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0042-0859">0042-0859</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145633996">145633996</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urban+Education&rft.atitle=The+Not-So-Invisible+Professors&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=611-29&rft.date=2001-11-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145633996%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0042-0859&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0042085901365006&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=Lenoar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJewell2002" class="citation journal cs1">Jewell, Joseph O. (January 1, 2002). "To Set an Example: The Tradition of Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities". <i>Urban Education</i>. <b>37</b> (1): 7–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0042085902371002">10.1177/0042085902371002</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145115998">145115998</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Urban+Education&rft.atitle=To+Set+an+Example%3A+The+Tradition+of+Diversity+at+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=7-21&rft.date=2002-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0042085902371002&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145115998%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Jewell&rft.aufirst=Joseph+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jbhe-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-jbhe_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jbhe.com/2012/07/how-hbcus-contributed-to-the-1940s-war-effort/">"How HBCUs Contributed to the 1940s War Effort"</a>. <i>Journal of Blacks in Higher Education</i>. July 12, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Blacks+in+Higher+Education&rft.atitle=How+HBCUs+Contributed+to+the+1940s+War+Effort&rft.date=2012-07-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jbhe.com%2F2012%2F07%2Fhow-hbcus-contributed-to-the-1940s-war-effort%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philo Hutcheson, Marybeth Gasman, and Kijua Sanders-McMurtry, "Race and Equality in the Academy: Rethinking Higher Education Actors and the Struggle for Equality in the Post-World War II Period", <i>Journal of Higher Education</i> 82, no. 2 (2011): 121–53</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1994" class="citation cs2">Smith, Walter L. (1994), <i>The Magnificent Twelve: Florida's Black Junior Colleges</i>, Winter Park, Florida: FOUR-G Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-885066-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-885066-01-5"><bdi>1-885066-01-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Magnificent+Twelve%3A+Florida%27s+Black+Junior+Colleges&rft.place=Winter+Park%2C+Florida&rft.pub=FOUR-G+Publishers&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=1-885066-01-5&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Walter+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">20 U.S.C. § 1062.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Act, as amended, defines a "part B institution" as: "...any historically black college or university that was established before 1964, whose principal mission was, and is, the education of black Americans, and that is accredited by a nationally recognized accrediting agency or association determined by the Secretary [of Education] to be a reliable authority as to the quality of training offered or is, according to such an agency or association, making reasonable progress toward accreditation." <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Department_of_Education2008" class="citation web cs1">U.S. Department of Education (January 15, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080513215748/http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-index.html">"HBCUs: A National Resource"</a>. <i>White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ed.gov/about/inits/list/whhbcu/edlite-index.html">the original</a> on May 13, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 8,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=White+House+Initiative+on+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.atitle=HBCUs%3A+A+National+Resource&rft.date=2008-01-15&rft.au=U.S.+Department+of+Education&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ed.gov%2Fabout%2Finits%2Flist%2Fwhhbcu%2Fedlite-index.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span><br />20 U.S.C. § 1061.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.ed.gov/whhbcu/about-us/">"About Us – White House Initiative on Historically Black Colleges and Universities"</a>. <i>Sites.ed.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Sites.ed.gov&rft.atitle=About+Us+%E2%80%93+White+House+Initiative+on+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.ed.gov%2Fwhhbcu%2Fabout-us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGasmanTudico2008" class="citation book cs1">Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L. (2008). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicallyblac00gasm_429"><i>Historically Black Colleges and Universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos</i></a></span> (1st ed.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicallyblac00gasm_429/page/n14">4</a>–5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61726-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-61726-1"><bdi>978-0-230-61726-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities%3A+triumphs%2C+troubles%2C+and+taboos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=4-5&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-61726-1&rft.aulast=Gasman&rft.aufirst=Marybeth&rft.au=Tudico%2C+Christopher+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricallyblac00gasm_429&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hbculibraries.org/">"HBCU Library Alliance"</a>. <i>Hbuclibraries.org</i>. 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October 13, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gov.+Kay+Ivey+signs+proclamation+declaring+October+Alabama+HBCU+Month&rft.date=2022-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.alreporter.com%2F2022%2F10%2F13%2Fgov-kay-ivey-signs-proclamation-declaring-october-alabama-hbcu-month%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/news/2022/02/23/historically-black-colleges-and-universities-in-nc1#:~:text=A%20look%20at%20Historically%20Black%20Colleges%20and%20Universities%20in%20North%20Carolina&text=RALEIGH%2C%20N.C.%20%E2%80%94%20Following%20the%20Civil,HBCUs%20remaining%20in%20the%20state">"Historically Black Colleges and Universities in N.C"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 4,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities+in+N.C&rft.pub=Spectrumlocalnews.com&rft.date=2022-02-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fspectrumlocalnews.com%2Fnc%2Fcharlotte%2Fnews%2F2022%2F02%2F23%2Fhistorically-black-colleges-and-universities-in-nc1%23%3A~%3Atext%3DA%2520look%2520at%2520Historically%2520Black%2520Colleges%2520and%2520Universities%2520in%2520North%2520Carolina%26text%3DRALEIGH%252C%2520N.C.%2520%25E2%2580%2594%2520Following%2520the%2520Civil%2CHBCUs%2520remaining%2520in%2520the%2520state&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRivera2023" class="citation web cs1">Rivera, Heidi (November 15, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bankrate.com/loans/student-loans/hbcu-and-msi-statistics/">"HBCU and MSI Facts and Statistics"</a>. <i>Bankrate</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bankrate&rft.atitle=HBCU+and+MSI+Facts+and+Statistics&rft.date=2023-11-15&rft.aulast=Rivera&rft.aufirst=Heidi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bankrate.com%2Floans%2Fstudent-loans%2Fhbcu-and-msi-statistics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://educationdata.org/pell-grant-statistics#:~:text=Nationwide%2C%2034%25%20of%20undergraduate%20students,the%20Pell%20Grant%20is%20%246%2C895">"Pell Grant Statistics [2023]: How Many Receive per Year"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pell+Grant+Statistics+%26%2391%3B2023%26%2393%3B%3A+How+Many+Receive+per+Year&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feducationdata.org%2Fpell-grant-statistics%23%3A~%3Atext%3DNationwide%252C%252034%2525%2520of%2520undergraduate%2520students%2Cthe%2520Pell%2520Grant%2520is%2520%25246%252C895&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wallyboston.com/admissions-and-financial-aid-practices-at-hbcus/#:~:text=The%20lowest%20percentage%20of%20students,are%20tracked%20by%20College%20Navigator">"Analyzing Admissions and Financial Aid Practices at HBCUs"</a>. August 9, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Analyzing+Admissions+and+Financial+Aid+Practices+at+HBCUs&rft.date=2023-08-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwallyboston.com%2Fadmissions-and-financial-aid-practices-at-hbcus%2F%23%3A~%3Atext%3DThe%2520lowest%2520percentage%2520of%2520students%2Care%2520tracked%2520by%2520College%2520Navigator&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman & Thai-Huy Nguyen, <i>Making Black Scientists: A Call to Action</i>. (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2019). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91658-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-91658-6">978-0-674-91658-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ed.gov-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ed.gov_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ed.gov_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=667">"The NCES Fast Facts Tool provides quick answers to many education questions (National Center for Education Statistics)"</a>. <i>Nces.ed.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nces.ed.gov&rft.atitle=Digest+of+Education+Statistics%2C+2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnces.ed.gov%2Fprograms%2Fdigest%2Fd16%2Ftables%2Fdt16_313.20.asp%3Fcurrent%3Dyes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2007/2007178.pdf">"Economic Impact of the Nation's Historically Black Colleges and Universities"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nces.ed.gov</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 21,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Nces.ed.gov&rft.atitle=Economic+Impact+of+the+Nation%27s+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnces.ed.gov%2Fpubs2007%2F2007178.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_62-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation cs2">"A JSTOR Time Line", <i>JSTOR</i>, Princeton University Press, December 31, 2012, pp. XXVII–XXXVI, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781400843114.xxvii">10.1515/9781400843114.xxvii</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4311-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-4311-4"><bdi>978-1-4008-4311-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+JSTOR+Time+Line&rft.btitle=JSTOR&rft.pages=XXVII-XXXVI&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012-12-31&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781400843114.xxvii&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-4311-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Palmer, Robert Shorette, and Marybeth Gasman (Eds.), <i>Exploring Diversity at Historically Black Colleges and Universities: Implications for Policy and Practice</i> (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2014).<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10843-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-10843-6">978-1-119-10843-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marybeth Gasman and Felecia Commodore (Eds.), <i>Opportunities and Challenges at Historically Black Colleges and Universities</i> (New York: Palgrave Press, 2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-50267-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-50267-7">978-1-349-50267-7</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://newsone.com/797215/more-non-black-students-attending-hbcus/">"More Non-Black Students Attending HBCUs"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160713204313/http://newsone.com/797215/more-non-black-students-attending-hbcus/">Archived</a> July 13, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 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That must change"</a>. <i>The Washington Post</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=101+HBCUs+get+nearly+7+times+less+money+than+1+other+school.+That+must+change.&rft.aulast=Allen&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft.au=Glover%2C+Gelnda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fopinions%2F2022%2F06%2F17%2Fincrease-hbcu-funding%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://safesupportivelearning.ed.gov/resources/fact-sheet-obama-administration-investments-historically-black-colleges-and-universities">"Fact Sheet: Obama Administration Investments in Historically Black Colleges and Universities | National Center on Safe Supportive Learning Environments (NCSSLE)"</a>. <i>safesupportivelearning.ed.gov</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=safesupportivelearning.ed.gov&rft.atitle=Fact+Sheet%3A+Obama+Administration+Investments+in+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities+%26%23124%3B+National+Center+on+Safe+Supportive+Learning+Environments+%28NCSSLE%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsafesupportivelearning.ed.gov%2Fresources%2Ffact-sheet-obama-administration-investments-historically-black-colleges-and-universities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apnews.com/article/bills-donald-trump-politics-c4834e48841d97c5a93312b1bf75302a">"Trump signs bill restoring funding for black colleges"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Associated_Press" title="Associated Press">Associated Press</a></i>. April 20, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Associated+Press&rft.atitle=Trump+signs+bill+restoring+funding+for+black+colleges&rft.date=2021-04-20&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapnews.com%2Farticle%2Fbills-donald-trump-politics-c4834e48841d97c5a93312b1bf75302a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_White_House" class="citation web cs1">The White House. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/17/fact-sheet-the-biden-%E2%81%A0harris-administrations-historic-investments-and-support-for-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/">"FACT SHEET: The Biden-⁠Harris Administration's Historic Investments and Support for Historically Black Colleges and Universities"</a>. <i>The White House</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221025010623/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/12/17/fact-sheet-the-biden-%E2%81%A0harris-administrations-historic-investments-and-support-for-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/">Archived</a> from the original on October 25, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 25,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+White+House&rft.atitle=FACT+SHEET%3A+The+Biden-%E2%81%A0Harris+Administration%27s+Historic+Investments+and+Support+for+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.au=The+White+House&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov%2Fbriefing-room%2Fstatements-releases%2F2021%2F12%2F17%2Ffact-sheet-the-biden-%25E2%2581%25A0harris-administrations-historic-investments-and-support-for-historically-black-colleges-and-universities%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2022/03/07/fact-sheet-state-by-state-analysis-of-record-2-7-billion-american-rescue-plan-investment-in-historically-black-colleges-and-universities/">"FACT SHEET: State-by-State Analysis of Record $2.7 Billion American Rescue Plan Investment in Historically Black Colleges and Universities"</a>. March 7, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=FACT+SHEET%3A+State-by-State+Analysis+of+Record+%242.7+Billion+American+Rescue+Plan+Investment+in+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities&rft.date=2022-03-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitehouse.gov%2Fbriefing-room%2Fstatements-releases%2F2022%2F03%2F07%2Ffact-sheet-state-by-state-analysis-of-record-2-7-billion-american-rescue-plan-investment-in-historically-black-colleges-and-universities%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://studybreaks.com/students/hbcu-homecomings/">"For the Culture: It's Time for HBCU Homecomings"</a>. October 6, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=For+the+Culture%3A+It%27s+Time+for+HBCU+Homecomings&rft.date=2019-10-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudybreaks.com%2Fstudents%2Fhbcu-homecomings%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://money.usnews.com/investing/news/articles/2022-11-01/post-shutdown-hbcu-homecomings-bring-much-needed-boosts-to-revenues">"Post-Shutdown HBCU Homecomings Bring Much-Needed Boosts to Revenues"</a>. <i>US News & World Report</i>. November 1, 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 4,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+News+%26+World+Report&rft.atitle=Post-Shutdown+HBCU+Homecomings+Bring+Much-Needed+Boosts+to+Revenues&rft.date=2022-11-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmoney.usnews.com%2Finvesting%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2022-11-01%2Fpost-shutdown-hbcu-homecomings-bring-much-needed-boosts-to-revenues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/homecoming-celebration-hbcus-and-their-legacies">"Homecoming: A Celebration of HBCUs and Their Legacies"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Homecoming%3A+A+Celebration+of+HBCUs+and+Their+Legacies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnmaahc.si.edu%2Fhomecoming-celebration-hbcus-and-their-legacies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.refinery29.com/en-us/hbcu-alums-homecoming-2020">"3 HBCU Alums on What Makes Homecoming So Meaningful"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=3+HBCU+Alums+on+What+Makes+Homecoming+So+Meaningful&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.refinery29.com%2Fen-us%2Fhbcu-alums-homecoming-2020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArnoldMitchellArnold2015" class="citation journal cs1">Arnold, Bruce Makoto; Mitchell, Roland; <a href="/wiki/Noelle_W._Arnold" title="Noelle W. Arnold">Arnold, Noelle W.</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/12369261">"Massified Illusions of Difference: Photography and the Mystique of the American Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCUs)"</a>. <i>Journal of American Studies of Turkey</i>. <b>41</b>: 69–94<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 3,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+American+Studies+of+Turkey&rft.atitle=Massified+Illusions+of+Difference%3A+Photography+and+the+Mystique+of+the+American+Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities+%28HBCUs%29&rft.volume=41&rft.pages=69-94&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Arnold&rft.aufirst=Bruce+Makoto&rft.au=Mitchell%2C+Roland&rft.au=Arnold%2C+Noelle+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F12369261&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBetsey2011" class="citation book cs1">Betsey, Charles L., ed. (2011). <i>Historically black colleges and universities</i>. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1219-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4128-1219-1"><bdi>978-1-4128-1219-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historically+black+colleges+and+universities&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4128-1219-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Boonshoft, Mark. "Histories of Nineteenth-Century Education and the Civil War Era." <i>Journal of the Civil War Era</i> 12.2 (2022): 234–261.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooksStarks2011" class="citation book cs1">Brooks, F. Erik; Starks, Glenn L. (2011). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historicallyblac0000broo"><i>Historically Black colleges and universities: an encyclopedia</i></a></span>. Greenwood. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-39416-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-39416-4"><bdi>978-0-313-39416-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historically+Black+colleges+and+universities%3A+an+encyclopedia&rft.pub=Greenwood&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-313-39416-4&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=F.+Erik&rft.au=Starks%2C+Glenn+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoricallyblac0000broo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCohen2000" class="citation book cs1">Cohen, Rodney T. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090522205237/http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?z=y&EAN=9780738505541&itm=1%2F"><i>The Black Colleges of Atlanta (College History Series)</i></a>. Arcadia Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-0554-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7385-0554-1"><bdi>978-0-7385-0554-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.barnesandnoble.com/booksearch/isbnInquiry.asp?z=y&EAN=9780738505541&itm=1/">the original</a> on May 22, 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 14,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Colleges+of+Atlanta+%28College+History+Series%29&rft.pub=Arcadia+Pub&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-7385-0554-1&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Rodney+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.barnesandnoble.com%2Fbooksearch%2FisbnInquiry.asp%3Fz%3Dy%26EAN%3D9780738505541%26itm%3D1%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFavors2019" class="citation book cs1">Favors, Jelani M. (2019). <i>Shelter in a Time of Storm: How Black Colleges Fostered Generations of Leadership and Activism</i>. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-4833-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4696-4833-0"><bdi>978-1-4696-4833-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1048660765">1048660765</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shelter+in+a+Time+of+Storm%3A+How+Black+Colleges+Fostered+Generations+of+Leadership+and+Activism&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1048660765&rft.isbn=978-1-4696-4833-0&rft.aulast=Favors&rft.aufirst=Jelani+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGasmanTudico2008" class="citation book cs1">Gasman, Marybeth; Tudico, Christopher L., eds. (2008). <i>Historically Black colleges and universities: triumphs, troubles, and taboos</i> (1st ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60273-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-60273-1"><bdi>978-0-230-60273-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historically+Black+colleges+and+universities%3A+triumphs%2C+troubles%2C+and+taboos&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-230-60273-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2021" class="citation book cs1">Harris, Adam (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9-gHEAAAQBAJ"><i>The State Must Provide: Why America's Colleges Have Always Been Unequal—and How to Set Them Right</i></a>. New York: Ecco. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-297648-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-297648-2"><bdi>978-0-06-297648-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1204635631">1204635631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+State+Must+Provide%3A+Why+America%27s+Colleges+Have+Always+Been+Unequal%E2%80%94and+How+to+Set+Them+Right&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Ecco&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1204635631&rft.isbn=978-0-06-297648-2&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9-gHEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovett2015" class="citation book cs1">Lovett, Bobby L. (2015). <i>America's historically Black colleges & universities: a narrative history from the nineteenth century into the twenty-first century</i> (First ed.). Mercer University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-534-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88146-534-1"><bdi>978-0-88146-534-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=America%27s+historically+Black+colleges+%26+universities%3A+a+narrative+history+from+the+nineteenth+century+into+the+twenty-first+century&rft.edition=First&rft.pub=Mercer+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-88146-534-1&rft.aulast=Lovett&rft.aufirst=Bobby+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMays1960" class="citation journal cs1">Mays, Benjamin E. (1960). "The Significance of the Negro Private and Church-Related College". <i>The Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>29</b> (3): 245–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2293639">10.2307/2293639</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2984">0022-2984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2293639">2293639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=The+Significance+of+the+Negro+Private+and+Church-Related+College&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=245-51&rft.date=1960&rft.issn=0022-2984&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2293639%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2293639&rft.aulast=Mays&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMinor2008" class="citation journal cs1">Minor, James T. (2008). "A Contemporary Perspective on the Role of Public HBCUs: Perspicacity from Mississippi". <i>The Journal of Negro Education</i>. <b>77</b> (4): 323–35. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-2984">0022-2984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25608702">25608702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Negro+Education&rft.atitle=A+Contemporary+Perspective+on+the+Role+of+Public+HBCUs%3A+Perspicacity+from+Mississippi&rft.volume=77&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=323-35&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25608702%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0022-2984&rft.aulast=Minor&rft.aufirst=James+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOne_among_the_others2018" class="citation web cs1">One among the others (March 29, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://anuntoldstoryblog.wordpress.com/2018/03/29/reflections-of-an-hbcu-alumnus/">"Reflections of an HBCU Alumnus (Howard University)"</a>. Anuntoldstoryblog.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Reflections+of+an+HBCU+Alumnus+%28Howard+University%29&rft.pub=Anuntoldstoryblog&rft.date=2018-03-29&rft.au=One+among+the+others&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fanuntoldstoryblog.wordpress.com%2F2018%2F03%2F29%2Freflections-of-an-hbcu-alumnus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPalmerHiltonFountaine2012" class="citation book cs1">Palmer, Robert T.; Hilton, Adriel A.; Fountaine, Tiffany P., eds. (2012). <i>Black graduate education at historically Black colleges and universities trends, experiences, and outcomes</i>. Information Age Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61735-852-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61735-852-4"><bdi>978-1-61735-852-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+graduate+education+at+historically+Black+colleges+and+universities+trends%2C+experiences%2C+and+outcomes&rft.pub=Information+Age+Pub&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-61735-852-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFProvasnikShafer,_Linda_L.2004" class="citation web cs1">Provasnik, Stephen; Shafer, Linda L. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2004062">"Historically Black Colleges and Universities, 1976 to 2001"</a>. <i>National Center for Education Statistics</i>. NCES 2004–062.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Center+for+Education+Statistics&rft.atitle=Historically+Black+Colleges+and+Universities%2C+1976+to+2001&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Provasnik&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Shafer%2C+Linda+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnces.ed.gov%2Fpubsearch%2Fpubsinfo.asp%3Fpubid%3D2004062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRascoe2024" class="citation book cs1">Rascoe, Ayesha, ed. (2024). <i>HBCU Made: A Celebration of the Black College Experience</i>. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-64375-386-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-64375-386-7"><bdi>978-1-64375-386-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1378381766">1378381766</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HBCU+Made%3A+A+Celebration+of+the+Black+College+Experience&rft.place=Chapel+Hill%2C+North+Carolina&rft.pub=Algonquin+Books+of+Chapel+Hill&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1378381766&rft.isbn=978-1-64375-386-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoebuckMurty1993" class="citation book cs1">Roebuck, Julian B.; Murty, Komanduri Srinivasa (1993). <i>Historically black colleges and universities: their place in American higher education</i>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94267-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-94267-0"><bdi>978-0-275-94267-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historically+black+colleges+and+universities%3A+their+place+in+American+higher+education&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-275-94267-0&rft.aulast=Roebuck&rft.aufirst=Julian+B.&rft.au=Murty%2C+Komanduri+Srinivasa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWright2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wright, Stephanie R. (2008). "Self-Determination, Politics, and Gender on Georgia's Black College Campuses, 1875–1900". <i>The Georgia Historical Quarterly</i>. <b>92</b> (1): 93–119. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-8297">0016-8297</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40585040">40585040</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Georgia+Historical+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Self-Determination%2C+Politics%2C+and+Gender+on+Georgia%27s+Black+College+Campuses%2C+1875%E2%80%931900&rft.volume=92&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=93-119&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40585040%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0016-8297&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=Stephanie+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Primary sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/negroeducationa01fundgoog/page/n10/mode/2up"><i>Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States</i></a>. Bulletin, 1916, No. 38. Vol. I. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 1917.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Education%3A+A+Study+of+the+Private+and+Higher+Schools+for+Colored+People+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=Bulletin%2C+1916%2C+No.+38&rft.pub=Bureau+of+Education%2C+Department+of+the+Interior&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnegroeducationa01fundgoog%2Fpage%2Fn10%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED542635"><i>Negro Education: A Study of the Private and Higher Schools for Colored People in the United States</i></a>. Bulletin, 1916, No. 39. Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 1917.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Negro+Education%3A+A+Study+of+the+Private+and+Higher+Schools+for+Colored+People+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.series=Bulletin%2C+1916%2C+No.+39&rft.pub=Bureau+of+Education%2C+Department+of+the+Interior&rft.date=1917&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FERIC_ED542635&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistorically+black+colleges+and+universities" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Historically_black_colleges_and_universities&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style 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Statistics' College Navigator information about HBCUs</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yesprep.org/news/blog/featured/~board/blog/post/the-divine-nine-the-legacy-of-black-sororities-and-fraternities">Divine Nine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nmaahc.si.edu/explore/stories/leveling-playing-field-hbcu-athletes">HBCU Sports history</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nafeonation.org/">National Association for Equal Opportunity in Higher Education</a> (NAFEO)—national membership association of all of the nation's HBCUs and Predominantly Black Institutions (PBIs)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em 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.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Historically_black_colleges_and_universities_(List)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:HBCU" title="Template:HBCU"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:HBCU" title="Template talk:HBCU"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:HBCU" title="Special:EditPage/Template:HBCU"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Historically_black_colleges_and_universities_(List)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Historically black colleges and universities</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="List of historically black colleges and universities">List</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Public<br />institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_A%26M_University" title="Alabama A&M University">Alabama A&M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_State_University" title="Alabama State University">Alabama State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_State_University" title="Albany State University">Albany State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcorn_State_University" title="Alcorn State University">Alcorn State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Arkansas_at_Pine_Bluff" title="University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff">Arkansas–Pine Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_State_Community_College" title="Bishop State Community College">Bishop State CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluefield_State_University" title="Bluefield State University">Bluefield State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowie_State_University" title="Bowie State University">Bowie State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_State_University" title="Central State University">Central State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyney_University_of_Pennsylvania" title="Cheyney University of Pennsylvania">Cheyney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coahoma_Community_College" title="Coahoma Community College">Coahoma CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coppin_State_University" title="Coppin State University">Coppin State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_State_University" title="Delaware State University">Delaware State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_City_State_University" title="Elizabeth City State University">Elizabeth City State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fayetteville_State_University" title="Fayetteville State University">Fayetteville State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University" title="Florida A&M University">Florida A&M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Valley_State_University" title="Fort Valley State University">Fort Valley State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadsden_State_Community_College" title="Gadsden State Community College">Gadsden State CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grambling_State_University" title="Grambling State University">Grambling State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris%E2%80%93Stowe_State_University" title="Harris–Stowe State University">Harris–Stowe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinds_Community_College" title="Hinds Community College">Hinds CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_State_University" title="Jackson State University">Jackson State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kentucky_State_University" title="Kentucky State University">Kentucky State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langston_University" title="Langston University">Langston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Missouri)" title="Lincoln University (Missouri)">Lincoln, Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_University_(Pennsylvania)" title="Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)">Lincoln, Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Maryland_Eastern_Shore" title="University of Maryland Eastern Shore">Maryland, Eastern Shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Valley_State_University" title="Mississippi Valley State University">Mississippi Valley State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morgan_State_University" title="Morgan State University">Morgan State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfolk_State_University" title="Norfolk State University">Norfolk State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_A%26T_State_University" title="North Carolina A&T State University">North Carolina A&T</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Central_University" title="North Carolina Central University">North Carolina Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prairie_View_A%26M_University" title="Prairie View A&M University">Prairie View A&M</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_State_University" title="Savannah State University">Savannah State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelton_State_Community_College" title="Shelton State Community College">Shelton State CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_State_University" title="South Carolina State University">South Carolina State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_University" title="Southern University">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_University_at_New_Orleans" title="Southern University at New Orleans">Southern–New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_University_at_Shreveport" title="Southern University at Shreveport">Southern–Shreveport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennessee_State_University" title="Tennessee State University">Tennessee State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_Southern_University" title="Texas Southern University">Texas Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="University of the District of Columbia">UDC</a>/<a href="/wiki/University_of_the_District_of_Columbia_Community_College" title="University of the District of Columbia Community College">UDC-CC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="University of the Virgin Islands">UVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_State_University" title="Virginia State University">Virginia State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Virginia_State_University" title="West Virginia State University">West Virginia State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winston-Salem_State_University" title="Winston-Salem State University">Winston-Salem State</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Private<br />institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allen_University" title="Allen University">Allen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_Baptist_College" title="Arkansas Baptist College">Arkansas Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barber%E2%80%93Scotia_College" title="Barber–Scotia College">Barber–Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_College" title="Benedict College">Benedict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennett_College" title="Bennett College">Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethune%E2%80%93Cookman_University" title="Bethune–Cookman University">Bethune–Cookman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claflin_University" title="Claflin University">Claflin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clark_Atlanta_University" title="Clark Atlanta University">Clark Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dillard_University" title="Dillard University">Dillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Waters_University" title="Edward Waters University">Edward Waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisk_University" title="Fisk University">Fisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Memorial_University" title="Florida Memorial University">Florida Memorial University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_University" title="Hampton University">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_University" title="Howard University">Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huston%E2%80%93Tillotson_University" title="Huston–Tillotson University">Huston–Tillotson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interdenominational_Theological_Center" title="Interdenominational Theological Center">Interdenominational Theological Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarvis_Christian_University" title="Jarvis Christian University">Jarvis Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_C._Smith_University" title="Johnson C. Smith University">Johnson C. Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knoxville_College" title="Knoxville College">Knoxville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_College" title="Lane College">Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LeMoyne%E2%80%93Owen_College" title="LeMoyne–Owen College">LeMoyne–Owen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Livingstone_College" title="Livingstone College">Livingstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meharry_Medical_College" title="Meharry Medical College">Meharry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miles_College" title="Miles College">Miles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morehouse_College" title="Morehouse College">Morehouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morehouse_School_of_Medicine" title="Morehouse School of Medicine">Morehouse School of Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_Brown_College" title="Morris Brown College">Morris Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morris_College" title="Morris College">Morris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oakwood_University" title="Oakwood University">Oakwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paine_College" title="Paine College">Paine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Quinn_College" title="Paul Quinn College">Paul Quinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pensole_Lewis_College_of_Business_and_Design" title="Pensole Lewis College of Business and Design">Pensole Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philander_Smith_University" title="Philander Smith University">Philander Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rust_College" title="Rust College">Rust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_University" title="Selma University">Selma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaw_University" title="Shaw University">Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simmons_College_of_Kentucky" title="Simmons College of Kentucky">Simmons College (Ky.)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Christian_College" title="Southwestern Christian College">Southwestern Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelman_College" title="Spelman College">Spelman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stillman_College" title="Stillman College">Stillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine%27s_University_(North_Carolina)" title="St. Augustine's University (North Carolina)">St. Augustine's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talladega_College" title="Talladega College">Talladega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas_College" title="Texas College">Texas College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tougaloo_College" title="Tougaloo College">Tougaloo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuskegee_University" title="Tuskegee University">Tuskegee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_Union_University" title="Virginia Union University">Virginia Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginia_University_of_Lynchburg" title="Virginia University of Lynchburg">Virginia University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voorhees_University" title="Voorhees University">Voorhees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilberforce_University" title="Wilberforce University">Wilberforce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wiley_University" title="Wiley University">Wiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xavier_University_of_Louisiana" title="Xavier University of Louisiana">Xavier (Louisiana)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Defunct<br />institutions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bishop_College" title="Bishop College">Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington_Junior_College" title="Booker T. Washington Junior College">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carver_Junior_College" title="Carver Junior College">Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Mississippi_College" title="Central Mississippi College">Central Mississippi College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collier-Blocker_Junior_College" title="Collier-Blocker Junior College">Collier-Blocker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_College_Alabama" title="Concordia College Alabama">Concordia Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Payne_College" title="Daniel Payne College">Daniel Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frelinghuysen_University" title="Frelinghuysen University">Frelinghuysen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Baptist_College" title="Georgia Baptist College">Georgia Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbs_Junior_College" title="Gibbs Junior College">Gibbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadalupe_College" title="Guadalupe College">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hampton_Junior_College" title="Hampton Junior College">Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haygood_Seminary" title="Haygood Seminary">Haygood Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Lutheran_College_(North_Carolina)" title="Immanuel Lutheran College (North Carolina)">Immanuel Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackson_Junior_College" title="Jackson Junior College">Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Junior_College" title="Johnson Junior College">Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kittrell_College" title="Kittrell College">Kittrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Junior_College" title="Lincoln Junior College">Lincoln Junior College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisville_Municipal_College" title="Louisville Municipal College">Louisville Municipal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_College_(Louisiana)" title="Luther College (Louisiana)">Luther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_School_for_Colored_Girls" title="Normal School for Colored Girls">Miner Teachers College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Industrial_College" title="Mississippi Industrial College">Mississippi Industrial College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morristown_College" title="Morristown College">Morristown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon_Female_Seminary" title="Mount Hermon Female Seminary">Mount Hermon Female Seminary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_University" title="New Orleans University">New Orleans University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roosevelt_Junior_College" title="Roosevelt Junior College">Roosevelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenwald_Junior_College" title="Rosenwald Junior College">Rosenwald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul%27s_College_(Virginia)" title="Saint Paul's College (Virginia)">Saint Paul's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_State_University_School_of_Law" title="South Carolina State University School of Law">SCSU Law School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storer_College" title="Storer College">Storer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_University" title="Straight University">Straight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwannee_River_Junior_College" title="Suwannee River Junior College">Suwannee River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrell_Law_School" title="Terrell Law School">Terrell Law School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelbyville,_Tennessee#Higher_education" title="Shelbyville, Tennessee">Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volusia_County_Junior_College" title="Volusia County Junior College">Volusia County</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_University_(Kansas)" title="Western University (Kansas)">Western</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Law Schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_A._Clarke_School_of_Law" title="David A. Clarke School of Law">David A. Clarke School of Law</a> (UDC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_A%26M_University_College_of_Law" title="Florida A&M University College of Law">Florida A&M University College of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_University_School_of_Law" title="Howard University School of Law">Howard University School of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Carolina_Central_University_School_of_Law" title="North Carolina Central University School of Law">North Carolina Central University School of Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_University_Law_Center" title="Southern University Law Center">Southern University Law Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_School_of_Law" title="Thurgood Marshall School of Law">Thurgood Marshall School of Law</a> (Texas Southern)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consortia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_University_Center" title="Atlanta University Center">Atlanta University Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Florida%27s_black_junior_colleges" title="Category:Florida's black junior colleges">Florida's Black Junior Colleges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern Athletic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HBCU_Athletic_Conference" title="HBCU Athletic Conference">HBCU Athletic Conference</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">Lynching victims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monuments_to_African_Americans" title="List of monuments to African Americans">Monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_related_to_the_African_diaspora" title="List of topics related to the African diaspora">Topics related to the African diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;;font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 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