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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Background</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Background-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Background subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-City_of_segregation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_of_segregation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>City of segregation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_of_segregation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Campaign_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Campaign goals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Commissioner_of_Public_Safety" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commissioner_of_Public_Safety"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Commissioner of Public Safety</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commissioner_of_Public_Safety-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Focus_on_Birmingham" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Focus_on_Birmingham"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Focus on Birmingham</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Focus_on_Birmingham-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Focus on Birmingham subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Focus_on_Birmingham-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Selective_buying_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Selective_buying_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Selective buying campaign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Selective_buying_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Project_C" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Project_C"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Project C</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Project_C-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_reaction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_reaction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>City reaction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_reaction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Martin_Luther_King_Jr._jailed" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Martin_Luther_King_Jr._jailed"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Martin Luther King Jr. jailed</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Martin_Luther_King_Jr._jailed-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conflict_escalation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conflict_escalation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Conflict escalation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Conflict_escalation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Conflict escalation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Conflict_escalation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recruiting_students" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recruiting_students"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Recruiting students</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recruiting_students-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Children's_Crusade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Children's_Crusade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Children's Crusade</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Children's_Crusade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_hoses_and_police_dogs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_hoses_and_police_dogs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Fire hoses and police dogs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_hoses_and_police_dogs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Images_of_the_day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Images_of_the_day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Images of the day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Images_of_the_day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Standoff" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Standoff"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Standoff</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Standoff-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-City_paralysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#City_paralysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>City paralysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-City_paralysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Resolution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_the_campaign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_the_campaign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>After the campaign</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_the_campaign-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle After the campaign subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-After_the_campaign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Campaign_impact" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Campaign_impact"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Campaign impact</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Campaign_impact-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet 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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%85%D9%86%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%85" title="حملة برمنجهام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حملة برمنجهام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campanya_de_Birmingham" title="Campanya de Birmingham – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Campanya de Birmingham" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birminghamsk%C3%A1_kampa%C5%88" title="Birminghamská kampaň – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Birminghamská kampaň" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campa%C3%B1a_de_Birmingham" title="Campaña de Birmingham – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Campaña de Birmingham" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampanjo_Birmingham" title="Kampanjo Birmingham – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kampanjo Birmingham" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagne_de_Birmingham" title="Campagne de Birmingham – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Campagne de Birmingham" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campagna_di_Birmingham" title="Campagna di Birmingham – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Campagna di Birmingham" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%94%D7%90%D7%9D" title="מערכת ברמינגהאם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת ברמינגהאם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Birmingham campaign" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%90%E3%83%BC%E3%83%9F%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B0%E3%83%8F%E3%83%A0%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="バーミングハム運動 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="バーミングハム運動" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Birmingham campaign" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E6%98%8E%E7%BF%B0%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" title="伯明翰運動 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="伯明翰運動" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q2935359#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Birmingham_campaign" rel="discussion" title="Discuss 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">American civil rights campaign in Alabama (1963)</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing: 2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Birmingham campaign</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#eeeeee;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align: center; border-bottom: 1px solid #aaa; line-height: 1.5em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_campaign_water_hoses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three black high school students, two boys and a girl, facing into a storefront window to avoid being hurt by a water cannon blasting a boy at his back; all three are dripping with water" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9f/Birmingham_campaign_water_hoses.jpg/260px-Birmingham_campaign_water_hoses.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9f/Birmingham_campaign_water_hoses.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="299" data-file-height="237" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">High school students are hit by a high-pressure water jet from a <a href="/wiki/Fire_hose" title="Fire hose">fire hose</a> during a peaceful walk in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963. As photographed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Moore_(photographer)" title="Charles Moore (photographer)">Charles Moore</a>, images like this one, printed in <i><a href="/wiki/Life_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Life magazine">Life</a></i>, galvanized global support for the demonstrators.<sup id="cite_ref-life_photo_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-life_photo-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">April 3 – May 10, 1963<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham, Alabama</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Resulted in</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Mass demonstrations throughout <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">Civil Rights Address</a> delivered by <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> writes "<a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>"</li> <li>Increased attention towards <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">racial segregation</a> in <a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">southern United States</a></li> <li>Martin Luther King Jr.'s reputation elevated</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Bull Connor</a> ousted from his public office</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_desegregation" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial desegregation">Desegregation</a> in Birmingham</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Parties</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><table style="width:100%; border-spacing:0; margin:0; text-align:left; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:50%;"><div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a> (ACMHR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC)</li></ul> </div></div></td> <td style="width:50%; padding-left:0.25em; border-left:1px dotted #aaa"><div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg/23px-Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg/35px-Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg/46px-Flag_of_Birmingham%2C_Alabama.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2850" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span></span> City Commission of Birmingham <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Police_Department_(Alabama)" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham Police Department (Alabama)">Birmingham Police Department</a></li> <li>Birmingham Fire Department</li></ul></li> <li>Birmingham Chamber of Commerce</li> <li><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Ku_Klux_Klan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a></li></ul> </div></div></td> </tr> </tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;">Lead figures</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244901718">.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns{display:flex}.mw-parser-output .infobox .infobox-columns-text-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div{box-sizing:border-box;width:50%;padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-3>div{width:33.33%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns-4>div{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .infobox-columns>div:not(:first-child){border-left:1px dotted #aaa;padding-left:5px}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist infobox-columns infobox-columns-2 infobox-columns-text-left"> <div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b>ACMHR member</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>SCLC members</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> </div> <div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><b>Mayors</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_Hanes" title="Art Hanes">Art Hanes</a> <small>(1961–1963)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Boutwell" title="Albert Boutwell">Albert Boutwell</a> <small>(1963–1967)</small></li></ul></li> <li><b>Commissioner of Public Safety</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Bull Connor</a></li></ul></li> <li><b>Commissioner of Public Improvements</b> <ul><li>J. T. Waggoner Sr.</li></ul></li> <li><b>President of Chamber of Commerce</b></li> <li>Sid Smyer</li></ul> </div> </div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Birmingham_campaign62" style="margin:0;float:right;clear:right;width:25.5em;margin-bottom:0.5em;margin-left:1em;;float:right; 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clear:right; margin:0.2em 0 0.2em 0.5em; width:25.5em;font-size:90%; display:table;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: #CEE0F2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Template:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Template talk:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:CRM_in_Alabama" title="Special:EditPage/Template:CRM in Alabama"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_Rights_Movement_in_Alabama151" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span style="line-height:1.6em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Alabama#Civil_Rights_Movement_and_redistricting,_1945–1975" title="History of Alabama">Alabama</a></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><b>State of Alabama</b> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alabama_Pupil_Placement_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alabama Pupil Placement Law (page does not exist)">Alabama Pupil Placement Law</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=NAACP_v._Patterson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NAACP v. Patterson (page does not exist)">NAACP v. Patterson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/NAACP_v._Alabama" title="NAACP v. Alabama">NAACP v. Alabama</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Alabama" title="United States v. Alabama">United States v. Alabama</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Original_Freedom_Rides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Original Freedom Rides (page does not exist)">Original Freedom Rides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">George Wallace's Inaugural Address</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Wallace" class="mw-redirect" title="United States v. Wallace">United States v. Wallace</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hamilton_v._Alabama_(1964)" title="Hamilton v. Alabama (1964)">Hamilton v. Alabama</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Birmingham</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bombingham" title="Bombingham">Bombingham</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_bus_boycott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birmingham bus boycott (page does not exist)">Birmingham bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=First_Bethel_Baptist_Church_bombing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="First Bethel Baptist Church bombing (page does not exist)">First Bethel Baptist Church bombing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Shuttlesworth_v._Birmingham_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education (page does not exist)">Shuttlesworth v. Birmingham Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Birmingham sit-ins (page does not exist)">Birmingham sit-ins</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Armstrong_v._Birmingham_Board_of_Education" class="mw-redirect" title="Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education">Armstrong v. Birmingham Board of Education</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_bus_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="Anniston bus bombing">Anniston bus bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham bus attack">Birmingham bus attack</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gober_v._City_of_Birmingham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gober v. City of Birmingham (page does not exist)">Gober v. City of Birmingham</a></i></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Birmingham campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=A.G._Gaston_Motel_and_A._D._King_residence_bombings&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A.G. Gaston Motel and A. D. King residence bombings (page does not exist)">Gaston Motel and King residence bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot of 1963</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shooting_of_Johnny_Robinson" class="mw-redirect" title="Shooting of Johnny Robinson">Shooting of Johnny Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgil_Lamar_Ware" title="Virgil Lamar Ware">Murder of Virgil Lamar Ware</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shuttlesworth_v._City_of_Birmingham" title="Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham">Shuttlesworth v. City of Birmingham</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Montgomery</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Graetz_residence_bombing_(1956)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Graetz residence bombing (1956) (page does not exist)">Robert Graetz residence bombing</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Luther_King_Jr._residence_bombing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Luther King Jr. residence bombing (page does not exist)">Martin Luther King Jr. residence bombing</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilmore_v._City_of_Montgomery_(1959)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilmore v. City of Montgomery (1959) (page does not exist)">Gilmore v. City of Montgomery</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Montgomery_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montgomery sit-ins (page does not exist)">Montgomery sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Connecticut_Freedom_Ride&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Connecticut Freedom Ride (page does not exist)">Connecticut Freedom Ride</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivan" title="New York Times Co. v. Sullivan">New York Times Co. v. Sullivan</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Montgomery_County_Board_of_Education" title="United States v. Montgomery County Board of Education">U.S. v. Montgomery County Board of Ed.</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Smith_v._Young_Men%27s_Christian_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association (page does not exist)">Smith v. Young Men's Christian Association</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilmore_v._City_of_Montgomery_(1974)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilmore v. City of Montgomery (1974) (page does not exist)">Gilmore v. City of Montgomery</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>City of Selma</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">Murder of James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Murder of Viola Liuzzo</a></li></ul> <p><b>City of Tuscaloosa</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Lucy_v._Adams" title="Lucy v. Adams">Lucy v. Adams</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=University_of_Alabama_desegregation_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="University of Alabama desegregation crisis (page does not exist)">University of Alabama desegregation crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li></ul> <p><b>City of Tuskegee</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_merchant_boycott&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee merchant boycott (page does not exist)">Tuskegee merchant boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Alabama_Act_140&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alabama Act 140 (page does not exist)">Alabama Act 140</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_sit-ins&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee sit-ins (page does not exist)">Tuskegee sit-ins</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tuskegee_High_School_desegregation_crisis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tuskegee High School desegregation crisis (page does not exist)">Tuskegee High School desegregation crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Murder of Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lee_v._Macon_County_Board_of_Education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lee v. Macon County Board of Education (page does not exist)">Lee v. Macon County Board of Education</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Other localities</b> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Edwards" title="Murder of Willie Edwards">Murder of Willie Edwards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">Murder of William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Willie_Brewster" title="Murder of Willie Brewster">Murder of Willie Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Murder of Jonathan Daniels</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <p>The <b>Birmingham campaign</b>, also known as the <b>Birmingham movement</b> or <b>Birmingham confrontation</b>, was an American movement organized in early 1963 by the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference</a> (SCLC) to bring attention to the integration efforts of African Americans in <a href="/wiki/Birmingham,_Alabama" title="Birmingham, Alabama">Birmingham, Alabama</a>. </p><p>Led by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> and others, the campaign of <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent">nonviolent</a> <a href="/wiki/Direct_action" title="Direct action">direct action</a> culminated in widely publicized confrontations between young black students and white civic authorities, and eventually led the municipal government to change the city's discrimination laws. </p><p>In the early 1960s, Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities in the United States, enforced both legally and culturally. Black citizens faced legal and economic disparities, and violent retribution when they attempted to draw attention to their problems. Martin Luther King Jr. called it the most <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation_in_the_United_States" title="Racial segregation in the United States">segregated</a> city in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protests in Birmingham began with a <a href="/wiki/Boycott" title="Boycott">boycott</a> led by Shuttlesworth meant to pressure business leaders to open employment to people of all races, and end segregation in public facilities, restaurants, schools, and stores. When local business and governmental leaders resisted the boycott, the SCLC agreed to assist. Organizer <a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a> joined Birmingham activist Shuttlesworth and began what they called Project C, a series of <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-ins</a> and marches intended to provoke mass arrests.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the campaign ran low on adult volunteers, James Bevel thought of the idea of having students become the main demonstrators in the Birmingham campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He then trained and directed high school, college, and elementary school students in nonviolence, and asked them to participate in the demonstrations by taking a peaceful walk 50 at a time from the <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a> to City Hall in order to talk to the mayor about segregation. This resulted in over a thousand arrests, and, as the jails and holding areas filled with arrested students, the Birmingham Police Department, at the direction of the city Commissioner of Public Safety, <a href="/wiki/Eugene_%22Bull%22_Connor" class="mw-redirect" title="Eugene "Bull" Connor">Eugene "Bull" Connor</a>, used high-pressure water hoses and police <a href="/wiki/Attack_dog" title="Attack dog">attack dogs</a> on the children and adult bystanders.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not all of the bystanders were peaceful, despite the avowed intentions of SCLC to hold a completely <a href="/wiki/Nonviolent" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonviolent">nonviolent</a> walk, but the students held to the nonviolent premise. Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC drew both criticism and praise for allowing children to participate and put themselves in harm's way. </p><p>The Birmingham campaign was a model of nonviolent direct action protest and, through the media, drew the world's attention to <a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial segregation</a> in the South. It burnished King's reputation, ousted Connor from his job, forced desegregation in Birmingham, and directly paved the way for the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a> which prohibited racial discrimination in hiring practices and public services throughout the United States. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="City_of_segregation">City of segregation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: City of segregation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Birmingham, Alabama was, in 1963, "probably the most thoroughly segregated city in the United States", according to King.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the city's population of almost 350,000 was 60% white and 40% black,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birmingham had no black police officers, firefighters, sales clerks in department stores, bus drivers, bank tellers, or store cashiers. Black secretaries could not work for white professionals. Jobs available to black workers were limited to <a href="/wiki/Manual_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Manual labor">manual labor</a> in Birmingham's steel mills, work in household service and yard maintenance, or work in black neighborhoods. When <a href="/wiki/Layoff" title="Layoff">layoffs</a> were necessary, black employees were often the first to go. The <a href="/wiki/Unemployment_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Unemployment rate">unemployment rate</a> for black people was two and a half times higher than for white people.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The average income for black employees in the city was less than half that of white employees. Significantly lower pay scales for black workers at the local steel mills were common.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Racial segregation of public and commercial facilities throughout Jefferson County was legally required, covered all aspects of life, and was rigidly enforced.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only 10 percent of the city's black population was registered to vote in 1960.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, Birmingham's economy was stagnating as the city was shifting from <a href="/wiki/Blue_collar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue collar">blue collar</a> to <a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">white collar</a> jobs.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i> magazine in 1958, the only thing white workers had to gain from <a href="/wiki/Desegregation_in_the_United_States" title="Desegregation in the United States">desegregation</a> was more competition from black workers.<sup id="cite_ref-time58_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time58-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fifty unsolved racially motivated bombings between 1945 and 1962 had earned the city the nickname "<a href="/wiki/Bombingham" title="Bombingham">Bombingham</a>". A neighborhood shared by white and black families experienced so many attacks that it was called "Dynamite Hill".<sup id="cite_ref-gado_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gado-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black churches in which civil rights were discussed became specific targets for attack.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Black organizers had worked in Birmingham for about ten years, as it was the headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Southern_Negro_Youth_Congress" title="Southern Negro Youth Congress">Southern Negro Youth Congress</a> (SNYC). In Birmingham, SNYC experienced both successes and failures, as well as arrests and official violence. SNYC was forced out in 1949, leaving behind a Black population that thus had some experience of civil rights organizing.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few years later, Birmingham's black population began to organize to effect change. After Alabama <a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People_v._Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama">banned the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People</a> (NAACP) in 1956,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reverend <a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> formed the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a> (ACMHR) the same year to challenge the city's segregation policies through <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuits</a> and protests. When the courts overturned the segregation of the city's parks, the city responded by closing them. Shuttlesworth's home was repeatedly bombed, as was Bethel Baptist Church, where he was pastor.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Shuttlesworth was arrested and jailed for violating the city's segregation rules in 1962, he sent a <a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">petition</a> to Mayor Art Hanes' office asking that public facilities be desegregated. Hanes responded with a letter informing Shuttlesworth that his petition had been thrown in the garbage.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Looking for outside help, Shuttlesworth invited Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC to Birmingham, saying, "If you come to Birmingham, you will not only gain prestige, but really shake the country. If you win in Birmingham, as Birmingham goes, so goes the nation."<sup id="cite_ref-Hampton_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hampton-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_goals">Campaign goals</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Campaign goals"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>King of the SCLC had recently been involved in a campaign to desegregate the city of <a href="/wiki/Albany,_Georgia" title="Albany, Georgia">Albany, Georgia</a>, but did not see the results they had anticipated. Described by historian Henry Hampton as a "morass", the <a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a> lost momentum and stalled.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King's reputation had been hurt by the Albany campaign, and he was eager to improve it.<sup id="cite_ref-Hampton_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hampton-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bass_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Determined not to make the same mistakes in Birmingham, King and the SCLC changed several of their strategies. In Albany, they concentrated on the desegregation of the city as a whole. In Birmingham, their campaign tactics focused on more narrowly defined goals for the downtown shopping and government district. These goals included the desegregation of Birmingham's downtown stores, fair hiring practices in shops and city employment, the reopening of public parks, and the creation of a bi-racial committee to oversee the desegregation of Birmingham's public schools.<sup id="cite_ref-morris_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morris-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King summarized the philosophy of the Birmingham campaign when he said: "The purpose of ... direct action is to create a situation so crisis-packed that it will inevitably open the door to negotiation".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commissioner_of_Public_Safety">Commissioner of Public Safety</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Commissioner of Public Safety"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Bull Connor</a></div> <p>A significant factor in the success of the Birmingham campaign was the structure of the city government and the personality of its contentious Commissioner of Public Safety, <a href="/wiki/Bull_Connor" title="Bull Connor">Eugene "Bull" Connor</a>. Described as an "arch-segregationist" by <i>Time</i> magazine, Connor asserted that the city "ain't gonna segregate no niggers and whites together in this town  [<i><a href="/wiki/Sic" title="Sic">sic</a></i>]".<sup id="cite_ref-time63_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time63-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He also claimed that the Civil Rights Movement was a Communist plot, and after the churches were bombed, Connor blamed the violence on local black citizens.<sup id="cite_ref-isserman89_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-isserman89-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Birmingham's government was set up in such a way that it gave Connor powerful influence. In 1958, police arrested ministers organizing a bus boycott. When the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">Federal Bureau of Investigation</a> (FBI) initiated a probe amid allegations of police misconduct for the arrests, Connor responded that he "[hadn't] got any damn apology to the FBI or anybody else", and predicted, "If the North keeps trying to cram this thing [desegregation] down our throats, there's going to be bloodshed."<sup id="cite_ref-time58_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time58-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1961, Connor delayed sending police to intervene when <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a> were beaten by local mobs.<sup id="cite_ref-Garrow_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garrow-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The police harassed religious leaders and protest organizers by ticketing cars parked at mass meetings and entering the meetings in <a href="/wiki/Undercover" class="mw-redirect" title="Undercover">plainclothes</a> to take notes. The Birmingham Fire Department interrupted such meetings to search for "phantom fire hazards".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connor was so antagonistic towards the Civil Rights Movement that his actions galvanized support for black Americans. President <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> later said of him, "The Civil Rights Movement should thank God for Bull Connor. He's helped it as much as Abraham Lincoln."<sup id="cite_ref-connorbio_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-connorbio-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Turmoil in the mayor's office also weakened the Birmingham city government in its opposition to the campaign. Connor, who had run for several elected offices in the months leading up to the campaign, had lost all but the race for Public Safety Commissioner. Because they believed Connor's <a href="/wiki/Extreme_conservatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Extreme conservatism">extreme conservatism</a> slowed progress for the city as a whole, a group of white political moderates worked to defeat him.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Citizens for Progress was backed by the Chamber of Commerce and other white professionals in the city, and their tactics were successful. In November 1962, Connor lost the race for mayor to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Boutwell" title="Albert Boutwell">Albert Boutwell</a>, a less combative segregationist. However, Connor and his colleagues on the City Commission refused to accept the new mayor's authority.<sup id="cite_ref-connorbio_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-connorbio-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They claimed on a technicality that their terms not expire until 1965 instead of in the spring of 1963. So for a brief time, Birmingham had two city governments attempting to conduct business.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Focus_on_Birmingham">Focus on Birmingham</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Focus on Birmingham"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selective_buying_campaign">Selective buying campaign</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Selective buying campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modeled on the <a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a>, protest actions in Birmingham began in 1962, when students from local colleges arranged for a year of staggered boycotts. They caused downtown business to decline by as much as 40 percent, which attracted attention from Chamber of Commerce president Sidney Smyer, who commented that the "racial incidents have given us a black eye that we'll be a long time trying to forget".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to the boycott, the City Commission of Birmingham punished the black community by withdrawing $45,000 ($470,000 in 2025) from a surplus-food program used primarily by low-income black families. The result, however, was a black community more motivated to resist.<sup id="cite_ref-Garrow_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Garrow-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The SCLC decided that economic pressure on Birmingham businesses would be more effective than pressure on politicians, a lesson learned in Albany as few black citizens were registered to vote in 1962. In the spring of 1963, before Easter, the Birmingham boycott intensified during the second-busiest shopping season of the year. Pastors urged their congregations to avoid shopping in Birmingham stores in the downtown district. For six weeks supporters of the boycott patrolled the downtown area to make sure black shoppers were not patronizing stores that promoted or tolerated segregation. If black shoppers were found in these stores, organizers confronted them and shamed them into participating in the boycott. Shuttlesworth recalled a woman whose $15 hat ($160 in 2025) was destroyed by boycott enforcers. Campaign participant Joe Dickson recalled, "We had to go under strict surveillance. We had to tell people, say look: if you go downtown and buy something, you're going to have to answer to us."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After several business owners in Birmingham took down "white only" and "colored only" signs, Commissioner Connor told business owners that if they did not obey the segregation ordinances, they would lose their business licenses.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Project_C">Project C</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Project C"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of the Sixteenth Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg/220px-Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg/330px-Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg/440px-Sixteenth_Street_Baptist_Church_in_Birmingham.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4725" data-file-height="3255" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a>, headquarters and rendezvous point for the campaign</figcaption></figure> <p>Martin Luther King Jr.'s presence in Birmingham was not welcomed by all in the black community. A local black attorney complained in <i>Time</i> that the new city administration did not have enough time to confer with the various groups invested in changing the city's segregation policies.<sup id="cite_ref-time4-63_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time4-63-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black hotel owner <a href="/wiki/A._G._Gaston" title="A. G. Gaston">A. G. Gaston</a> agreed.<sup id="cite_ref-time4-63_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time4-63-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A white Jesuit priest assisting in desegregation negotiations attested the "demonstrations [were] poorly timed and misdirected."<sup id="cite_ref-time4-63_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time4-63-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protest organizers knew they would meet with violence from the Birmingham Police Department and chose a confrontational approach to get the attention of the federal government.<sup id="cite_ref-morris_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morris-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a>, one of the SCLC founders and the executive director from 1960 to 1964, planned the tactics of the direct action protests, specifically targeting Bull Connor's tendency to react to demonstrations with violence: "My theory was that if we mounted a strong nonviolent movement, the opposition would surely do something to attract the media, and in turn induce national sympathy and attention to the everyday segregated circumstance of a person living in the Deep South."<sup id="cite_ref-Bass_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He headed the planning of what he called Project C, which stood for "confrontation". Organizers believed their <a href="/wiki/Telephone_tapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Telephone tapping">phones were tapped</a>, so to prevent their plans from being leaked and perhaps influencing the mayoral election, they used code words for demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The plan called for direct nonviolent action to attract media attention to "the biggest and baddest city of the South".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In preparation for the protests, Walker timed the walking distance from the 16th Street Baptist Church, headquarters for the campaign, to the downtown area. He surveyed the segregated lunch counters of department stores, and listed federal buildings as secondary targets should police block the protesters' entrance into primary targets such as stores, libraries, and all-white churches.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Methods">Methods</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The campaign used a variety of nonviolent methods of confrontation, including <a href="/wiki/Sit-in" title="Sit-in">sit-ins</a> at libraries and lunch counters, kneel-ins by black visitors at white churches, and a march to the county building to mark the beginning of a voter-registration drive. Most businesses responded by refusing to serve demonstrators. Some white spectators at a sit-in at a <a href="/wiki/F._W._Woolworth_Company" title="F. W. Woolworth Company">Woolworth's</a> lunch counter spat upon the participants.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A few hundred protesters, including jazz musician <a href="/wiki/Al_Hibbler" title="Al Hibbler">Al Hibbler</a>, were arrested, although Hibbler was immediately released by Connor.<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek4-22_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek4-22-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The SCLC's goals were to fill the jails with protesters to force the city government to negotiate as demonstrations continued. However, not enough people were arrested to affect the functioning of the city and the wisdom of the plans were being questioned in the black community. The editor of <i>The Birmingham World</i>, the city's black newspaper, called the direct actions by the demonstrators "wasteful and worthless", and urged black citizens to use the courts to change the city's racist policies.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most white residents of Birmingham expressed shock at the demonstrations. White religious leaders denounced King and the other organizers, saying that "a cause should be pressed in the courts and the negotiations among local leaders, and not in the streets".<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some white Birmingham residents were supportive as the boycott continued. When one black woman entered <a href="/wiki/Loveman%27s_of_Alabama" title="Loveman's of Alabama">Loveman's department store</a> to buy her children Easter shoes, a white saleswoman said to her, "Negro, ain't you ashamed of yourself, your people out there on the street getting put in jail and you in here spending money and I'm not going to sell you any, you'll have to go some other place."<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King promised a protest every day until "peaceful equality had been assured" and expressed doubt that the new mayor would ever voluntarily desegregate the city.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="City_reaction">City reaction</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: City reaction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On April 10, 1963, Bull Connor obtained an <a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">injunction</a> barring the protests and subsequently raised <a href="/wiki/Bail_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Bail bond">bail bond</a> for those arrested from $200 to $1,500 ($2,000 to $15,000 in 2025). Fred Shuttlesworth called the injunction a "flagrant denial of our constitutional rights" and organizers prepared to defy the order. The decision to ignore the injunction had been made during the planning stage of the campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-Bass_2_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass_2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King and the SCLC had obeyed court injunctions in their Albany protests and reasoned that obeying them contributed to the Albany campaign's lack of success.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a press release they explained, "We are now confronted with recalcitrant forces in the Deep South that will use the courts to perpetuate the unjust and illegal systems of racial separation".<sup id="cite_ref-Bass_2_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bass_2-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Incoming mayor <a href="/wiki/Albert_Boutwell" title="Albert Boutwell">Albert Boutwell</a> called King and the SCLC organizers "strangers" whose only purpose in Birmingham was "to stir inter-racial discord". Connor promised, "You can rest assured that I will fill the jail full of any persons violating the law as long as I'm at City Hall."<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The movement organizers found themselves out of money after the amount of required bail was raised. Because King was the major fundraiser, his associates urged him to travel the country to raise bail money for those arrested. He had, however, previously promised to lead the marchers to jail in solidarity, but hesitated as the planned date arrived. Some SCLC members grew frustrated with his indecisiveness. "I have never seen Martin so troubled", one of King's friends later said.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After King prayed and reflected alone in his hotel room, he and the campaign leaders decided to defy the injunction and prepared for mass arrests of campaign supporters. To build morale and to recruit volunteers to go to jail, <a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a> spoke at a mass meeting of Birmingham's black citizens at the 6th Avenue Baptist Church: "The eyes of the world are on Birmingham tonight. Bobby Kennedy is looking here at Birmingham, the United States Congress is looking at Birmingham. The Department of Justice is looking at Birmingham. Are you ready, are you ready to make the challenge? I am ready to go to jail, are you?"<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With Abernathy, King was among 50 Birmingham residents ranging in age from 15 to 81 years who were arrested on <a href="/wiki/Good_Friday" title="Good Friday">Good Friday</a>, April 12, 1963. It was King's 13th arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek4-22_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek4-22-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Martin_Luther_King_Jr._jailed">Martin Luther King Jr. jailed</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Martin Luther King Jr. jailed"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of Martin Luther King Jr. speaking at a podium with an enlarged cardboard cover of his book Why We Can't Wait in the background" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther_King_Jr_NYWTS_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2059" data-file-height="2764" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a>, a year later in 1964, promoting the book <i><a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a></i>, based on his "Letter from Birmingham Jail"</figcaption></figure> <p>Martin Luther King Jr. was held in the Birmingham jail and was denied a consultation with an attorney from the NAACP without guards present. When historian Jonathan Bass wrote of the incident in 2001, he noted that news of King's incarceration was spread quickly by Wyatt Tee Walker, as planned. King's supporters sent telegrams about his arrest to the <a href="/wiki/White_House" title="White House">White House</a>. He could have been released on bail at any time, and jail administrators wished him to be released as soon as possible to avoid the media attention while King was in custody. However, campaign organizers offered no bail in order "to focus the attention of the media and national public opinion on the Birmingham situation".<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Twenty-four hours after his arrest, King was allowed to see local attorneys from the SCLC. When <a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a> did not hear from her husband, she called Walker and he suggested that she call President Kennedy directly.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mrs. King was recuperating at home after the birth of their fourth child when she received a call from President Kennedy the Monday after the arrest. The president told her she could expect a call from her husband soon. When Martin Luther King Jr. called his wife, their conversation was brief and guarded; he correctly assumed that his phones were tapped.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several days later, <a href="/wiki/Jacqueline_Kennedy" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacqueline Kennedy">Jacqueline Kennedy</a> called Coretta Scott King to express her concern for King while he was incarcerated.<sup id="cite_ref-morris_25-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morris-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Using scraps of paper given to him by a janitor, notes written on the margins of a newspaper, and later a legal pad given to him by SCLC attorneys, King wrote his essay "<a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>". It responded to eight politically moderate white clergymen who accused King of agitating local residents and not giving the incoming mayor a chance to make any changes. The essay was a culmination of many of King's ideas, which he had touched on in earlier writings.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> King's arrest attracted national attention, including that of corporate officers of retail chains with stores in downtown Birmingham. After King's arrest, the chains' profits began to erode. National business owners pressed the Kennedy administration to intervene. King was released on April 20, 1963. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conflict_escalation">Conflict escalation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Conflict escalation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recruiting_students">Recruiting students</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Recruiting students"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Despite the publicity surrounding King's arrest, the campaign was faltering because few demonstrators were willing to risk arrest.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, although Connor had used police dogs to assist in the arrest of demonstrators, this did not attract the media attention that organizers had hoped for.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To re-energize the campaign, SCLC organizer <a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a> devised a controversial alternative plan he named D Day that was later called the "Children's Crusade" by <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i> magazine.<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek5-13-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> D Day called for students from Birmingham elementary schools and high schools as well as nearby <a href="/wiki/Miles_College" title="Miles College">Miles College</a> to take part in the demonstrations. </p><p>Bevel, a veteran of earlier nonviolent student protests with the <a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a> and SNCC, had been named SCLC's Director of Direct Action and Nonviolent Education. After initiating the idea he organized and educated the students in nonviolence tactics and philosophy. King hesitated to approve the use of children,<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but Bevel believed that children were appropriate for the demonstrations because jail time for them would not hurt families economically as much as the loss of a working parent. He also saw that adults in the black community were divided about how much support to give the protests. Bevel and the organizers knew that high school students were a more cohesive group; they had been together as classmates since kindergarten. He recruited girls who were school leaders and boys who were athletes. Bevel found girls more receptive to his ideas because they had less experience as victims of white violence. When the girls joined, however, the boys were close behind.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bevel and the SCLC held workshops to help students overcome their fear of dogs and jails. They showed films of the <a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a> organized in 1960 to end segregation at public lunch counters. Birmingham's black radio station, <a href="/wiki/WENN_(AM)" title="WENN (AM)">WENN</a>, supported the new plan by telling students to arrive at the demonstration meeting place with a toothbrush to be used in jail.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flyers were distributed in black schools and neighborhoods that said, "Fight for freedom first then go to school" and "It's up to you to free our teachers, our parents, yourself, and our country."<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-7-63_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-7-63-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Children's_Crusade"><span id="Children.27s_Crusade"></span>Children's Crusade</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Children's Crusade"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade (1963)</a></div> <p>On May 2, 1963, 7th grader Gwendolyn Sanders helped organize her classmates, and hundreds of children from high schoolers down to first graders who joined her in a massive walkout defying the principal of Parker High School who attempted to lock the gates to keep students inside.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Demonstrators were given instructions to march to the downtown area, to meet with the Mayor, and integrate the chosen buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were to leave in smaller groups and continue on their courses until arrested. Marching in disciplined ranks, some of them using <a href="/wiki/Walkie-talkies" class="mw-redirect" title="Walkie-talkies">walkie-talkies</a>, they were sent at timed intervals from various churches to the downtown business area.<sup id="cite_ref-post5-3-63_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-post5-3-63-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More than 600 students were arrested; the youngest of these was reported to be eight years old. Children left the churches while singing hymns and "freedom songs" such as "<a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">We Shall Overcome</a>". They clapped and laughed while being arrested and awaiting transport to jail. The mood was compared to that of a school picnic.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-2-63_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-2-63-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Bevel informed Connor that the march was to take place, Connor and the police were dumbfounded by the numbers and behavior of the children.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They assembled <a href="/wiki/Paddy_wagon" class="mw-redirect" title="Paddy wagon">paddy wagons</a> and school buses to take the children to jail. When no squad cars were left to block the city streets, Connor, whose authority extended to the fire department, used fire trucks. The day's arrests brought the total number of jailed protesters to 1,200 in the 900-capacity Birmingham jail. </p><p>Some considered the use of children controversial, including incoming Birmingham mayor Albert Boutwell and Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Kennedy" title="Robert F. Kennedy">Robert F. Kennedy</a>, who condemned the decision to use children in the protests.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kennedy was reported in <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i> as saying, "an injured, maimed, or dead child is a price that none of us can afford to pay", although adding, "I believe that everyone understands their just grievances must be resolved."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a> criticized the decision, saying, "Real men don't put their children on the firing line."<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>King, who had been silent and then out of town while Bevel was organizing the children, was impressed by the success of the children's protests. That evening he declared at a mass meeting, "I have been inspired and moved by today. I have never seen anything like it."<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Wyatt Tee Walker was initially against the use of children in the demonstrations, he responded to criticism by saying, "Negro children will get a better education in five days in jail than in five months in a segregated school."<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek5-13-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The D Day campaign received front page coverage by <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i> and <i>The New York Times</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-post5-3-63_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-post5-3-63-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-2-63_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-2-63-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fire_hoses_and_police_dogs">Fire hoses and police dogs</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Fire hoses and police dogs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When Connor realized that the Birmingham jail was full, on May 3 he changed police tactics to keep protesters out of the downtown business area. Another thousand students gathered at the church and left to walk across <a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a> while chanting, "We're going to walk, walk, walk. Freedom ... freedom ... freedom."<sup id="cite_ref-washpost5-4_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-washpost5-4-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the demonstrators left the church, police warned them to stop and turn back, "or you'll get wet".<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek5-13-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When they continued, Connor ordered the city's fire hoses, set at a level that would peel bark off a tree or separate bricks from mortar, to be turned on the children. Boys' shirts were ripped off, and girls were pushed over the tops of cars by the force of the water. When the students crouched or fell, the blasts of water rolled them down the asphalt streets and concrete sidewalks.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Connor allowed white spectators to push forward, shouting, "Let those people come forward, sergeant. I want 'em to see the dogs work."<sup id="cite_ref-time63_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time63-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fn1_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fn1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A.G. Gaston, who was appalled at the idea of using children, was on the phone with white attorney <a href="/wiki/David_Vann_(mayor)" title="David Vann (mayor)">David Vann</a> trying to negotiate a resolution to the crisis. When Gaston looked out the window and saw the children being hit with high-pressure water, he said, "Lawyer Vann, I can't talk to you now or ever. My people are out there fighting for their lives and my freedom. I have to go help them", and hung up the phone.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black parents and adults who were observing cheered on the marching students, but when the hoses were turned on, bystanders began to throw rocks and bottles at the police. To disperse them, Connor ordered police to use <a href="/wiki/German_Shepherd" title="German Shepherd">German Shepherd</a> dogs to keep them in line. James Bevel wove in and out of the crowds warning them, "If any cops get hurt, we're going to lose this fight."<sup id="cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-newsweek5-13-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At 3 pm, the protest was over. During a kind of <a href="/wiki/Truce" class="mw-redirect" title="Truce">truce</a>, protesters went home. Police removed the barricades and re-opened the streets to traffic.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-3-63_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-3-63-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That evening King told worried parents in a crowd of a thousand, "Don't worry about your children who are in jail. The eyes of the world are on Birmingham. We're going on in spite of dogs and fire hoses. We've gone too far to turn back now."<sup id="cite_ref-time63_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-time63-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Images_of_the_day">Images of the day</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Images of the day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birmingham_campaign_dogs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a black male teenager being held by his sweater by a Birmingham policeman and being charged by the officer's leashed German Shepherd while another police officer with a dog and a crowd of black bystanders in the background look on" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/74/Birmingham_campaign_dogs.jpg/300px-Birmingham_campaign_dogs.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/74/Birmingham_campaign_dogs.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="376" data-file-height="264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bill_Hudson_(photographer)" title="Bill Hudson (photographer)">Bill Hudson</a>'s image of Parker High School student Walter Gadsden being attacked by dogs was published in <i>The New York Times</i> on May 4, 1963.</figcaption></figure> <p>The images had a profound effect in Birmingham. Despite decades of disagreements, when the photos were released, "the black community was instantaneously consolidated behind King", according to David Vann, who would later serve as mayor of Birmingham.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-3-63_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-3-63-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Horrified at what the Birmingham police were doing to protect segregation, New York Senator <a href="/wiki/Jacob_K._Javits" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacob K. Javits">Jacob K. Javits</a> declared, "the country won't tolerate it", and pressed Congress to pass a civil rights bill.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar reactions were reported by Kentucky Senator <a href="/wiki/John_Sherman_Cooper" title="John Sherman Cooper">Sherman Cooper</a>, and Oregon Senator <a href="/wiki/Wayne_Morse" title="Wayne Morse">Wayne Morse</a>, who compared Birmingham to <a href="/wiki/South_Africa_under_apartheid" class="mw-redirect" title="South Africa under apartheid">South Africa under apartheid</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <i>New York Times</i> editorial called the behavior of the Birmingham police "a national disgrace."<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <i>Washington Post</i> editorialized, "The spectacle in Birmingham ... must excite the sympathy of the rest of the country for the decent, just, and reasonable citizens of the community, who have so recently demonstrated at the polls their lack of support for the very policies that have produced the Birmingham riots. The authorities who tried, by these brutal means, to stop the freedom marchers do not speak or act in the name of the enlightened people of the city."<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Kennedy sent Assistant Attorney General <a href="/wiki/Burke_Marshall" title="Burke Marshall">Burke Marshall</a> to Birmingham to help negotiate a truce. Marshall faced a <a href="/wiki/Stalemate" title="Stalemate">stalemate</a> when merchants and protest organizers refused to budge.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Standoff">Standoff</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Standoff"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Black onlookers in the area of Kelly Ingram Park abandoned <a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">nonviolence</a> on May 5. Spectators taunted police, and SCLC leaders begged them to be peaceful or go home. James Bevel borrowed a <a href="/wiki/Bullhorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Bullhorn">bullhorn</a> from the police and shouted, "Everybody get off this corner. If you're not going to demonstrate in a nonviolent way, then leave!"<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commissioner Connor was overheard saying, "If you'd ask half of them what freedom means, they couldn't tell you."<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To prevent further marches, Connor ordered the doors to the churches blocked to prevent students from leaving. </p><p>By May 6, the jails were so full that Connor transformed the stockade at the state fairgrounds into a makeshift jail to hold protesters. Black protestors arrived at white churches to integrate services. They were accepted in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Episcopal_Church_in_the_United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Episcopal Church in the United States of America">Episcopal</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Presbyterian" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterian">Presbyterian</a> churches but turned away at others, where they knelt and prayed until they were arrested.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-6-63_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-6-63-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Well-known national figures arrived to show support. Singer <a href="/wiki/Joan_Baez" title="Joan Baez">Joan Baez</a> arrived to perform for free at Miles College and stayed at the black-owned and integrated Gaston Motel.<sup id="cite_ref-nyt5-6-63_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nyt5-6-63-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Comedian <a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Deming" title="Barbara Deming">Barbara Deming</a>, a writer for <i><a href="/wiki/The_Nation" title="The Nation">The Nation</a></i>, were both arrested. The young <a href="/wiki/Dan_Rather" title="Dan Rather">Dan Rather</a> reported for <a href="/wiki/CBS_News" title="CBS News">CBS News</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The car of <a href="/wiki/Fannie_Flagg" title="Fannie Flagg">Fannie Flagg</a>, a local television personality and recent <a href="/wiki/Miss_Alabama" title="Miss Alabama">Miss Alabama</a> finalist, was surrounded by teenagers who recognized her. Flagg worked at Channel 6 on the morning show, and after asking her producers why the show was not covering the demonstrations, she received orders never to mention them on air. She rolled down the window and shouted to the children, "I'm with you all the way!"<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Birmingham's fire department refused orders from Connor to turn the hoses on demonstrators again,<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and waded through the basement of the 16th Street Baptist Church to clean up water from earlier fire-hose flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White business leaders met with protest organizers to try and arrange an economic solution but said they had no control over politics. Protest organizers disagreed, saying that business leaders were positioned to pressure political leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="City_paralysis">City paralysis</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: City paralysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The situation reached a crisis on May 7, 1963. Breakfast in the jail took four hours to distribute to all the prisoners.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventy members of the Birmingham <a href="/wiki/Chamber_of_Commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber of Commerce">Chamber of Commerce</a> pleaded with the protest organizers to stop the actions. The NAACP asked for sympathizers to picket in unity in 100 American cities. Twenty rabbis flew to Birmingham to support the cause, equating silence about segregation to the atrocities of <a href="/wiki/The_Holocaust" title="The Holocaust">the Holocaust</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Local rabbis disagreed and asked them to go home.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The editor of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Birmingham_News" title="The Birmingham News">The Birmingham News</a></i> wired President Kennedy and pleaded with him to end the protests. </p><p>Fire hoses were used once again, injuring police and Fred Shuttlesworth, as well as other demonstrators. Commissioner Connor expressed regret at missing seeing Shuttlesworth get hit and said he "wished they'd carried him away in a hearse".<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another 1,000 people were arrested, bringing the total to 2,500. </p><p>News of the mass arrests of children had reached Western Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-morris_25-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-morris-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Soviet Union devoted up to 25 percent of its news broadcast to the demonstrations, sending much of it to Africa, where Soviet and U.S. interests clashed. Soviet news commentary accused the Kennedy administration of neglect and "inactivity".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alabama Governor <a href="/wiki/George_Wallace" title="George Wallace">George Wallace</a> sent <a href="/wiki/State_trooper" class="mw-redirect" title="State trooper">state troopers</a> to assist Connor. Attorney General Robert Kennedy prepared to activate the <a href="/wiki/Alabama_National_Guard" title="Alabama National Guard">Alabama National Guard</a> and notified the <a href="/wiki/2nd_Infantry_Division_(United_States)" title="2nd Infantry Division (United States)">Second Infantry Division</a> from <a href="/wiki/Fort_Benning" class="mw-redirect" title="Fort Benning">Fort Benning</a>, Georgia that it might be deployed to Birmingham.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>No business of any kind was being conducted downtown. Organizers planned to flood the downtown area businesses with black people. Smaller groups of decoys were set out to distract police attention from activities at the 16th Street Baptist Church. Protesters set off false fire alarms to occupy the fire department and its hoses.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One group of children approached a police officer and announced, "We want to go to jail!" When the officer pointed the way, the students ran across Kelly Ingram Park shouting, "We're going to jail!"<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Six hundred picketers reached downtown Birmingham. Large groups of protesters sat in stores and sang freedom songs. Streets, sidewalks, stores, and buildings were overwhelmed with more than 3,000 protesters.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The sheriff and chief of police admitted to Burke Marshall that they did not think they could handle the situation for more than a few hours.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resolution">Resolution</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Resolution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot of 1963</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_(14_May_1963).JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a building in ruins next to an intact wall" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/220px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/330px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG/440px-Bomb_wreckage_near_Gaston_Motel_%2814_May_1963%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="836" data-file-height="553" /></a><figcaption>Wreckage at the <a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Birmingham_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Birmingham crisis">bomb explosion</a> on May 11, 1963</figcaption></figure> <p>On May 8 at 4 am, white business leaders agreed to most of the protesters' demands. Political leaders held fast, however. The rift between the businessmen and the politicians became clear when business leaders admitted they could not guarantee the protesters' release from jail. On May 10, Fred Shuttlesworth and Martin Luther King Jr. told reporters that they had an agreement from the City of Birmingham to desegregate lunch counters, restrooms, drinking fountains and fitting rooms within 90 days, and to hire black people in stores as salesmen and clerks. Those in jail would be released on bond or their own recognizance. Urged by Kennedy, the <a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_Maritime_Union" title="National Maritime Union">National Maritime Union</a>, United Steelworkers Union, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Federation_of_Labor_and_Congress_of_Industrial_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations">American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations</a> (AFL-CIO) raised $237,000 in bail money ($2,430,000 in 2025) to free the demonstrators.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Commissioner Connor and the outgoing mayor condemned the resolution.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the night of May 11, a bomb heavily damaged the <a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a> where King had been staying—and had left only hours before—and another damaged the house of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Daniel_Williams_King" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Daniel Williams King">A. D. King</a>, Martin Luther King Jr.'s brother. When police went to inspect the motel, they were met with rocks and bottles from neighborhood black citizens. The arrival of state troopers only further angered the crowd; in the early hours of the morning, thousands of black people rioted, numerous buildings and vehicles were burned, and several people, including a police officer, were stabbed.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By May 13, three thousand federal troops were deployed to Birmingham to restore order, even though Alabama Governor George Wallace told President Kennedy that state and local forces were sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Martin Luther King Jr. returned to Birmingham to stress nonviolence. </p><p>Outgoing mayor Art Hanes left office after the Alabama State Supreme Court ruled that Albert Boutwell could take office on May 21, 1963. Upon picking up his last paycheck, Bull Connor remarked tearfully, "This is the worst day of my life."<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In June 1963, the <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow</a> signs regulating segregated public places in Birmingham were taken down.<sup id="cite_ref-fairclough-aftermath_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fairclough-aftermath-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_the_campaign">After the campaign</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: After the campaign"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Desegregation in Birmingham took place slowly after the demonstrations. King and the SCLC were criticized by some for ending the campaign with promises that were too vague and "settling for a lot less than even moderate demands".<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, Sydney Smyer, president of the Birmingham Chamber of Commerce, re-interpreted the terms of the agreement. Shuttlesworth and King had announced that desegregation would take place 90 days from May 15. Smyer then said that a single black clerk hired 90 days from when the new city government took office would be sufficient.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By July, most of the city's segregation ordinances had been overturned. Some of the lunch counters in department stores complied with the new rules. City parks and golf courses were opened again to black and white citizens. Mayor Boutwell appointed a biracial committee to discuss further changes. However, no hiring of black clerks, police officers, and firefighters had yet been completed and the Birmingham Bar Association rejected membership by black attorneys.<sup id="cite_ref-fairclough-aftermath_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fairclough-aftermath-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The reputation of Martin Luther King Jr. soared after the protests in Birmingham, and he was lauded by many as a hero.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SCLC was much in demand to effect change in many Southern cities.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the summer of 1963, King led the <a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" class="mw-redirect" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom</a> where he delivered his most famous speech, "<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>". King became <i>Time'</i>s <a href="/wiki/Time_Magazine_Person_of_the_Year" class="mw-redirect" title="Time Magazine Person of the Year">Man of the Year</a> for 1963 and won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> in 1964.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights,_11_June_1963.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of President John F. Kennedy speaking into a microphone at his desk in the Oval Office of the White House" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg/170px-President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg/255px-President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg/340px-President_Kennedy_addresses_nation_on_Civil_Rights%2C_11_June_1963.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2339" data-file-height="2923" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">John F. Kennedy</a> addressing the nation about <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Address" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Address">Civil Rights</a> on June 11, 1963</figcaption></figure> <p>The Birmingham campaign, as well as George Wallace's refusal to admit black students to the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama" title="University of Alabama">University of Alabama</a>, convinced President Kennedy to address the severe inequalities between black and white citizens in the South: "The events in Birmingham and elsewhere have so increased cries for equality that no city or state or legislative body can prudently choose to ignore them."<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the apparent lack of immediate local success after the Birmingham campaign, Fred Shuttlesworth and Wyatt Tee Walker pointed to its influence on national affairs as its true impact.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> President Kennedy's administration drew up the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act</a> bill. After being <a href="/wiki/Filibuster" title="Filibuster">filibustered</a> for 75 days by "diehard southerners" in Congress, it was passed into law in 1964 and signed by President <a href="/wiki/Lyndon_Johnson" class="mw-redirect" title="Lyndon Johnson">Lyndon Johnson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Civil Rights Act applied to the entire nation, prohibiting racial discrimination in employment and in access to public places. <a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a> of the NAACP, however, disagreed that the Birmingham campaign was the primary force behind the Civil Rights Act. Wilkins gave credit to other movements, such as the <a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides" class="mw-redirect" title="Freedom Rides">Freedom Rides</a>, the integration of the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mississippi" title="University of Mississippi">University of Mississippi</a>, and campaigns to end public school segregation.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Birmingham's public schools were integrated in September 1963. Governor Wallace sent National Guard troops to keep black students out but President Kennedy reversed Wallace by ordering the troops to stand down.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violence continued to plague the city, however. Someone threw a <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gas</a> canister into Loveman's department store when it complied with the desegregation agreement; twenty people in the store required hospital treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_(5_September_1963).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A black and white photograph of a suburban house with minor bomb damage to the roof and two windows while five black Birmingham residents stare at the damage; the yard is cordoned off with a sign saying "Danger Keep Out"" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/220px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/330px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg/440px-Bomb-damaged_home_of_Arthur_Shores_%285_September_1963%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4537" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption>Birmingham residents view the bomb-damaged home of <a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> attorney <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Shores" title="Arthur Shores">Arthur Shores</a> on September 5, 1963.</figcaption></figure> <p>Four months after the Birmingham campaign settlement, someone bombed the house of NAACP attorney <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Shores" title="Arthur Shores">Arthur Shores</a>, injuring his wife in the attack. On September 15, 1963, Birmingham again earned international attention when <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> (KKK) members <a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">bombed the 16th Street Baptist Church</a> on a Sunday morning and killed four young girls.<sup id="cite_ref-gado_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gado-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> FBI informant <a href="/wiki/Gary_Thomas_Rowe" class="mw-redirect" title="Gary Thomas Rowe">Gary Thomas Rowe</a> was hired to infiltrate the KKK and monitor their activities and plans.<sup id="cite_ref-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Rowe_dead_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Rowe_dead-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rowe was involved, along with the Birmingham Police, with the KKK attacks on the Freedom Riders, led by Fred Shuttlesworth, in <a href="/wiki/Anniston,_Alabama" title="Anniston, Alabama">Anniston, Alabama</a> on May 14, 1961.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, Rowe and several other Klansmen also partook in the killing of Civil Rights activist <a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a> on March 25, 1965, in <a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County,_Alabama" title="Lowndes County, Alabama">Lowndes County, Alabama</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery march</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr_123-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NYT_Rowe_dead_124-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT_Rowe_dead-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Birmingham campaign inspired the Civil Rights Movement in other parts of the South. Two days after King and Shuttlesworth announced the settlement in Birmingham, <a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a> of the NAACP in <a href="/wiki/Jackson,_Mississippi" title="Jackson, Mississippi">Jackson, Mississippi</a> demanded a biracial committee to address concerns there.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On June 12, 1963, Evers was murdered by a KKK member outside his home. He had been organizing demonstrations similar to those in Birmingham to pressure Jackson's city government. In 1965 Shuttlesworth assisted Bevel, King, and the SCLC to lead the <a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a>, intended to increase voter registration among black citizens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Campaign_impact">Campaign impact</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Campaign impact"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian Glenn Eskew wrote that the campaign "led to an awakening to the evils of segregation and a need for reforms in the region."<sup id="cite_ref-p._94_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p._94-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Eskew, the riots that occurred after the bombing of the Gaston Motel foreshadowed rioting in larger cities later in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-p._94_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p._94-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> ACMHR vice president Abraham Woods claimed that the rioting in Birmingham set a precedent for the "Burn, baby, burn" mindset, a cry used in later civic unrest in the <a href="/wiki/Watts_riots" title="Watts riots">Watts riots</a>, the <a href="/wiki/12th_Street_riot" class="mw-redirect" title="12th Street riot">12th Street riots</a> in Detroit, and other American cities in the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-p._437_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p._437-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A study of the Watts riots concluded, "The 'rules of the game' in race relations were permanently changed in Birmingham."<sup id="cite_ref-p._437_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p._437-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wyatt Tee Walker wrote that the Birmingham campaign was "legend" and had become the Civil Rights Movement's most important chapter. It was "the chief watershed of the nonviolent movement in the United States. It marked the maturation of the SCLC as a national force in the civil rights arena of the land that had been dominated by the older and stodgier NAACP."<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Walker called the Birmingham campaign and the Selma marches "Siamese twins" joining to "kill segregation ... and bury the body".<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jonathan Bass declared that "King had won a tremendous public relations victory in Birmingham" but also stated pointedly that "it was the citizens of the Magic City, both black and white, and not Martin Luther King Jr. and the SCLC, that brought about the real transformation of the city."<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1266661725">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/32px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/32px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/48px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg/64px-Flowerpowerportfolio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="698" data-file-height="361" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:1960s" title="Portal:1960s">1960s portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li>In <i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i>, the award-winning documentary on the Civil Rights movement, the Birmingham campaign is one focus of Episode #4, "No Easy Walk (1961–1963)."</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-fn1-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fn1_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Time</i> magazine originally reported that Connor said, "Look at those niggers run!" However, when the <i>Time</i> reporter was questioned, he admitted he did not hear the statement, which was published in any case by <i>Newsweek</i> magazine and several newspapers and became one of Connor's "most memorable lines".<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-life_photo-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-life_photo_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitaljournalist.org/issue0309/lm04.html">"Birmingham 1963"</a>. <i>100 Photographs That in the Digital Journalist</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 23,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=100+Photographs+That+in+the+Digital+Journalist&rft.atitle=Birmingham+1963&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitaljournalist.org%2Fissue0309%2Flm04.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26"></a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26">Life<i> magazine May 17, 1963</i></a>, p. 26, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> – Moore's <i>Birmingham</i> photographs</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLoweryMarszalekThomas_Adams_Upchurch2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Lowery, Charles D.; Marszalek, John F.; Thomas Adams Upchurch, eds. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LHJ2AAAAMAAJ">"Birmingham Confrontation"</a>. <i>The Greenwood Encyclopedia of African American Civil Rights: From Emancipation to the Twenty-First Century</i>. Vol. 1 (Second ed.). Greenwood Press. p. 47. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-32171-9"><bdi>978-0-313-32171-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Confrontation&rft.btitle=The+Greenwood+Encyclopedia+of+African+American+Civil+Rights%3A+From+Emancipation+to+the+Twenty-First+Century&rft.pages=47&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-313-32171-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLHJ2AAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Undated interview with King, included in <a href="/wiki/Spike_Lee" title="Spike Lee">Spike Lee</a>'s documentary <i><a href="/wiki/4_Little_Girls" title="4 Little Girls">4 Little Girls</a></i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-151-th8bg2j89r"><i>Eyes on the Prize; Interview with Wyatt Tee Walker</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 11,</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyes+on+the+Prize%3B+Interview+with+Wyatt+Tee+Walker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-151-th8bg2j89r&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation cs2"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://americanarchive.org/catalog/cpb-aacip-151-gt5fb4x427"><i>Eyes on the Prize; Interview with James Bevel</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 11,</span> 2021</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eyes+on+the+Prize%3B+Interview+with+James+Bevel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Famericanarchive.org%2Fcatalog%2Fcpb-aacip-151-gt5fb4x427&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/02/20/children-have-changed-america-before-braving-fire-hoses-and-police-dogs-for-civil-rights/">"Children have changed America before, braving fire hoses and police dogs for civil rights"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. March 23, 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Children+have+changed+America+before%2C+braving+fire+hoses+and+police+dogs+for+civil+rights&rft.date=2018-03-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtonpost.com%2Fnews%2Fretropolis%2Fwp%2F2018%2F02%2F20%2Fchildren-have-changed-america-before-braving-fire-hoses-and-police-dogs-for-civil-rights%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">King, Martin L., Jr., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://abacus.bates.edu/admin/offices/dos/mlk/letter.html">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></i>, April 16, 1963.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Census_of_Population_and_Housing1990" class="citation web cs1">U.S. Census of Population and Housing (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080121112308/http://www.bplonline.org/locations/central/gov/BirminghamsPopulation1880-2000.asp">"Birmingham's Population, 1880–2000"</a>. Birmingham (Alabama) Public Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bplonline.org/locations/central/gov/BirminghamsPopulation1880-2000.asp">the original</a> on January 21, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Birmingham%27s+Population%2C+1880%E2%80%932000&rft.pub=Birmingham+%28Alabama%29+Public+Library&rft.date=1990&rft.au=U.S.+Census+of+Population+and+Housing&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bplonline.org%2Flocations%2Fcentral%2Fgov%2FBirminghamsPopulation1880-2000.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBirmingham_City_Council1963" class="citation web cs1">Birmingham City Council (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/info/seglaws.htm">"Birmingham Segregation Laws"</a>. Civil Rights Movement Archive<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 14,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Birmingham+Segregation+Laws&rft.pub=Civil+Rights+Movement+Archive&rft.date=1963&rft.au=Birmingham+City+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crmvet.org%2Finfo%2Fseglaws.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time58-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-time58_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-time58_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110131151452/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,810711,00.html">"Birmingham: Integration's Hottest Crucible"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. December 15, 1958. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,810711,00.html">the original</a> on January 31, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 29,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Birmingham%3A+Integration%27s+Hottest+Crucible&rft.date=1958-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C810711%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gado-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gado_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gado_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGado2007" class="citation web cs1">Gado, Mark (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070818222057/http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists_spies/terrorists/birmingham_church/3.html">"Bombingham"</a>. CrimeLibrary.com/Court TV Online. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crimelibrary.com/terrorists_spies/terrorists/birmingham_church/3.html">the original</a> on August 18, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bombingham&rft.pub=CrimeLibrary.com%2FCourt+TV+Online&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Gado&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.crimelibrary.com%2Fterrorists_spies%2Fterrorists%2Fbirmingham_church%2F3.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, pp. 570–571.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammer-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKelley2015" class="citation book cs1">Kelley, Robin D. G. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=amC0CAAAQBAJ"><i>Hammer and Hoe: Alabama Communists during the Great Depression</i></a>. UNC Press Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1469625492" title="Special:BookSources/978-1469625492"><bdi>978-1469625492</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1099098253">1099098253</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 16,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hammer+and+Hoe%3A+Alabama+Communists+during+the+Great+Depression&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1099098253&rft.isbn=978-1469625492&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=Robin+D.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DamC0CAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFU.S._Supreme_Court1958" class="citation web cs1">U.S. Supreme Court (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/printer_friendly.pl?page=us/357/449.html">"N. A. A. C. P. v. ALABAMA"</a>. <i>FindLaw.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 13,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FindLaw.com&rft.atitle=N.+A.+A.+C.+P.+v.+ALABAMA&rft.date=1958&rft.au=U.S.+Supreme+Court&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcaselaw.lp.findlaw.com%2Fscripts%2Fprinter_friendly.pl%3Fpage%3Dus%2F357%2F449.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080101133527/http://www.bcri.org/resource_gallery/interview_segments/index.htm">"Interview with Fred Shuttlesworth"</a>. Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Online. December 10, 1996. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcri.org/resource_gallery/interview_segments/index.htm#">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/QuickTime" title="QuickTime">QuickTime</a>)</span> on January 1, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+Fred+Shuttlesworth&rft.pub=Birmingham+Civil+Rights+Institute+Online&rft.date=1996-12-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcri.org%2Fresource_gallery%2Finterview_segments%2Findex.htm%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hampton-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hampton_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hampton_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Hampton, p. 125.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hampton, p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bass-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bass_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bass_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-morris-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-morris_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-morris_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-morris_25-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-morris_25-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMorris1993" class="citation journal cs1">Morris, Aldon (October 1993). "Birmingham Confrontation and the Power of Social Protest: An Analysis of the Dynamics and Tactics of Mobilization". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Review" title="American Sociological Review">American Sociological Review</a></i>. <b>58</b> (5). <a href="/wiki/American_Sociological_Association" title="American Sociological Association">American Sociological Association</a>: <span class="nowrap">621–</span>636. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2096278">10.2307/2096278</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2096278">2096278</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Sociological+Review&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Confrontation+and+the+Power+of+Social+Protest%3A+An+Analysis+of+the+Dynamics+and+Tactics+of+Mobilization&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E621-%3C%2Fspan%3E636&rft.date=1993-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2096278&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2096278%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Aldon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maurice Isserman & Michael Kazin, 'America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s', (Oxford, 2008), p. 90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1986) p. 246.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time63-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-time63_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-time63_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-time63_28-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080308041904/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,830260,00.html">"Dogs, Kids and Clubs"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. May 10, 1963. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,830260,00.html">the original</a> on March 8, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 29,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Dogs%2C+Kids+and+Clubs&rft.date=1963-05-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C830260%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Integration: Bull at Bay". <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>: 29. April 15, 1963.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Integration%3A+Bull+at+Bay&rft.pages=29&rft.date=1963-04-15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-isserman89-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-isserman89_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Isserman and Kazin, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Garrow-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Garrow_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Garrow_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manis, pp. 162–163.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-connorbio-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-connorbio_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-connorbio_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJackson1994" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Kenneth T. (1994). "Theophilus Eugene Connor". <i>Dictionary of American Biography</i> (Supplement 9: 1971–1975 ed.). Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-283-99547-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-283-99547-5"><bdi>0-283-99547-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theophilus+Eugene+Connor&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+American+Biography&rft.edition=Supplement+9%3A+1971%E2%80%931975&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-283-99547-5&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Kenneth+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 286.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotman, pp. 11–12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 113</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080101133527/http://www.bcri.org/resource_gallery/interview_segments/index.htm">"Interview with Joe Dickson"</a>. Birmingham Civil Rights Institute Online. April 15, 1996. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bcri.org/resource_gallery/interview_segments/index.htm#">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/QuickTime" title="QuickTime">QuickTime</a>)</span> on January 1, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Interview+with+Joe+Dickson&rft.pub=Birmingham+Civil+Rights+Institute+Online&rft.date=1996-04-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bcri.org%2Fresource_gallery%2Finterview_segments%2Findex.htm%23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Davis, p. 200.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-time4-63-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-time4-63_40-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-time4-63_40-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-time4-63_40-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081222082734/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,830112,00.html">"Poorly Timed Protest"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. April 19, 1963. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,830112,00.html">the original</a> on December 22, 2008<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 29,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Poorly+Timed+Protest&rft.date=1963-04-19&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C830112%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hampton, p. 126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) pp. 176–177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 218.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newsweek4-22-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek4-22_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek4-22_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Integration: Connor and King". <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>: 28, 33. April 22, 1963.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Integration%3A+Connor+and+King&rft.pages=28%2C+33&rft.date=1963-04-22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilson, p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bass_2-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bass_2_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bass_2_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 238.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass p. 109.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 221, Bass</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 353.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 123.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, pp. 116–117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 357.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, pp. 227–228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-newsweek5-13-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-newsweek5-13_61-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation journal cs1">"Birmingham USA: Look at Them Run". <i><a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a></i>: 27. May 13, 1963.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Birmingham+USA%3A+Look+at+Them+Run&rft.pages=27&rft.date=1963-05-13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span> The term "Children's Crusade" has a notable history, originating from the 1212 <a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade" title="Children's Crusade">Children's Crusade</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 364.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hampton, pp. 131–132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, pp. 360, 366.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt5-7-63-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-7-63_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSitton1963" class="citation news cs1">Sitton, Claude (May 7, 1963). "Birmingham Jails 1,000 More Negroes; Waves of Chanting Students Seized". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Jails+1%2C000+More+Negroes%3B+Waves+of+Chanting+Students+Seized&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-07&rft.aulast=Sitton&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-post5-3-63-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-post5-3-63_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-post5-3-63_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGordon1963" class="citation news cs1">Gordon, Robert (May 3, 1963). "Waves of Young Negroes March in Birmingham Segregation Protest". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Waves+of+Young+Negroes+March+in+Birmingham+Segregation+Protest&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-03&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt5-2-63-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-2-63_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-2-63_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHailey1963" class="citation news cs1">Hailey, Foster (May 3, 1963). "500 Are Arrested in Negro Protest at Birmingham". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=500+Are+Arrested+in+Negro+Protest+at+Birmingham&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-03&rft.aulast=Hailey&rft.aufirst=Foster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, pp. 264–265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, pp. 761–762.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Robert Kennedy Warns of 'Increasing Turmoil': Deplores Denials of Negroes' Rights but Questions Timing of Protests in Birmingham". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 4, 1963. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Robert+Kennedy+Warns+of+%27Increasing+Turmoil%27%3A+Deplores+Denials+of+Negroes%27+Rights+but+Questions+Timing+of+Protests+in+Birmingham&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manis, p. 370.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 368.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-washpost5-4-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-washpost5-4_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Fire Hoses and Police Dogs Quell Birmingham Segregation Protest". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. May 4, 1963. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Fire+Hoses+and+Police+Dogs+Quell+Birmingham+Segregation+Protest&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-04&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, pp. 370–371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 393.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 371.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt5-3-63-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-3-63_80-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-3-63_80-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHailey1963" class="citation news cs1">Hailey, Foster (May 4, 1963). "Dogs and Hoses Repulse Negroes at Birmingham". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Dogs+and+Hoses+Repulse+Negroes+at+Birmingham&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-04&rft.aulast=Hailey&rft.aufirst=Foster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hampton, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Javits Denounces Birmingham Police". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 5, 1963. p. 82.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Javits+Denounces+Birmingham+Police&rft.pages=82&rft.date=1963-05-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Birmingham's use of dogs assailed". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 7, 1963. p. 32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Birmingham%27s+use+of+dogs+assailed&rft.pages=32&rft.date=1963-05-07&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Outrage in Alabama". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 5, 1963. p. 200.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Outrage+in+Alabama&rft.pages=200&rft.date=1963-05-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Violence in Birmingham". <i><a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Post" title="The Washington Post">The Washington Post</a></i>. May 5, 1963. p. E5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Post&rft.atitle=Violence+in+Birmingham&rft.pages=E5&rft.date=1963-05-05&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 270.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHailey1963" class="citation news cs1">Hailey, Foster (May 5, 1963). "U.S. Seeking a Truce in Birmingham; Hoses Again Drive Off Demonstrators; Two Aides Meeting With Leaders—Negroes Halt Protests Temporarily". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=U.S.+Seeking+a+Truce+in+Birmingham%3B+Hoses+Again+Drive+Off+Demonstrators%3B+Two+Aides+Meeting+With+Leaders%E2%80%94Negroes+Halt+Protests+Temporarily&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-05&rft.aulast=Hailey&rft.aufirst=Foster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 152.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt5-6-63-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-6-63_89-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nyt5-6-63_89-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHailey1963" class="citation news cs1">Hailey, Foster (May 6, 1963). "Birmingham Talks Pushed; Negroes March Peacefully". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Talks+Pushed%3B+Negroes+March+Peacefully&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-06&rft.aulast=Hailey&rft.aufirst=Foster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 402.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 387.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 406.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, pp. 388–390.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1">"Birmingham Jail Is So Crowded Breakfast Takes Four Hours". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. May 8, 1963. p. 29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Birmingham+Jail+Is+So+Crowded+Breakfast+Takes+Four+Hours&rft.pages=29&rft.date=1963-05-08&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jta.org/1963/05/09/archive/twenty-conservative-rabbis-fly-to-birmingham-to-back-negro-demands">"Twenty Conservative Rabbis Fly to Birmingham to Back Negro Demands"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Telegraphic_Agency" title="Jewish Telegraphic Agency">Jewish Telegraphic Agency</a>. May 9, 1963<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 11,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Twenty+Conservative+Rabbis+Fly+to+Birmingham+to+Back+Negro+Demands&rft.date=1963-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jta.org%2F1963%2F05%2F09%2Farchive%2Ftwenty-conservative-rabbis-fly-to-birmingham-to-back-negro-demands&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 283.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSitton1963" class="citation news cs1">Sitton, Claude (May 8, 1963). "Rioting Negroes routed by police at Birmingham; 3,000 Demonstrators Crash Lines". <i><a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. p. 1.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Rioting+Negroes+routed+by+police+at+Birmingham%3B+3%2C000+Demonstrators+Crash+Lines&rft.pages=1&rft.date=1963-05-08&rft.aulast=Sitton&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotman, pp. 101–102.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 282.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 277.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskew, p. 278.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotman, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 157.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9605/15/">"Freedom-Now" <i>Time</i>, May 17, 1963</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150309014723/http://cgi.cnn.com/ALLPOLITICS/1996/analysis/back.time/9605/15/">Archived</a> March 9, 2015, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>; Glenn T. Eskew, <i>But for Birmingham: The Local and National Struggles in the Civil Rights Movement</i> (University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 301.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cotman, pp. 89–90.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nunnelley, p. 162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fairclough-aftermath-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fairclough-aftermath_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-fairclough-aftermath_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, pp. 132–133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 129.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 132.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, pp. 803–806.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070603020050/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940759,00.html">"Never Again Where He Was"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Time_(magazine)" title="Time (magazine)">Time</a></i>. January 3, 1964. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940759,00.html">the original</a> on June 3, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Time&rft.atitle=Never+Again+Where+He+Was&rft.date=1964-01-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.time.com%2Ftime%2Fmagazine%2Farticle%2F0%2C9171%2C940759%2C00.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1964/king-bio.html">"Martin Luther King Biography"</a>. The Nobel Foundation<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 24,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Martin+Luther+King+Biography&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fpeace%2Flaureates%2F1964%2Fking-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 239.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, p. 133.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Franklin, p. 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fairclough, pp. 134–135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, pp. 888–889.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, p. 868.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr_123-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-EoA_Gary_Thomas_Rowe_jr_123-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopediaofalabama.org/article/h-3379">"Gary Thomas Rowe Jr"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia of Alabama</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Alabama&rft.atitle=Gary+Thomas+Rowe+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopediaofalabama.org%2Farticle%2Fh-3379&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT_Rowe_dead-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NYT_Rowe_dead_124-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NYT_Rowe_dead_124-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKaufman1998" class="citation news cs1">Kaufman, Michael T. (October 4, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/04/us/gary-t-rowe-jr-64-who-informed-on-klan-in-civil-rights-killing-is-dead.html">"Gary T. Rowe Jr., 64, Who Informed on Klan in Civil Rights Killing, Is Dead"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 28,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Gary+T.+Rowe+Jr.%2C+64%2C+Who+Informed+on+Klan+in+Civil+Rights+Killing%2C+Is+Dead&rft.date=1998-10-04&rft.issn=0362-4331&rft.aulast=Kaufman&rft.aufirst=Michael+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F1998%2F10%2F04%2Fus%2Fgary-t-rowe-jr-64-who-informed-on-klan-in-civil-rights-killing-is-dead.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaymond2006" class="citation book cs1">Raymond, Arsenault (2006). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/freedomriders1960000arse"><i>Freedom riders: 1961 and the struggle for racial justice</i></a></span>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195136746" title="Special:BookSources/9780195136746"><bdi>9780195136746</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/224472691">224472691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Freedom+riders%3A+1961+and+the+struggle+for+racial+justice&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F224472691&rft.isbn=9780195136746&rft.aulast=Raymond&rft.aufirst=Arsenault&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffreedomriders1960000arse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch, p. 813.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p._94-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-p._94_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-p._94_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Garrow, (1989) p. 94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p._437-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-p._437_128-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-p._437_128-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">McWhorter, p. 437.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White and Manis, p. 68.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">White and Manis, p. 74</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bass, p. 226.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Bass, S. Jonathan (2001). <i>Blessed Are the Peacemakers: Martin Luther King, Jr., Eight White Religious Leaders, and the 'Letter from Birmingham Jail<span style="padding-right:0.15em;">'</span></i>. <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_State_University_Press" title="Louisiana State University Press">Louisiana State University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-2655-1">0-8071-2655-1</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Branch, Taylor</a> (1988). <i>Parting The Waters; America in the King Years 1954–63</i>. <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-46097-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-46097-8">0-671-46097-8</a>.</li> <li>Cotman, John (1989). <i>Birmingham, JFK, and the Civil Rights Act of 1963: Implications For Elite Theory</i>. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Lang_(publishing_company)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Lang (publishing company)">Peter Lang Publishing</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8204-0806-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8204-0806-9">0-8204-0806-9</a>.</li> <li>Davis, Jack. (2001). <i>The Civil Rights Movement</i>, Oxford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-22044-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-22044-5">0-631-22044-5</a>.</li> <li>Eskew, Glenn (1997). <i>But for Birmingham: The Local and National Movements in the Civil Rights Struggle</i>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_North_Carolina_Press" title="University of North Carolina Press">University of North Carolina Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8078-6132-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8078-6132-4">0-8078-6132-4</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Fairclough, Adam</a> (1987). <i>To Redeem the Soul of America: the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and Martin Luther King, Jr.</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_Press" title="University of Georgia Press">University of Georgia Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8203-0898-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-8203-0898-6">0-8203-0898-6</a>.</li> <li>Franklin, Jimmie (1989). <i>Back to Birmingham: Richard Arrington, Jr. and His Times.</i> <a href="/wiki/University_of_Alabama_Press" title="University of Alabama Press">University of Alabama Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8173-0435-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8173-0435-5">0-8173-0435-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">Garrow, David</a> (1986). <i>Bearing the Cross: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference</i>. <a href="/wiki/William_Morrow_and_Company" title="William Morrow and Company">William Morrow and Company</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-688-04794-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-688-04794-7">0-688-04794-7</a>.</li> <li>Garrow, David, ed. (1989). <i>Birmingham, Alabama, 1956–1963: The Black Struggle for Civil Rights</i>. Carlson Publishing. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-926019-04-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-926019-04-X">0-926019-04-X</a>.</li> <li>Hampton, Henry, Fayer, S. (1990). <i>Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s Through the 1980s</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bantam_Books" title="Bantam Books">Bantam Books</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-553-05734-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-553-05734-0">0-553-05734-0</a>.</li> <li>Isserman, Maurice, Kazin, Michael. (2008). <i>America Divided: The Civil War of the 1960s</i>, Oxford. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509190-6">0-19-509190-6</a>.</li> <li>Manis, Andrew (1999). <i>A Fire You Can't Put Out: The Civil Rights Life of Birmingham's Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth</i>. University of Alabama Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-35440-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-35440-5">0-585-35440-5</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">McWhorter, Diane</a> (2001). <i><a href="/wiki/Carry_Me_Home:_Birmingham,_Alabama,_the_Climactic_Battle_of_the_Civil_Rights_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution">Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution</a></i>. Simon & Schuster. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7432-1772-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7432-1772-1">0-7432-1772-1</a>.</li> <li>Nunnelley, William (1991). <i>Bull Connor</i>. University of Alabama Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-585-32316-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-585-32316-X">0-585-32316-X</a>.</li> <li>White, Marjorie, Manis, Andrew, eds. (2000). <i>Birmingham Revolutionaries: The Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</i>. <a href="/wiki/Mercer_University_Press" title="Mercer University Press">Mercer University Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86554-709-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-86554-709-2">0-86554-709-2</a>.</li> <li>Wilson, Bobby (2000). <i>Race and Place in Birmingham: The Civil Rights and Neighborhood Movements</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8476-9482-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8476-9482-8">0-8476-9482-8</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKing1963" class="citation book cs1">King, Martin Luther Jr. (1963). <i>Why We Can't Wait</i>. Signet Classics. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-451-52753-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-451-52753-0"><bdi>978-0-451-52753-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+We+Can%27t+Wait&rft.pub=Signet+Classics&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=978-0-451-52753-0&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Martin+Luther+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRaines1976" class="citation book cs1">Raines, Howell (1976). <i><a href="/wiki/My_Soul_Is_Rested" title="My Soul Is Rested">My Soul Is Rested: Movement Days in the Deep South Remembered</a></i>. New York: Putnam Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-399-11853-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-399-11853-5"><bdi>0-399-11853-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=My+Soul+Is+Rested%3A+Movement+Days+in+the+Deep+South+Remembered&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Putnam+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=0-399-11853-5&rft.aulast=Raines&rft.aufirst=Howell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWhite1998" class="citation book cs1">White, Marjorie Longenecker (1998). <i>A Walk to Freedom: The Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</i>. Birmingham, Alabama: Birmingham Historical Society. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-943994-24-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-943994-24-1"><bdi>0-943994-24-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Walk+to+Freedom%3A+The+Reverend+Fred+Shuttlesworth+and+the+Alabama+Christian+Movement+for+Human+Rights&rft.place=Birmingham%2C+Alabama&rft.pub=Birmingham+Historical+Society&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-943994-24-1&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Marjorie+Longenecker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABirmingham+campaign" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Birmingham_campaign&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crmvet.org/tim/timhis63.htm#1963bham">The Birmingham Campaign</a> – Civil Rights Movement Archive</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sVd2RNM4PlQ&list=PLzewrz3Yad8uCTCkPhc8WWcYNdcxplnjk">A Film on the Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080308224840/http://www.stanford.edu/group/King/about_king/encyclopedia/birmingham_campaign.htm">Birmingham Campaign</a> – M. L. King Research Institute at Stanford University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.detroits-great-rebellion.com/Birmingham.html">Birmingham Civil Rights Movement</a> – Birmingham march / riots of the 60s.</li> <li><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26"></a></i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2kgEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA26">Life<i> magazine May 17, 1963</i></a>, p. 26, at <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> – Moore's <i>Birmingham</i> photographs</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="wide;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#CEE0F2;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_rights_movement" title="Template talk:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_rights_movement" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil rights movement"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Civil_rights_movement_(1954–1968)366" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> (1954–1968)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Events<br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Timeline of the civil rights movement">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">Prior to 1954</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Journey_of_Reconciliation" title="Journey of Reconciliation">Journey of Reconciliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9981" title="Executive Order 9981">Executive Order 9981</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Harry_and_Harriette_Moore" title="Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore">Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McLaurin_v._Oklahoma_State_Regents" title="McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents">McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents</a></i> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge_bus_boycott" title="Baton Rouge bus boycott">Baton Rouge bus boycott</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1954–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bolling_v._Sharpe" title="Bolling v. Sharpe">Bolling v. Sharpe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Briggs_v._Elliott" title="Briggs v. Elliott">Briggs v. Elliott</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Davis_v._County_School_Board_of_Prince_Edward_County" title="Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County">Davis v. Prince Edward County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gebhart_v._Belton" title="Gebhart v. Belton">Gebhart v. Belton</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Keys_v._Carolina_Coach_Co." title="Keys v. Carolina Coach Co.">Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tallahassee_bus_boycott" title="Tallahassee bus boycott">Tallahassee bus boycott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansfield_school_desegregation_incident" title="Mansfield school desegregation incident">Mansfield school desegregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Ice_Cream_sit-in" title="Royal Ice Cream sit-in">Royal Ice Cream sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Rock_Nine" title="Little Rock Nine">Little Rock Nine</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1957" title="Civil Rights Act of 1957">Civil Rights Act of 1957</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministers%27_Manifesto" title="Ministers' Manifesto">Ministers' Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katz_Drug_Store_sit-in" title="Katz Drug Store sit-in">Katz Drug Store sit-in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kissing_Case" title="Kissing Case">Kissing Case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biloxi_wade-ins" title="Biloxi wade-ins">Biloxi wade-ins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1960–1963</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Year%27s_Day_March" title="New Year's Day March">New Year's Day March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greensboro_sit-ins" title="Greensboro sit-ins">Greensboro sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_sit-ins" title="Nashville sit-ins">Nashville sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibley_Commission" title="Sibley Commission">Sibley Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_sit-ins" title="Atlanta sit-ins">Atlanta sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savannah_Protest_Movement" title="Savannah Protest Movement">Savannah Protest Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenville_Eight" title="Greenville Eight">Greenville Eight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1960" title="Civil Rights Act of 1960">Civil Rights Act of 1960</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ax_Handle_Saturday" title="Ax Handle Saturday">Ax Handle Saturday</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Gomillion_v._Lightfoot" title="Gomillion v. Lightfoot">Gomillion v. Lightfoot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Boynton_v._Virginia" title="Boynton v. Virginia">Boynton v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Georgia_desegregation_riot" title="University of Georgia desegregation riot">University of Georgia desegregation riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Nine" title="Friendship Nine">Rock Hill sit-ins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_Day_Address" title="Law Day Address">Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Rides</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anniston_and_Birmingham_bus_attacks" title="Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks">Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Garner_v._Louisiana" title="Garner v. Louisiana">Garner v. Louisiana</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cambridge_movement_(civil_rights)" title="Cambridge movement (civil rights)">Cambridge movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_sit-ins" title="University of Chicago sit-ins">University of Chicago sit-ins</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ole_Miss_riot_of_1962" title="Ole Miss riot of 1962">Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta%27s_Berlin_Wall" title="Atlanta's Berlin Wall">Atlanta's Berlin Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Wallace%27s_1963_Inaugural_Address" title="George Wallace's 1963 Inaugural Address">"Segregation now, segregation forever"</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stand_in_the_Schoolhouse_Door" title="Stand in the Schoolhouse Door">Stand in the Schoolhouse Door</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">1963 Birmingham campaign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_Crusade_(1963)" title="Children's Crusade (1963)">Children's Crusade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_riot_of_1963" title="Birmingham riot of 1963">Birmingham riot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church_bombing" title="16th Street Baptist Church bombing">16th Street Baptist Church bombing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Report_to_the_American_People_on_Civil_Rights" title="Report to the American People on Civil Rights">John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detroit_Walk_to_Freedom" title="Detroit Walk to Freedom">Detroit Walk to Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">"I Have a Dream"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color: #eeeeee; vertical-align: middle">1964–1968</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twenty-fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Twenty-fourth Amendment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chester_school_protests" title="Chester school protests">Chester school protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Tuesday_(1964)" title="Bloody Tuesday (1964)">Bloody Tuesday</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964_Monson_Motor_Lodge_protests" title="1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests">1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Murders_of_Chaney,_Goodman,_and_Schwerner" title="Murders of Chaney, Goodman, and Schwerner">workers' murders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">Civil Rights Act of 1964</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Atlanta_Motel,_Inc._v._United_States" title="Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States">Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Katzenbach_v._McClung" title="Katzenbach v. McClung">Katzenbach v. McClung</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1964%E2%80%931965_Scripto_strike" title="1964–1965 Scripto strike">1964–1965 Scripto strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">1965 Selma to Montgomery marches</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Harper_v._Virginia_State_Board_of_Elections" title="Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections">Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">March Against Fear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_House_Conference_on_Civil_Rights" title="White House Conference on Civil Rights">White House Conference on Civil Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">King assassination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_assassination_riots" title="King assassination riots">riots</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Civil Rights Act of 1968</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Green_v._County_School_Board_of_New_Kent_County" title="Green v. County School Board of New Kent County">Green v. County School Board of New Kent County</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jones_v._Alfred_H._Mayer_Co." title="Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.">Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1968_Olympics_Black_Power_salute" title="1968 Olympics Black Power salute">1968 Olympics Black Power salute</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activist<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Christian_Movement_for_Human_Rights" title="Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights">Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Friends_Service_Committee" title="American Friends Service Committee">American Friends Service Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Negro_Voters_League" title="Atlanta Negro Voters League">Atlanta Negro Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Student_Movement" title="Atlanta Student Movement">Atlanta Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brotherhood_of_Sleeping_Car_Porters" title="Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters">Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Freedom_Now" title="Committee for Freedom Now">Committee for Freedom Now</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="Committee on Appeal for Human Rights">Committee on Appeal for Human Rights</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/An_Appeal_for_Human_Rights" title="An Appeal for Human Rights">An Appeal for Human Rights</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_for_United_Civil_Rights_Leadership" title="Council for United Civil Rights Leadership">Council for United Civil Rights Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Federated_Organizations" title="Council of Federated Organizations">Council of Federated Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dallas_County_Voters_League" title="Dallas County Voters League">Dallas County Voters League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deacons_for_Defense_and_Justice" title="Deacons for Defense and Justice">Deacons for Defense and Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgia_Council_on_Human_Relations" title="Georgia Council on Human Relations">Georgia Council on Human Relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highlander_Research_and_Education_Center" title="Highlander Research and Education Center">Highlander Folk School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_Conference_on_Civil_and_Human_Rights" title="Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights">Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lowndes_County_Freedom_Organization" title="Lowndes County Freedom Organization">Lowndes County Freedom Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Freedom_Democratic_Party" title="Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party">Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">NAACP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/NAACP_Youth_Council" title="NAACP Youth Council">Youth Council</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Student_Movement" title="Northern Student Movement">Northern Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Breadbasket" title="Operation Breadbasket">Operation Breadbasket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Council_of_Negro_Leadership" title="Regional Council of Negro Leadership">Regional Council of Negro Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Regional_Council" title="Southern Regional Council">Southern Regional Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Freedom_Singers" title="The Freedom Singers">The Freedom Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Auto_Workers" title="United Auto Workers">United Auto Workers (UAW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wednesdays_in_Mississippi" title="Wednesdays in Mississippi">Wednesdays in Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_Political_Council" title="Women's Political Council">Women's Political Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Activists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Juanita_Abernathy" title="Juanita Abernathy">Juanita Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Gray_Adams" title="Victoria Gray Adams">Victoria Gray Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zev_Aelony" title="Zev Aelony">Zev Aelony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathew_Ahmann" title="Mathew Ahmann">Mathew Ahmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_G._Anderson" title="William G. Anderson">William G. Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Elaine_Armstrong" title="Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong">Gwendolyn Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Aronson" title="Arnold Aronson">Arnold Aronson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marion_Barry" title="Marion Barry">Marion Barry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daisy_Bates_(activist)" title="Daisy Bates (activist)">Daisy Bates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_Belafonte" title="Harry Belafonte">Harry Belafonte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claude_Black_(minister)" title="Claude Black (minister)">Claude Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Blackwell" title="Gloria Blackwell">Gloria Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Blackwell" title="Randolph Blackwell">Randolph Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unita_Blackwell" title="Unita Blackwell">Unita Blackwell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ezell_Blair_Jr." title="Ezell Blair Jr.">Ezell Blair Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanne_Bland" title="Joanne Bland">Joanne Bland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_E._Boone" title="Joseph E. Boone">Joseph E. Boone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Holmes_Borders" title="William Holmes Borders">William Holmes Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruce_Boynton" title="Bruce Boynton">Bruce Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raylawni_Branch" title="Raylawni Branch">Raylawni Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Branche" title="Stanley Branche">Stanley Branche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Bridges" title="Ruby Bridges">Ruby Bridges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurelia_Browder" title="Aurelia Browder">Aurelia Browder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._Rap_Brown" title="H. Rap Brown">H. Rap Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_H._Calhoun" title="John H. Calhoun">John H. Calhoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Carawan" title="Guy Carawan">Guy Carawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokely_Carmichael" title="Stokely Carmichael">Stokely Carmichael</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnnie_Carr" title="Johnnie Carr">Johnnie Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chaney" title="James Chaney">James Chaney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Chestnut_Jr." title="J. L. Chestnut Jr.">J. L. Chestnut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colia_Clark" title="Colia Clark">Colia Lafayette Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsey_Clark" title="Ramsey Clark">Ramsey Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septima_Poinsette_Clark" title="Septima Poinsette Clark">Septima Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xernona_Clayton" title="Xernona Clayton">Xernona Clayton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldridge_Cleaver" title="Eldridge Cleaver">Eldridge Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Cleaver" title="Kathleen Cleaver">Kathleen Cleaver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephine_Dobbs_Clement" title="Josephine Dobbs Clement">Josephine Dobbs Clement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_E._Cobb_Jr." title="Charles E. Cobb Jr.">Charles E. Cobb Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Lee_Cooper" title="Annie Lee Cooper">Annie Lee Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Dahmer" title="Vernon Dahmer">Vernon Dahmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Daniels" title="Jonathan Daniels">Jonathan Daniels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_Davis" title="Abraham Lincoln Davis">Abraham Lincoln Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Davis" title="Angela Davis">Angela Davis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaine" title="Joseph DeLaine">Joseph DeLaine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Dennis_(activist)" title="Dave Dennis (activist)">Dave Dennis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annie_Bell_Robinson_Devine" title="Annie Bell Robinson Devine">Annie Bell Robinson Devine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wesley_Dobbs" title="John Wesley Dobbs">John Wesley Dobbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Stephens_Due" title="Patricia Stephens Due">Patricia Stephens Due</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ellwanger" title="Joseph Ellwanger">Joseph Ellwanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Evers" title="Charles Evers">Charles Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrlie_Evers-Williams" title="Myrlie Evers-Williams">Myrlie Evers-Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Fauntroy" title="Walter Fauntroy">Walter Fauntroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Forman" title="James Forman">James Forman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Foster" title="Marie Foster">Marie Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Frinks" title="Golden Frinks">Golden Frinks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Goodman_(activist)" title="Andrew Goodman (activist)">Andrew Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graetz" title="Robert Graetz">Robert Graetz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Greenberg" title="Jack Greenberg">Jack Greenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Gregory" title="Dick Gregory">Dick Gregory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Guyot" title="Lawrence Guyot">Lawrence Guyot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prathia_Hall" title="Prathia Hall">Prathia Hall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Hampton" title="Fred Hampton">Fred Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_E._Harbour" title="William E. Harbour">William E. Harbour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Height" title="Dorothy Height">Dorothy Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Faye_Hendricks" title="Audrey Faye Hendricks">Audrey Faye Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lola_Hendricks" title="Lola Hendricks">Lola Hendricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Henry_(politician)" title="Aaron Henry (politician)">Aaron Henry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Hill_(attorney)" title="Oliver Hill (attorney)">Oliver Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_L._Hollowell" title="Donald L. Hollowell">Donald L. Hollowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Hood" title="James Hood">James Hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myles_Horton" title="Myles Horton">Myles Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zilphia_Horton" title="Zilphia Horton">Zilphia Horton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._R._M._Howard" title="T. R. M. Howard">T. R. M. Howard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Hurley" title="Ruby Hurley">Ruby Hurley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_Ivory" title="Cecil Ivory">Cecil Ivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Jimmie_Lee_Jackson" title="Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson">Jimmie Lee Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Jean_Jackson" title="Richie Jean Jackson">Richie Jean Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T._J._Jemison" title="T. J. Jemison">T. J. Jemison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esau_Jenkins" title="Esau Jenkins">Esau Jenkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Rose_Johns" title="Barbara Rose Johns">Barbara Rose Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Johns" title="Vernon Johns">Vernon Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Minis_Johnson" title="Frank Minis Johnson">Frank Minis Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_B._Jones" title="Clarence B. Jones">Clarence Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Charles_Jones" title="J. Charles Jones">J. Charles Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthew_Jones_(activist)" title="Matthew Jones (activist)">Matthew Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernon_Jordan" title="Vernon Jordan">Vernon Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Kahn" title="Tom Kahn">Tom Kahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kennard" title="Clyde Kennard">Clyde Kennard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chevene_Bowers_King" title="Chevene Bowers King">C.B. King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lee_(activist)" title="Bernard Lee (activist)">Bernard Lee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanford_R._Leigh" title="Sanford R. Leigh">Sanford R. Leigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Letherer" title="Jim Letherer">Jim Letherer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Levison" title="Stanley Levison">Stanley Levison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viola_Liuzzo" title="Viola Liuzzo">Viola Liuzzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Z._Alexander_Looby" title="Z. Alexander Looby">Z. Alexander Looby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clara_Luper" title="Clara Luper">Clara Luper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danny_Lyon" title="Danny Lyon">Danny Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mae_Mallory" title="Mae Mallory">Mae Mallory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vivian_Malone_Jones" title="Vivian Malone Jones">Vivian Malone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Mants" title="Bob Mants">Bob Mants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franklin_McCain" title="Franklin McCain">Franklin McCain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_McDew" title="Charles McDew">Charles McDew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_McGill" title="Ralph McGill">Ralph McGill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floyd_McKissick" title="Floyd McKissick">Floyd McKissick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_McNeil" title="Joseph McNeil">Joseph McNeil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Meredith" title="James Meredith">James Meredith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Robert_Ming" title="William Robert Ming">William Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Minnis" title="Jack Minnis">Jack Minnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amzie_Moore" title="Amzie Moore">Amzie Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cecil_B._Moore" title="Cecil B. Moore">Cecil B. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_E._Moore" title="Douglas E. Moore">Douglas E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriette_Moore" title="Harriette Moore">Harriette Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harry_T._Moore" title="Harry T. Moore">Harry T. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_Moore" title="Queen Mother Moore">Queen Mother Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lewis_Moore" title="William Lewis Moore">William Lewis Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Morgan" title="Irene Morgan">Irene Morgan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Moyer" title="William Moyer">William Moyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elijah_Muhammad" title="Elijah Muhammad">Elijah Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Neblett" title="Charles Neblett">Charles Neblett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._D._Nixon" title="E. D. Nixon">Edgar Nixon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_O%27Dell" title="Jack O'Dell">Jack O'Dell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Peck_(pacifist)" title="James Peck (pacifist)">James Peck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Person" title="Charles Person">Charles Person</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homer Plessy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fay_Bellamy_Powell" title="Fay Bellamy Powell">Fay Bellamy Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_N._Powell" title="Rodney N. Powell">Rodney N. Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Raby" title="Albert Raby">Al Raby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincoln_Ragsdale" title="Lincoln Ragsdale">Lincoln Ragsdale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond" title="George Raymond">George Raymond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Raymond_Jr." title="George Raymond Jr.">George Raymond Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Johnson_Reagon" title="Bernice Johnson Reagon">Bernice Johnson Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordell_Reagon" title="Cordell Reagon">Cordell Reagon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Reeb" title="James Reeb">James Reeb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_D._Reese" title="Frederick D. Reese">Frederick D. Reese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Reuther" title="Walter Reuther">Walter Reuther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gloria_Richardson" title="Gloria Richardson">Gloria Richardson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Richmond_(activist)" title="David Richmond (activist)">David Richmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernice_Robinson" title="Bernice Robinson">Bernice Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jo_Ann_Robinson" title="Jo Ann Robinson">Jo Ann Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angela_Russell_(politician)" title="Angela Russell (politician)">Angela Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernie_Sanders" title="Bernie Sanders">Bernie Sanders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Schwerner" title="Michael Schwerner">Michael Schwerner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bobby_Seale" title="Bobby Seale">Bobby Seale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Seeger" title="Pete Seeger">Pete Seeger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Sellers" title="Cleveland Sellers">Cleveland Sellers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sherrod" title="Charles Sherrod">Charles Sherrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_D._Shimkin" title="Alexander D. Shimkin">Alexander D. Shimkin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modjeska_Monteith_Simkins" title="Modjeska Monteith Simkins">Modjeska Monteith Simkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenn_E._Smiley" title="Glenn E. Smiley">Glenn E. Smiley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Maceo_Smith" title="A. Maceo Smith">A. Maceo Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Miller_Smith" title="Kelly Miller Smith">Kelly Miller Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Louise_Smith_(activist)" title="Mary Louise Smith (activist)">Mary Louise Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxine_Smith" title="Maxine Smith">Maxine Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruby_Doris_Smith-Robinson" title="Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson">Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Kenzie_Steele" title="Charles Kenzie Steele">Charles Kenzie Steele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hank_Thomas" title="Hank Thomas">Hank Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Tillman" title="Dorothy Tillman">Dorothy Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._P._Tureaud" title="A. P. Tureaud">A. P. Tureaud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hartman_Turnbow" title="Hartman Turnbow">Hartman Turnbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Turner_(activist)" title="Albert Turner (activist)">Albert Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._T._Walden" title="A. T. Walden">A. T. Walden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Tee Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hollis_Watkins" title="Hollis Watkins">Hollis Watkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Francis_White" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Francis White">Walter Francis White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Kale Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Williams" title="Robert F. Williams">Robert F. Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q._V._Williamson" title="Q. V. Williamson">Q. V. Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sammy_Younge_Jr." title="Sammy Younge Jr.">Sammy Younge Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Zellner" title="Bob Zellner">Bob Zellner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Zwerg" title="James Zwerg">James Zwerg</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="Civil rights movement in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha, Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="South Carolina in the civil rights movement">South Carolina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Movement<br />songs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ain%27t_Gonna_Let_Nobody_Turn_Me_%27Round" title="Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round">"Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/If_You_Miss_Me_at_the_Back_of_the_Bus" title="If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus">"If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumbaya" title="Kumbaya">"Kumbaya"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keep_Your_Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Keep Your Eyes on the Prize">"Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oh,_Freedom" title="Oh, Freedom">"Oh, Freedom"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/This_Little_Light_of_Mine" title="This Little Light of Mine">"This Little Light of Mine"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/I_Shall_Not_Be_Moved" title="I Shall Not Be Moved">"We Shall Not Be Moved"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/We_Shall_Overcome" title="We Shall Overcome">"We Shall Overcome"</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woke_Up_This_Morning_(With_My_Mind_Stayed_On_Freedom)" title="Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)">"Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Padayatra" title="Padayatra">Padayatra</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahatma_Gandhi" title="Mahatma Gandhi">Mahatma Gandhi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahimsa" title="Ahimsa">Ahimsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyagraha" title="Satyagraha">Satyagraha</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Kingdom_of_God_Is_Within_You" title="The Kingdom of God Is Within You">The Kingdom of God Is Within You</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_McLeod_Bethune" title="Mary McLeod Bethune">Mary McLeod Bethune</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Buchanan_v._Warley" title="Buchanan v. Warley">Buchanan v. Warley</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hocutt_v._Wilson" title="Hocutt v. Wilson">Hocutt v. Wilson</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sweatt_v._Painter" title="Sweatt v. Painter">Sweatt v. Painter</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hernandez_v._Texas" title="Hernandez v. Texas">Hernandez v. Texas</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Loving_v._Virginia" title="Loving v. Virginia">Loving v. Virginia</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="African-American women in the civil rights movement">African-American women in the movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jews_in_the_civil_rights_movement" title="Jews in the civil rights movement">Jews in the civil rights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifth_Circuit_Four" title="Fifth Circuit Four">Fifth Circuit Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/16th_Street_Baptist_Church" title="16th Street Baptist Church">16th Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelly_Ingram_Park" title="Kelly Ingram Park">Kelly Ingram Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A.G._Gaston_Motel" title="A.G. Gaston Motel">A.G. Gaston Motel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bethel_Baptist_Church_(Birmingham,_Alabama)" title="Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama)">Bethel Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown_Chapel_A.M.E._Church_(Selma,_Alabama)" title="Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church (Selma, Alabama)">Brown Chapel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holt_Street_Baptist_Church" title="Holt Street Baptist Church">Holt Street Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Pettus_Bridge" title="Edmund Pettus Bridge">Edmund Pettus Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_Movement" title="March on Washington Movement">March on Washington Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_attacks_against_African-American_churches#20th_Century" title="List of attacks against African-American churches">African-American churches attacked</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in the United States">List of lynching victims in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Schools" title="Freedom Schools">Freedom Schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_song" title="Freedom song">Freedom songs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam</a> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>"</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_Education_Project" title="Voter Education Project">Voter Education Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Eyes_on_the_Prize" title="Eyes on the Prize">Eyes on the Prize</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Legacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_Institute" title="Birmingham Civil Rights Institute">Birmingham Civil Rights Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_Civil_Rights_National_Monument" title="Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument">Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Memorial" title="Civil Rights Memorial">Civil Rights Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement_Archive" title="Civil Rights Movement Archive">Civil Rights Movement Archive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till_and_Mamie_Till-Mobley_National_Monument" title="Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument">Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_and_Myrlie_Evers_Home_National_Monument" title="Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument">Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Rides_Museum" title="Freedom Rides Museum">Freedom Rides Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders_National_Monument" title="Freedom Riders National Monument">Freedom Riders National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Center_for_Nonviolent_Social_Change" title="King Center for Nonviolent Social Change">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">other King memorials</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="Mississippi Civil Rights Museum">Mississippi Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Voting_Rights_Museum" title="National Voting Rights Museum">National Voting Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_Foot_Soldiers_Monument" title="St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument">St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victory_Salute_(statue)" title="Victory Salute (statue)">Olympic Black Power Statue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em; line-height:1.1em;">Noted<br />historians</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taylor_Branch" title="Taylor Branch">Taylor Branch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayborne_Carson" title="Clayborne Carson">Clayborne Carson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dittmer" title="John Dittmer">John Dittmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Eric_Dyson" title="Michael Eric Dyson">Michael Eric Dyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chuck_Fager" title="Chuck Fager">Chuck Fager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Fairclough" title="Adam Fairclough">Adam Fairclough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Garrow" title="David Garrow">David Garrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Halberstam" title="David Halberstam">David Halberstam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vincent_Harding" title="Vincent Harding">Vincent Harding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steven_F._Lawson" title="Steven F. Lawson">Steven F. Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doug_McAdam" title="Doug McAdam">Doug McAdam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_McWhorter" title="Diane McWhorter">Diane McWhorter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_M._Payne" title="Charles M. Payne">Charles M. Payne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_E._Ricks_(journalist)" title="Thomas E. Ricks (journalist)">Thomas E. Ricks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Tyson" title="Timothy Tyson">Timothy Tyson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinyele_Umoja" title="Akinyele Umoja">Akinyele Umoja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers_of_the_civil_rights_movement" title="List of photographers of the civil rights movement">Movement photographers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#eeeeee;"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:ACRM" title="Wikipedia:ACRM"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/28px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/42px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Logo_SNCC.svg/56px-Logo_SNCC.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Civil_rights_movement" title="Portal:Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement portal</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Martin_Luther_King_Jr.26" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Template:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Template talk:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Special:EditPage/Template:Martin Luther King Jr."><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Martin_Luther_King_Jr.26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Speeches,_writings,_movements,_and_protests26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Speeches, writings, movements, and protests</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sermons_and_speeches_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Sermons and speeches of Martin Luther King Jr.">Speeches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Give_Us_the_Ballot" title="Give Us the Ballot">Give Us the Ballot</a>" (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/I_Have_a_Dream" title="I Have a Dream">I Have a Dream</a>" (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/How_Long,_Not_Long" title="How Long, Not Long">How Long, Not Long</a>" (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Beyond_Vietnam:_A_Time_to_Break_Silence" title="Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence">Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence</a>" (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/I%27ve_Been_to_the_Mountaintop" title="I've Been to the Mountaintop">I've Been to the Mountaintop</a>" (1968)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Stride_Toward_Freedom" title="Stride Toward Freedom">Stride Toward Freedom</a></i> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Man%3F_(King_essay)" class="mw-redirect" title="What Is Man? (King essay)">What Is Man?</a>" (1959)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Second_Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Second Emancipation Proclamation">Second Emancipation Proclamation</a>"</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Strength_to_Love" title="Strength to Love">Strength to Love</a></i> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Letter_from_Birmingham_Jail" title="Letter from Birmingham Jail">Letter from Birmingham Jail</a>" (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Why_We_Can%27t_Wait" title="Why We Can't Wait">Why We Can't Wait</a></i> (1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Conscience_for_Change" title="Conscience for Change">Conscience for Change</a></i> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Where_Do_We_Go_from_Here:_Chaos_or_Community%3F" title="Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?">Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community?</a></i> (1967)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Movements<br />and protests</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a> (1955–1956)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Prayer_Pilgrimage_for_Freedom" title="Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom">Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom</a> (1957)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albany_Movement" title="Albany Movement">Albany Movement</a> (1961–1962)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Birmingham campaign</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a> (1963)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_movement" title="St. Augustine movement">St. Augustine movement</a> (1963–1964)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a> (1965)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/March_Against_Fear" title="March Against Fear">Mississippi March Against Fear</a> (1966)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnam_War_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Vietnam War movement">Anti-Vietnam</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Mobilization_Committee_to_End_the_War_in_Vietnam#April_15,_1967_Anti-Vietnam_war_demonstrations" title="National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam">War movement</a> (1967)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Memphis_sanitation_strike" title="Memphis sanitation strike">Memphis sanitation strike</a> (1968)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Poor_People%27s_Campaign" title="Poor People's Campaign">Poor People's Campaign</a> (1968)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_Improvement_Association" title="Montgomery Improvement Association">Montgomery Improvement Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="People26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">People</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a> (wife)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yolanda_King" title="Yolanda King">Yolanda King</a> (daughter)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_III" title="Martin Luther King III">Martin Luther King III</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dexter_King" title="Dexter King">Dexter King</a> (son)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernice_King" title="Bernice King">Bernice King</a> (daughter)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Sr." title="Martin Luther King Sr.">Martin Luther King Sr.</a> (father)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alberta_Williams_King" title="Alberta Williams King">Alberta Williams King</a> (mother)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Christine_King_Farris" title="Christine King Farris">Christine King Farris</a> (sister)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/A._D._King" title="A. D. King">A. D. King</a> (brother)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Albert_King" title="James Albert King">James Albert King</a> (grandfather)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Alveda_King" title="Alveda King">Alveda King</a> (niece)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a> (mentor, colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ella_Baker" title="Ella Baker">Ella Baker</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a> (strategist / colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Cotton" title="Dorothy Cotton">Dorothy Cotton</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a> (protégé)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mays" title="Benjamin Mays">Benjamin Mays</a> (mentor)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/James_Orange" title="James Orange">James Orange</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bayard_Rustin" title="Bayard Rustin">Bayard Rustin</a> (advisor)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Wyatt_Tee_Walker" title="Wyatt Tee Walker">Wyatt Walker</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hosea_Williams" title="Hosea Williams">Hosea Williams</a> (colleague)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a> (colleague)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Assassination26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr.">Assassination</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">Lorraine Motel</a> (now National Civil Rights Museum)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/King-assassination_riots" class="mw-redirect" title="King-assassination riots">Riots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Funeral of Martin Luther King Jr.">Funeral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Earl_Ray" title="James Earl Ray">James Earl Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Kershaw" title="Jack Kershaw">Jack Kershaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_Select_Committee_on_Assassinations" title="United States House Select Committee on Assassinations">U.S. House Select Committee on Assassinations</a> (HSCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Records_Collection_Act" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act">Martin Luther King Jr. Records Collection Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loyd_Jowers" title="Loyd Jowers">Loyd Jowers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Loyd_Jowers_trial" title="Loyd Jowers trial">Trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._assassination_conspiracy_theories" title="Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories">Conspiracy theories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Media26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Media</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Film</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/King:_A_Filmed_Record..._Montgomery_to_Memphis" title="King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis">King: A Filmed Record... Montgomery to Memphis</a></i> (1970 documentary)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Our_Friend,_Martin" title="Our Friend, Martin">Our Friend, Martin</a></i> (1999 animated)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boycott_(2001_film)" title="Boycott (2001 film)"><i>Boycott</i></a> (2001 film)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Witness:_From_the_Balcony_of_Room_306" title="The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 306">The Witness: From the Balcony of Room 306</a></i> (2008 documentary)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Selma_(film)" title="Selma (film)">Selma</a></i> (2014 film)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(2016_film)" title="All the Way (2016 film)"><i>All the Way</i></a> (2016 film)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/King_in_the_Wilderness" title="King in the Wilderness">King in the Wilderness</a></i> (2018 documentary)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/MLK/FBI" title="MLK/FBI">MLK/FBI</a></i> (2020 documentary)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Rustin_(film)" title="Rustin (film)">Rustin</a></i> (2023 film)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/King_(miniseries)" title="King (miniseries)"><i>King</i></a> (1978 miniseries)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_First_Store" title="The First Store">The First Store</a>" (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Jeffersons" title="The Jeffersons">The Jeffersons</a></i>, 1980)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"Great X-Pectations" (<i><a href="/wiki/A_Different_World" title="A Different World">A Different World</a></i>, 1993)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/The_Promised_Land_(New_York_Undercover)" title="The Promised Land (New York Undercover)">"The Promised Land"</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Undercover" title="New York Undercover">New York Undercover</a></i>, 1997)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Selma,_Lord,_Selma" title="Selma, Lord, Selma">Selma, Lord, Selma</a></i> (1999)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Return_of_the_King_(The_Boondocks)" title="Return of the King (The Boondocks)">"Return of the King"</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_Boondocks_(TV_series)" title="The Boondocks (TV series)">The Boondocks</a></i>, 2006)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Man:_The_Brotherhood_of_MLK" title="Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK">Alpha Man: The Brotherhood of MLK</a></i> (2011 documentary)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Genius_(American_TV_series)" title="Genius (American TV series)">Genius</a></i> (<i>MLK/X</i>, 2024)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Plays</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Meeting_(play)" title="The Meeting (play)">The Meeting</a></i> (1987)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/The_Mountaintop" title="The Mountaintop">The Mountaintop</a></i> (2009)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/I_Dream_(opera)" class="mw-redirect" title="I Dream (opera)">I Dream</a></i> (2010)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/All_the_Way_(play)" title="All the Way (play)">All the Way</a></i> (2012)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Stride_Toward_Freedom" title="Stride Toward Freedom">Stride Toward Freedom</a></i> (1958)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Bearing_the_Cross" title="Bearing the Cross">Bearing the Cross</a></i> (1986)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/King:_A_Life" title="King: A Life">King: A Life</a></i> (2023)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Illustrated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_and_the_Montgomery_Story" title="Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story">Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story</a></i> (1957 comic book)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Music</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Abraham,_Martin_and_John" title="Abraham, Martin and John">Abraham, Martin and John</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Dion_DiMucci" title="Dion DiMucci">Dion</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/The_Yellow_Princess_(album)#Track_listing" title="The Yellow Princess (album)">March! For Martin Luther King</a>" (<a href="/wiki/John_Fahey_(musician)" title="John Fahey (musician)">John Fahey</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Just_a_Collection_of_Antiques_and_Curios#Track_listing" title="Just a Collection of Antiques and Curios">Martin Luther King's Dream</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Strawbs" title="Strawbs">Strawbs</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Happy_Birthday_(Stevie_Wonder_song)" title="Happy Birthday (Stevie Wonder song)">Happy Birthday</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Stevie_Wonder" title="Stevie Wonder">Stevie Wonder</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Pride_(In_the_Name_of_Love)" title="Pride (In the Name of Love)">Pride (In the Name of Love)</a>" (<a href="/wiki/U2" title="U2">U2</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/MLK_(song)" title="MLK (song)">MLK</a>" (U2)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/King_Holiday" title="King Holiday">King Holiday</a>" (<a href="/wiki/King_Dream_Chorus_and_Holiday_Crew" class="mw-redirect" title="King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew">King Dream Chorus and Holiday Crew</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"By the Time I Get to Arizona" (<a href="/wiki/Public_Enemy_(band)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Enemy (band)">Public Enemy</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/New_Moon_Shine" title="New Moon Shine">Shed a Little Light</a>" (<a href="/wiki/James_Taylor" title="James Taylor">James Taylor</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/Up_to_the_Mountain_(MLK_Song)" title="Up to the Mountain (MLK Song)">Up to the Mountain</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Patti_Griffin" class="mw-redirect" title="Patti Griffin">Patti Griffin</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"Never Alone Martin" (<a href="/wiki/Jason_Upton" title="Jason Upton">Jason Upton</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"Symphony of Brotherhood" (<a href="/wiki/Miri_Ben-Ari" title="Miri Ben-Ari">Miri Ben-Ari</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schwantner:_New_Morning_for_the_World;_Nicolas_Flagello:_The_Passion_of_Martin_Luther_King" title="Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King">Joseph Schwantner: New Morning for the World; Nicolas Flagello: The Passion of Martin Luther King</a></i> (1995 album)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">"<a href="/wiki/A_Dream_(Common_song)" title="A Dream (Common song)">A Dream</a>" (<a href="/wiki/Common_(rapper)" title="Common (rapper)">Common</a> featuring <a href="/wiki/Will.i.am" title="Will.i.am">will.i.am</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Glory_(Common_and_John_Legend_song)" title="Glory (Common and John Legend song)">"Glory"</a> (Common and <a href="/wiki/John_Legend" title="John Legend">John Legend</a>)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/Estate_of_Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.,_Inc._v._CBS,_Inc." title="Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.">Estate of Martin Luther King, Jr., Inc. v. CBS, Inc.</a></i></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><i><a href="/wiki/King_v._Trustees_of_Boston_Univ." title="King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.">King v. Trustees of Boston Univ.</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Related_topics26" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Related topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Memorials and <br />eponymous locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._National_Historical_Park" title="Martin Luther King Jr. National Historical Park">National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_King_Center_(Atlanta)" class="mw-redirect" title="The King Center (Atlanta)">King Center for Nonviolent Social Change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dexter_Avenue_Baptist_Church" title="Dexter Avenue Baptist Church">Dexter Avenue Baptist Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Civil_Rights_Museum" title="National Civil Rights Museum">National Civil Rights Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(U.S._Capitol)" title="Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (U.S. Capitol)">U.S. Capitol Rotunda sculpture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bust_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Alston)" title="Bust of Martin Luther King Jr. (Alston)">Oval Office bust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homage_to_King" title="Homage to King"><i>Homage to King</i> sculpture, Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hope_Moving_Forward" title="Hope Moving Forward"><i>Hope Moving Forward</i> statue, Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_House_Black_History_Museum" title="Safe House Black History Museum">Safe House Black History Museum</a></li> <li>Statues of Martin Luther King Jr. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Atlanta)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Atlanta)">Atlanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Embrace" title="The Embrace">Boston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Denver)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Denver)">Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Houston)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Houston)">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._Memorial_(Jersey_City)" title="Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Jersey City)">Jersey City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Milwaukee)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Milwaukee)">Milwaukee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Mexico_City)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Mexico City)">Mexico City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Newark)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Newark)">Newark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._(Pueblo,_Colorado)" title="Statue of Martin Luther King Jr. (Pueblo, Colorado)">Pueblo, Colorado</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerba_Buena_Gardens#Public_art" title="Yerba Buena Gardens">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial, San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King,_Jr._Memorial_(Compton)" title="Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Compton)">Martin Luther King, Jr. Memorial (Compton)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landmark_for_Peace_Memorial" title="Landmark for Peace Memorial"><i>Landmark for Peace Memorial</i>, Indianapolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Dream_(sculpture)" title="The Dream (sculpture)"><i>The Dream</i> sculpture, Portland, Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93King_College" title="Kennedy–King College">Kennedy–King College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Memorial_Library" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library">Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Library, Washington, D.C.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr._Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Library" title="Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library">Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Library, San Jose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parc_Clichy-Batignolles_%E2%80%93_Martin_Luther_King" title="Parc Clichy-Batignolles – Martin Luther King">Paris park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memorials_to_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.">Memorials to Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_County,_Washington" title="King County, Washington">King County, Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_streets_named_after_Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="List of streets named after Martin Luther King Jr.">Eponymous streets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Martin Luther King Jr. Day">Martin Luther King Jr. Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Passage_of_Martin_Luther_King_Jr._Day" title="Passage of Martin Luther King Jr. Day">passage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Six_(activists)" title="Big Six (activists)">Big Six</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr._authorship_issues" title="Martin Luther King Jr. authorship issues">Authorship issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBI%E2%80%93King_suicide_letter" class="mw-redirect" title="FBI–King suicide letter">FBI–King suicide letter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr.,_A_Current_Analysis" title="Martin Luther King Jr., A Current Analysis">Martin Luther King Jr., A Current Analysis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpha_Phi_Alpha" title="Alpha Phi Alpha">Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Season_for_Nonviolence" title="Season for Nonviolence">Season for Nonviolence</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/America_in_the_King_Years" title="America in the King Years">America in the King Years</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_in_popular_culture" title="Civil rights movement in popular culture">Civil rights movement in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee%E2%80%93Jackson%E2%80%93King_Day" title="Lee–Jackson–King Day">Lee–Jackson–King Day</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans629" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this 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href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Black genocide in the United States">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington" title="March on Washington">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_African_diaspora" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the African diaspora">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBTQ_community" title="African-American LGBTQ community">LGBTQ community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel%27s_Rebellion#Gabriel_Prosser" title="Gabriel's Rebellion">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_Rebellion" title="Nat Turner's Rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African-American_education" title="History of African-American education">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Father_Divine#Doctrine" title="Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of Black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Freedmen" title="Cherokee Freedmen">Cherokee Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_Freedmen" title="Choctaw Freedmen">Choctaw Freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Kansas" title="African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_history_of_Nebraska" title="African-American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_(state)" title="African Americans in New York (state)">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North 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