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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C4%9Bmecko-francouzsk%C3%A9_d%C4%9Bdi%C4%8Dn%C3%A9_nep%C5%99%C3%A1telstv%C3%AD" title="Německo-francouzské dědičné nepřátelství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Německo-francouzské dědičné nepřátelství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fransk-tysk_fjendskab" title="Fransk-tysk fjendskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Fransk-tysk fjendskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsch-franz%C3%B6sische_Erbfeindschaft" title="Deutsch-französische Erbfeindschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Deutsch-französische Erbfeindschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rivalidad_franco-alemana" title="Rivalidad franco-alemana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rivalidad franco-alemana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permusuhan_Prancis-Jerman" title="Permusuhan Prancis-Jerman – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Permusuhan Prancis-Jerman" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostilit%C3%A0_franco-tedesca" title="Ostilità franco-tedesca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Ostilità franco-tedesca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%9B%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9A_%D7%94%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%9E%D7%A0%D7%99-%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%AA%D7%99" title="הסכסוך הגרמני-צרפתי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הסכסוך הגרמני-צרפתי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frans-Duitse_erfvijandigheid" title="Frans-Duitse erfvijandigheid – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Frans-Duitse erfvijandigheid" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-German_enmity" title="Franco-German enmity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Franco-German enmity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%E1%BB%91i_th%C3%B9_Ph%C3%A1p-%C4%90%E1%BB%A9c" title="Mối thù Pháp-Đức – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Mối thù Pháp-Đức" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">1500s–1940s hostile relations between Germans and French</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Au_Reviour_-_Germany_and_France.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Au_Reviour_-_Germany_and_France.jpg/270px-Au_Reviour_-_Germany_and_France.jpg" decoding="async" width="270" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Au_Reviour_-_Germany_and_France.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="322" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/John_Tenniel" title="John Tenniel">John Tenniel</a>: <i>Au Revoir!</i>, <i><a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a></i> 6 August 1881</figcaption></figure> <p><b>French–German</b> (<b>Franco-German</b>) <b>enmity</b><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Rivalité franco-allemande</i>, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Deutsch–französische Erbfeindschaft</i>) was the idea of unavoidably hostile relations and mutual <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">revanchism</a> between <a href="/wiki/Germans" title="Germans">Germans</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Austrians" title="Austrians">Austrians</a>) and <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French people</a> that arose in the 16th century and became popular with the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> of 1870–1871. It was an important factor in the <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a> (excluding <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>), <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, and ended after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, when under the influence of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> and France both became part of <a href="/wiki/NATO" title="NATO">NATO</a> and the <a href="/wiki/European_Coal_and_Steel_Community" title="European Coal and Steel Community">European Coal and Steel Community</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Supposed_origins">Supposed origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Supposed origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/French%E2%80%93German_enmity" title="Special:EditPage/French–German enmity">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The rivalry and cultural differences between <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic tribes</a> – the pre-Roman cultures that gradually evolved into <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> – were noted by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/Commentarii_de_Bello_Gallico" title="Commentarii de Bello Gallico">On The Gallic War</a></i>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carthaginians" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthaginians">Carthaginians</a> and many other cultures frequently employed Gaul tribesmen as guides and translators. The Gauls frequently raided Roman territory, most spectacularly in 390/387 BC (390 BC being the traditional and 387 BC a probable year), seizing Rome itself after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Battle of the Allia</a> and accepting a sizeable ransom for the release of the city. Gaul itself had strategic importance both because of its geographic position as well as a source of revenue, mercenaries, and slaves. </p><p>The Germanic tribes, by contrast, remained more isolated and fractious. Germany lay farther from the Roman domain and was well-protected by the strong natural barriers of the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rhine_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhine River">Rhine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Danube_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Danube River">Danube</a> rivers, and the dense forests. Therefore, the expanding Roman Empire turned its attentions to Gaul first, culminating in Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 50s BC. </p><p>Because of its closer proximity to Rome and less formidable geographic obstacles, Rome was able to consolidate its control of Gaul. For the next three centuries, until the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, Gaul was an integral part of the Roman Empire. Gaul gradually became <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanized</a>, its people adopting Roman customs and melding their own indigenous tongues with Latin to produce <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a>, which through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> evolved into <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Germania" title="Germania">Germania</a>, on the other hand, was never fully Romanized. Western Germany, known to the Romans as Germania, was not integrated into the Empire until the 1st century AD, and the Romans gave up trying to conquer and Romanize the eastern half of Germany after the disastrous <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Teutoburg_Forest" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Teutoburg Forest">Battle of Teutoburg Forest</a>. </p><p>Cultural differences between the Gauls and Germans conspired with the dramatically different extent of Romanization to establish the two cultures as distinct and discrete entities during the <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">late Roman Empire</a> and early Middle Ages. The <a href="/wiki/Franks" title="Franks">Franks</a>, themselves a Germanic tribe, abandoned much of the linguistic and cultural legacy of their Germanic forebears after having conquered Gaul and in time became distinct from other Germanic tribes closer to the Rhine and east of the Rhine. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> established in 800 by <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> achieved a transitory political unity, but the death of Charlemagne's son <a href="/wiki/Louis_the_Pious" title="Louis the Pious">Louis the Pious</a> marked its demise, as in 843 the Carolingian realm was divided into three parts by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a>. Short-lived <a href="/wiki/Middle_Francia" title="Middle Francia">Middle Francia</a>, the weak central part under Emperor <a href="/wiki/Lothair_I" title="Lothair I">Lothair I</a>, was soon split again. Its northern <a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a> part on both sides of the <a href="/wiki/Language_border" title="Language border">language border</a> became a bone of contention between the western and eastern kingdoms that developed into the modern nations of France and Germany. </p><p>France maintained a much more outward-looking geopolitical role through the Middle Ages, fighting wars against the Spanish and English that ultimately defined the nation's identity as a politically integrated and discrete unit, and occupying an important role as Europe's largest, most powerful, and most populous Christian nation. For these reasons, French gradually supplanted <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">common language</a> of international diplomacy and culture. Germany, on the other hand, remained more inward-looking. </p><p>The rapid ascent of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> in the 19th century, and after 1871 into early 20th century, the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, even without Austria, altered the balance of power between the two nations. This gave rise to an existential change in the nature of their relationship, increasingly defined by mutually hostile modern <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a>. Writers, historians and politicians in both countries tended to project their enmity backwards, regarded all history as a single, coherent and unbroken narrative of ongoing conflict, and reinterpreted the earlier history to fit into the concept of a "hereditary enmity". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France_and_the_Habsburgs">France and the Habsburgs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: France and the Habsburgs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg/220px-Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg/330px-Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg/440px-Empire-Roman-Emperor-Charles-V_02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1095" data-file-height="690" /></a><figcaption>Charles V's territories surrounding the Kingdom of France</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1477, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Habsburg" title="House of Habsburg">Habsburg</a> archduke <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I of Austria</a>, son of Emperor <a href="/wiki/Frederick_III,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor">Frederick III</a>, married <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary the Rich</a>, the only child of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundian</a> duke <a href="/wiki/Charles_the_Bold" title="Charles the Bold">Charles the Bold</a>. Frederick and Charles had arranged the marriage, shortly before the duke was killed at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nancy" title="Battle of Nancy">Battle of Nancy</a>. </p><p>His ancestors of the French <a href="/wiki/House_of_Valois-Burgundy" title="House of Valois-Burgundy">House of Valois-Burgundy</a> over the centuries had acquired a collection of territories on both sides of the border of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. It stretched from <a href="/wiki/Burgundy_(historical_region)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burgundy (historical region)">Burgundy</a> proper in the south to the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> in the north, somewhat resembling of early medieval Middle Francia. He had plans to raise Burgundian lands to the status of a kingdom (recreating the Kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Lotharingia" title="Lotharingia">Lotharingia</a>), but died at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nancy" title="Battle of Nancy">Battle of Nancy</a> (1477).<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Upon the duke's death, King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XI_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XI of France">Louis XI of France</a> attempted to seize his heritage as reverted fiefs but was defeated by Maximilian at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guinegate_(1479)" title="Battle of Guinegate (1479)">Battle of Guinegate (1479)</a>, who by the 1493 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Senlis" title="Treaty of Senlis">Treaty of Senlis</a> annexed the Burgundian territories, including <a href="/wiki/County_of_Flanders" title="County of Flanders">Flanders</a> as well as French-speaking <a href="/wiki/County_of_Artois" title="County of Artois">Artois</a> and asserted the possession of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Burgundy" title="County of Burgundy">County of Burgundy</a> (Franche-Comté).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Maximilian, <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> from 1493, was also able to marry his son <a href="/wiki/Philip_I_of_Castile" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip I of Castile">Philip the Handsome</a> to <a href="/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile" title="Joanna of Castile">Joanna of Castile</a>, heiress to both the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a>. His grandson, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a>, inherited the Low Countries and the Franche-Comté in 1506; when he by his mother also inherited <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_Spain" title="Habsburg Spain">Spain</a> in 1516, France was surrounded by Habsburg territories and felt under pressure. The resulting tension between the two powers caused a number of conflicts, such as the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a> or the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a>, until the <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a> of 1756 made them allies against Prussia. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Thirty Years War">Thirty Years War</a> (1618–1648), was a complex conflict that took place in and around the Holy Roman empire, with religious, structural, and dynastic causes. France intervened in this conflict both indirectly, largely but not exclusively, on the side of various intervening Protestant powers, as well as directly from 1635 on. The 1648 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a> gave France limited control over <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorraine</a>. The 1679 <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Nijmegen" title="Treaties of Nijmegen">Treaties of Nijmegen</a> consolidated this result by bringing the towns under French control. In 1681, France occupied <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>. </p><p>Meanwhile, the expanding Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> became a serious threat to Christian Austria. The Vatican initiated a so-called <a href="/wiki/Holy_League_(1684)" title="Holy League (1684)">Holy League</a> against the "hereditary enemy" of Christian Europe ("Erbfeind christlichen Namens"). Far from joining or supporting the common effort of Austria, Brandenburg-Prussia, the other German states and Poland, France under <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV of France</a> invaded the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands" title="Spanish Netherlands">Spanish Netherlands</a> in September 1683, a few days before the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Vienna" title="Battle of Vienna">Battle of Vienna</a>. While Austria and the other German states were occupied with the <a href="/wiki/Great_Turkish_War" title="Great Turkish War">Great Turkish War</a> (1683–1699), France initiated the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War" title="Nine Years' War">War of the Grand Alliance</a> (1688–1697). The attempt to conquer large parts of southern Germany ultimately failed, when German troops were withdrawn from the Ottoman border and moved to the region. However, following a <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> policy that caused a large public outcry at the time, French troops, under notorious General <a href="/wiki/Ez%C3%A9chiel_du_Mas,_Comte_de_M%C3%A9lac" title="Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac">Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac</a>, devastated large parts of the Palatinate, Baden and Württemberg burning down and levelling numerous cities and towns in southern Germany. </p><p>In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> and in view of the rising <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Kingdom of Prussia</a>, which had concluded the neutrality <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Prussian_alliance_(1756)#Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Prussian alliance (1756)">Treaty of Westminster</a> with the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a>, the French under King <a href="/wiki/Louis_XV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XV of France">Louis XV</a> realigned their foreign policy. The <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a> instigated by the Austrian chancellor <a href="/wiki/Wenzel_Anton,_Prince_of_Kaunitz-Rietberg" title="Wenzel Anton, Prince of Kaunitz-Rietberg">Wenzel Anton Kaunitz</a> in 1756 ended the French-Habsburg enmity. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="France_and_Prussia">France and Prussia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: France and Prussia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg/220px-Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg/330px-Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg/440px-Myrbach-Prussian_Garde_du_Corps.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1025" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>Officers of the élite <a href="/wiki/Life_Guards_(Prussia)" title="Life Guards (Prussia)">Prussian Gardes du Corps</a>, wishing to provoke the <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a>, ostentatiously sharpen their swords on the steps of the <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_France,_Berlin" title="Embassy of France, Berlin">French embassy in Berlin</a> in the autumn of 1806.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg/220px-Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg/330px-Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg/440px-Charles_Meynier_-_Entr%C3%A9e_de_Napol%C3%A9on_%C3%A0_Berlin._27_octobre_1806.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2119" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Entry_of_Napoleon_into_Berlin" title="Entry of Napoleon into Berlin">Entry of Napoleon into Berlin</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Meynier" title="Charles Meynier">Charles Meynier</a>. 1810. French troops entering <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">Battle of Jena</a> in 1806. Symbolic beginning of the Franco-German enmity.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_Revolution" title="Diplomatic Revolution">Diplomatic Revolution</a> as an alliance between France, the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russia</a> manifested in 1756 in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1756)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1756)">Treaty of Versailles</a> and the following <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> against Prussia and Great Britain. Although an overall German <a href="/wiki/Nation-state" class="mw-redirect" title="Nation-state">nation-state</a> was on the horizon, the loyalties of the German population outside of Prussia were primarily with smaller states. The French war against Prussia was justified through its role as <a href="/wiki/Guarantor_of_the_imperial_constitution" title="Guarantor of the imperial constitution">guarantor</a> of the 1648 <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Westphalia" title="Peace of Westphalia">Peace of Westphalia</a>, and France was fighting on the side of the majority of German states, including Habsburg Austria. </p><p>The civil population still regarded war as a conflict between their authorities and distinguished between troops less according to the side on which they fought than according to how they treated the local population. The personal contacts and mutual respect between French and Prussian officers did not stop entirely while they were fighting each other, and the war resulted in a great deal of cultural exchange between the French occupiers and the German population. </p><p>The perception of war began to change after the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>. The <i><a href="/wiki/Lev%C3%A9e_en_masse" title="Levée en masse">levée en masse</a></i> for the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">Revolutionary Wars</a> and the beginning formation of nation states in Europe made war increasingly a conflict between peoples rather than a conflict between authorities carried out on the backs of their subjects. </p><p>At the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Austerlitz" title="Battle of Austerlitz">battle of Austerlitz</a> (1805), <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a> put an end to the millennium-old <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> the next year. A year later, at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Jena">battle of Jena</a>, French forces crushed the Prussian armies. Within two weeks of Jena, Napoleon had conquered almost all of Prussia except the area around <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Prussian_army" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian army">Prussian army</a>, previously thought invincible, had been fought to almost the point of total liquidation. This humiliation led German philosophers (such as <a href="/wiki/Carl_von_Clausewitz" title="Carl von Clausewitz">Clausewitz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">Fichte</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Moritz_Arndt" title="Ernst Moritz Arndt">Arndt</a>...) to play an important role for the development of German nationalism. It led politicians (such as <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Friedrich_Karl_vom_und_zum_Stein" title="Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein">Stein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_August_von_Hardenberg" title="Karl August von Hardenberg">Hardenberg</a>) to <a href="/wiki/Prussian_reforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Prussian reforms">reform Prussia</a> in order to adapt their country to the new world brought about by the French Revolution. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Continental_System" title="Continental System">Continental System</a> led Napoleon to directly incorporate German-speaking areas such as <a href="/wiki/Hamburg" title="Hamburg">Hamburg</a> into his <a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First French Empire</a>. Napoleon reshaped the map of Germany by the creation of the <a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_the_Rhine" title="Confederation of the Rhine">Confederation of the Rhine</a>, which included vassal States ruled directly by members of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Bonaparte" title="House of Bonaparte">Bonaparte family</a> (such as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Westphalia" title="Kingdom of Westphalia">Kingdom of Westphalia</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Berg" title="Grand Duchy of Berg">Grand Duchy of Berg</a>) and allied States who took advantage of the French protectorate to increase their territory and power (such as the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bavaria" title="Kingdom of Bavaria">Kingdom of Bavaria</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Saxony" title="Kingdom of Saxony">Kingdom of Saxony</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>, often fought in Germany and with Germans on both sides, as in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of the Nations</a> at <a href="/wiki/Leipzig" title="Leipzig">Leipzig</a>, also marked the beginning of what was explicitly called <i>French–German hereditary enmity</i>. Modern German nationalism was born in opposition to French domination under Napoleon. In the recasting of the map of Europe after Napoleon's defeat, most of the German-speaking territories in the Rhineland adjoining France were put under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> and the remainder were ruled by <a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Hesse" title="Grand Duchy of Hesse">Grand Duchy of Hesse</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_century">19th century</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 19th century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/International_relations_of_the_Great_Powers_(1814%E2%80%931919)" class="mw-redirect" title="International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)">International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_(3._Fassung_1885).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/220px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/330px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg/440px-A_v_Werner_-_Kaiserproklamation_am_18_Januar_1871_%283._Fassung_1885%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1482" data-file-height="1097" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_German_Empire" title="Proclamation of the German Empire">Proclamation of the German Empire</a> in Versailles' <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mirrors" title="Hall of Mirrors">Hall of Mirrors</a></figcaption></figure> <p>During the first half of the 19th century, many Germans looked forward to a unification of most or all of the German states, but most German leaders and the foreign powers were opposed to it. The German nationalist movement believed that a united Germany (even without Austria) would replace France as the dominant land power in Western Europe. This argument was aided by demographic changes: since the Middle Ages, France had had the largest population in Western Europe, but in the 19th century, its population stagnated (a trend that continued until the second half of the 20th century), and the population of the German states overtook it and continued to rapidly increase. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Franco-Prussian_War">Franco-Prussian War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Franco-Prussian War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/220px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/330px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg/440px-The_Geography_Lesson_or_%22The_Black_Spot%22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="11506" data-file-height="8400" /></a><figcaption>An 1887 painting depicting French boys taught not to forget the lost provinces of Alsace and Lorraine.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Germany" title="Unification of Germany">unification of Germany</a>, excluding Austria, was triggered by the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> in 1870 and the French defeat. The forces of Prussian and the other German states (excluding Austria) crushed the French armies at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sedan" title="Battle of Sedan">Battle of Sedan</a>. Finally, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt</a>, reached after a lengthy <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Paris_(1870%E2%80%931871)" title="Siege of Paris (1870–1871)">siege of Paris</a> forced France to cede the <a href="/wiki/Alsace-Lorraine" class="mw-redirect" title="Alsace-Lorraine">Alsace-Lorraine</a> territory (consisting of most of <a href="/wiki/Alsace" title="Alsace">Alsace</a> and a quarter of <a href="/wiki/Lorraine_(province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorraine (province)">Lorraine</a>), of which most of the inhabitants spoke German dialects. France had to pay an indemnity of five billion <a href="/wiki/French_franc" title="French franc">francs</a> to the newly declared <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>. Thereafter, the German Empire had replaced France as the leading land power. Under <a href="/wiki/Otto_von_Bismarck" title="Otto von Bismarck">Otto von Bismarck</a> Germany was content--it had all it wanted so that its main goal was peace and stability. However, when it appeared Germany would decisively win in late 1870, German public opinion demanded it to humiliate France; the German Army favoured annexation to create more defensible frontiers. Bismarck reluctantly gave in--the French would never forget or forgive, he mistakenly calculated, so he might as well take the provinces. Germany's foreign policy fell into a trap with no exit. The only policy that made sense was trying to isolate France so it had no strong allies. However France complicated Berlin's plans when it became friends with Russia. In 1905 a German plan for an alliance with Russia fell through because Russia was too close to France.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_19th_and_early_20th_centuries">Late 19th and early 20th centuries</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late 19th and early 20th centuries"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immigrant_tensions">Immigrant tensions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Immigrant tensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the late 19th century and early 20th century, resentment existed between many nearby populations of <a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">German Americans</a>, reflecting <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_tensions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic tensions">ethnic tensions</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">European continent</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_World_Wars">The World Wars</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The World Wars"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maurice_Neumont,_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia,_1917,_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/220px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/330px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg/440px-Maurice_Neumont%2C_War_is_the_National_Industry_of_Prussia%2C_1917%2C_Cornell_CUL_PJM_1185_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3785" data-file-height="2985" /></a><figcaption>A French propaganda poster from 1917 portrays Prussia as an octopus stretching out its tentacles vying for control. It is captioned with an 18th-century quote: "Even in 1788, Mirabeau was saying that War is the National Industry of Prussia."</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg/220px-William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg/330px-William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg/440px-William_Orpen_-_The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2271" data-file-height="2720" /></a><figcaption>The signing of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Hall_of_Mirrors" title="Hall of Mirrors">Hall of Mirrors</a>, 28 June 1919.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293,_Frankreich,_Lille,_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_183-S30293%2C_Frankreich%2C_Lille%2C_Milit%C3%A4rparade.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="522" /></a><figcaption>German troops conducting a military parade at Republic Square, <a href="/wiki/Lille" title="Lille">Lille</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>, 1915.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810,_Koblenz,_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-08810%2C_Koblenz%2C_Franz%C3%B6sische_Soldaten_am_Deutsche_Eck.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="550" /></a><figcaption>French troops observing the Rhine at <a href="/wiki/Deutsches_Eck" title="Deutsches Eck">Deutsches Eck</a>, <a href="/wiki/Koblenz" title="Koblenz">Koblenz</a>, during the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Occupation of the Rhineland">Occupation of the Rhineland</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg/220px-German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg/330px-German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg/440px-German_soldiers_before_Arc_du_Carrousel_1940.jpg 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>German <a href="/wiki/Wehrmacht" title="Wehrmacht">Wehrmacht</a> soldiers in front of the <a href="/wiki/Arc_de_Triomphe_du_Carrousel" title="Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel">Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel</a>, occupied Paris, 1940</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg/220px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg/330px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg/440px-Fotothek_df_pk_0000178_036.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Forces_Fran%C3%A7aises_%C3%A0_Berlin" class="mw-redirect" title="Forces Françaises à Berlin">French occupation forces</a> parading in front of Berlin's <a href="/wiki/Reichstag_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reichstag (building)">Reichstag</a> at the end of World War II.</figcaption></figure> <p>The desire for revenge (<i>esprit de revanche</i>) against Germany, and demands for the recovery of the "lost provinces" of Alsace and Lorraine was often heard in the 1870s. The short-term French reaction after 1871 was <a href="/wiki/Revanchism" title="Revanchism">Revanchism</a>: a sense of bitterness, hatred and demand for revenge against Germany, and demand for the return of the two lost provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Paintings that emphasized the humiliation of the defeat came in high demand, such as those by <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_de_Neuville" title="Alphonse de Neuville">Alphonse de Neuville</a>. <sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However elite French opinion changed after about five years. The elites were now calm and considered it a minor issue.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Alsace-Lorraine issue was a minor theme after 1880, and Republicans and Socialists systematically downplayed the issue. J.F.V. Keiger says, "By the 1880s Franco-German relations were relatively good."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Return didn't become a French war aim until after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> began. <sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Allied victory in 1918 saw France seize back Alsace-Lorraine and briefly resume its old position as the leading land power on the European continent. France was the leading proponent of harsh peace terms against Germany at the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a>. As the war had been fought mostly on French soil, it had destroyed much of the infrastructure and industry in Northern France, and France had suffered the highest number of casualties proportionate to population. Much of French opinion wanted the Rhineland; the section of Germany west of the Rhine and adjoining France's northeastern boundary, and the old focus of French ambition, to be detached from Germany as an independent country. In the end, the Americans and the British forced them to settle for a promise that the Rhineland would be demilitarized, and that heavy German reparation payments would be levied.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On the remote eastern end of the German Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Memel_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="Memel territory">Memel territory</a> was separated from the rest of <a href="/wiki/East_Prussia" title="East Prussia">East Prussia</a> and occupied by France before being annexed by <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a>. <a href="/wiki/First_Austrian_Republic" title="First Austrian Republic">Austria</a>, which had been reduced to roughly its German-speaking areas, excluding the Sudetenland (the mostly German-inhabited areas of the Czech lands) and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tyrol" title="County of Tyrol">South Tyrol</a>, was forbidden to re-join its former fellow states of the Holy Roman Empire by joining Germany. In response to the German failure to pay reparations under the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> in 1923, France returned with the <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">Occupation of the Ruhr</a> area of Germany, the center of German coal and steel production, until 1925. Also, the French-dominated <a href="/wiki/International_Olympic_Committee" title="International Olympic Committee">International Olympic Committee</a> banned Germany from the <a href="/wiki/Olympic_Games" title="Olympic Games">Olympic Games</a> of 1920 and 1924, which illustrates the French desire to isolate Germany. </p><p>Under terms of Versailles, the French Army had the right to occupy the Rhineland until 1935, but in fact the French withdrew from the Rhineland in June 1930. As a number of the units the French stationed in the Rhineland between December 1918 - June 1930 were recruited from France's African colonies, this promoted a violent campaign against the so-called "<a href="/wiki/Black_Horror_on_the_Rhine" title="Black Horror on the Rhine">Black Horror on the Rhine</a>" as the German government and various grass-roots German groups claimed that the Senegalese units in the French Army were raping white German women on an industrial scale.<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Numerous German authors likened that France, the "hereditary enemy on the Rhine" had deliberately unleashed the Senegalese-who were always portrayed as animals or malicious children -- to rape German women.<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the words of the American historian Daniel Becker, the campaign against the "Black Horror on the Rhine" centered "tales of sexual violence against German, bourgeois, white women that often bordered on the pornographic" and the campaign against the "Black Horror" by various German authors and associated international sympathizers "unleashed a rhetoric of violence, and radical nationalism that, as some scholars have argued, laid the groundwork for widespread support for the various racial projects of the Nazi regime."<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the campaign against the "Black Horror on the Rhine" served to strengthen the demand for Germany to become the <i>Volksgemeinschaft</i> (People's Community") because only by becoming united in the <i>Volksgemeinschaft</i> could Germany again become strong enough to crush France and end the "Black Horror".<sup id="cite_ref-Becker_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Becker-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the UK and the US did not favor these policies, which were seen as too pro-French. Germany soon recovered economically and then from 1933, under <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, began to pursue an aggressive policy in Europe. Meanwhile, France in the 1930s was tired, politically divided, and above all dreaded another war, which the French feared would again be fought on their soil for the third time, and again destroy a large percentage of their young men. France's stagnant population meant that it would find it difficult to withhold the sheer force of numbers of a German invasion; it was estimated Germany could put two men of fighting age in the field for every French soldier. Thus in the 1930s the French, with their British allies, pursued a policy of appeasement of Germany, failing to respond to the remilitarization of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>, although this put the German army on a larger stretch of the French border. </p><p>Finally, however, Hitler pushed France and Britain too far, and they jointly declared war when Germany invaded Poland in September 1939. But France remained exhausted and in no mood for a rerun of 1914–18. There was little enthusiasm and much dread in France at the prospect of actual warfare. After the <a href="/wiki/Phoney_War" title="Phoney War">Phoney War</a> when the Germans launched their <a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">blitzkrieg</a> invasion of France in 1940, the French Army crumbled within weeks, and with Britain retreating, an atmosphere of humiliation and defeat swept France. </p><p>A new government under Marshal <a href="/wiki/Philippe_P%C3%A9tain" title="Philippe Pétain">Philippe Pétain</a> called for an armistice, and German forces occupied most of the country. A minority of the French forces escaped abroad and continued the fight under General <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> (the "Free French" or the "Fighting French"). On the other hand, the <a href="/wiki/French_Resistance" title="French Resistance">French Resistance</a> conducted sabotage operations inside German-occupied France. To support the <a href="/wiki/Invasion_of_Normandy" class="mw-redirect" title="Invasion of Normandy">invasion of Normandy</a> of 1944, various groups increased their sabotage and guerrilla attacks; organizations such as <a href="/wiki/Maquis_(World_War_II)" title="Maquis (World War II)">the Maquis</a> derailed trains, blew up ammunition depots, and ambushed Germans, for instance at <a href="/wiki/Tulle" title="Tulle">Tulle</a>. The <a href="/wiki/2nd_SS_Panzer_Division_Das_Reich" title="2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich">2nd SS Panzer Division <i>Das Reich</i></a> came under constant attack and sabotage on their way across the country to Normandy, suspected the village of <a href="/wiki/Oradour-sur-Glane" title="Oradour-sur-Glane">Oradour-sur-Glane</a> of harboring terrorists, arms and explosives, and wiped out the population in retaliation. </p><p>There was also a free French army fighting with the Allies, numbering almost 500,000 men by June 1944, 1,000,000 by December and 1,300,000 by the end of the war. By the war's end, the French army occupied south-western Germany and a part of Austria. French troops under the command of General <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Lattre_de_Tassigny" title="Jean de Lattre de Tassigny">Jean de Lattre de Tassigny</a> destroyed and looted the town of <a href="/wiki/Freudenstadt" title="Freudenstadt">Freudenstadt</a> in the southern <a href="/wiki/Schwarzwald" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwarzwald">Blackforest</a> (Schwarzwald) region for 3 days and perpetrated at least 600 rapes of German women of all ages there. Also various killings of civilians are recorded there. Mass rapes committed by French troops were also reported in the cities of <a href="/wiki/Pforzheim" title="Pforzheim">Pforzheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stuttgart" title="Stuttgart">Stuttgart</a>, <a href="/wiki/Magstadt" title="Magstadt">Magstadt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reutlingen" title="Reutlingen">Reutlingen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stephenson_2006,_289_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stephenson_2006,_289-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Allied forces liberated Normandy and Provence in August 1944, a victorious rebellion emerged in occupied Paris and national rejoicing broke out, as did a maelstrom of hatred directed at French people who had collaborated with the Germans. Some Germans taken as prisoners were killed by the resistance.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-war_relations">Post-war relations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Post-war relations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002,_K%C3%B6ln,_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle,_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg/170px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg/255px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg/340px-Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F011021-0002%2C_K%C3%B6ln%2C_Staatsbesuch_de_Gaulle%2C_Begr%C3%BC%C3%9Fung_Adenauer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="564" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a> in 1961</figcaption></figure> <p>There was debate among the other Allies as to whether France should share in the occupation of the defeated Germany because of fears that the long Franco-German rivalry might interfere with the rebuilding of Germany. Ultimately the French were allowed to participate and from 1945 to 1955, French troops were stationed in the Rhineland, <a href="/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Baden-Württemberg">Baden-Württemberg</a>, and part of <a href="/wiki/Berlin" title="Berlin">Berlin</a>, and these areas were put under a French military governor. The <a href="/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a> was allowed to rejoin West Germany only in 1957. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kehl" title="Kehl">Kehl</a> was turned into a suburb of <a href="/wiki/Strasbourg" title="Strasbourg">Strasbourg</a>. After the war, all citizens were expelled from Kehl. This state of affairs continued until 1953, when the city was returned to the <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">Federal Republic of Germany</a> and the refugees returned. </p><p>In the 1950s, the French and West Germans launched a new period of <a href="/wiki/Franco-German_cooperation" class="mw-redirect" title="Franco-German cooperation">Franco-German cooperation</a> that led to the formation of the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>. Since then, France and Germany (<a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a> between 1949 and 1990) have generally cooperated in the running of the European Union and often in foreign-policy matters in general. For example, they jointly opposed the <a href="/wiki/2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">US invasion of Iraq</a> in 2003, leading <a href="/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_Defense" title="United States Secretary of Defense">US Secretary of Defense</a> <a href="/wiki/Donald_Rumsfeld" title="Donald Rumsfeld">Donald Rumsfeld</a> to lump them together as "<a href="/wiki/Old_Europe_and_New_Europe" title="Old Europe and New Europe">Old Europe</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>843: <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Verdun" title="Treaty of Verdun">Treaty of Verdun</a>: division of the Holy Roman Empire of Charlemagne into a Western Franconia realm (foundation of France), a central realm (Lorraine), and an Eastern Franconia realm (foundation of Germany).</li> <li>1214: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bouvines" title="Battle of Bouvines">Battle of Bouvines</a></li> <li>1250–1300: <a href="/wiki/Philip_IV_of_France" title="Philip IV of France">Philip IV of France</a>'s offensive territorial policy against the Holy Roman Empire</li> <li>1477: After the death of <a href="/wiki/Charles_I,_Duke_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles I, Duke of Burgundy">Charles I, Duke of Burgundy</a>, the territory of the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> was annexed by <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. In the same year, Charles' daughter <a href="/wiki/Mary_of_Burgundy" title="Mary of Burgundy">Mary of Burgundy</a> married <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Archduke Maximilian of Austria</a>, giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance. Although the <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> itself remained in the hands of France, the Habsburgs remained in control of the other parts of the Burgundian inheritance, notably the <a href="/wiki/Low_Countries" title="Low Countries">Low Countries</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Free_County_of_Burgundy" class="mw-redirect" title="Free County of Burgundy">Free County of Burgundy</a>. <ul><li>1477–82: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Burgundian_Succession" title="War of the Burgundian Succession">War of the Burgundian Succession</a></li></ul></li> <li>1485-1488: Habsburg supported the <a href="/wiki/Mad_War" title="Mad War">Mad War</a>.</li> <li>1513: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Spurs" title="Battle of the Spurs">Battle of the Spurs</a></li> <li>1618–48: <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li>1667–68: <a href="/wiki/War_of_Devolution" title="War of Devolution">War of Devolution</a></li> <li>1672–78: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Dutch_War" title="Franco-Dutch War">Franco-Dutch War</a> between the Netherlands and France expands to a European conflict in 1673–74</li> <li>1683–84: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Reunions" title="War of the Reunions">War of the Reunions</a></li> <li>1688: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Grand_Alliance" class="mw-redirect" title="War of the Grand Alliance">War of the Grand Alliance</a></li> <li>1688–1702 <a href="/wiki/Ez%C3%A9chiel_du_Mas,_Comte_de_M%C3%A9lac" title="Ezéchiel du Mas, Comte de Mélac">Esechiel du Mas, Comte de Melac</a> pursues a policy of death and destruction in SW <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> "Brûlez le Palatinat", countless cities, towns and villages were reduced to ashes</li> <li>1701–14: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Spanish_Succession" title="War of the Spanish Succession">War of the Spanish Succession</a> between the Houses of Bourbon and Habsburg</li> <li>1718: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Quadruple_Alliance" title="War of the Quadruple Alliance">War of the Quadruple Alliance</a></li> <li>1733–35: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Polish_Succession" title="War of the Polish Succession">War of the Polish Succession</a> between the Houses of Bourbon and Habsburg</li> <li>1740–48: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Austrian_Succession" title="War of the Austrian Succession">War of the Austrian Succession</a> → main antagonists: France and Great Britain</li> <li>1754 and 1756–63: <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> → Prussia, Great Britain, and Hannover against France, Austria, the Russian Empire, Sweden, and Saxony</li> <li>1775–83: <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li>1792–1815: <a href="/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Wars" title="French Revolutionary Wars">French Revolutionary Wars</a></li> <li>1792–97: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_First_Coalition" title="War of the First Coalition">War of the First Coalition</a>: Prussia and Austria, since 1793 also Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Naples, and Tuscany against French Republic. French occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Rhineland" title="Rhineland">Rhineland</a>.</li> <li>1794: Holy Roman Empire and France, French occupation of Austrian Netherlands (1795–1806 <a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a>)</li> <li>1799–1815: <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li>1803–06: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Third_Coalition" title="War of the Third Coalition">War of the Third Coalition</a>: France closes out the Holy Roman Empire.</li> <li>1806–07: <a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Fourth_Coalition" title="War of the Fourth Coalition">War of the Fourth Coalition</a>: Prussia, <a href="/wiki/Electorate_of_Saxony" title="Electorate of Saxony">Electorate of Saxony</a>, Saxony-Weimar, and Brunswick against the French Empire. All Franco-Prussian battles were French victories of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I">Napoleon I</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jena%E2%80%93Auerstedt" title="Battle of Jena–Auerstedt">Battle of Jena–Auerstedt</a>) ensuing this was the occupation of Prussia per the <a href="/wiki/Treaties_of_Tilsit" title="Treaties of Tilsit">Treaties of Tilsit</a>. Prussia was conquered by France in only 19 days.</li> <li>1813: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Leipzig" title="Battle of Leipzig">Battle of the Nations</a></li> <li>1840: <a href="/wiki/Rhine_crisis" title="Rhine crisis">Rhine crisis</a>: Rhine was a historic object of frontier trouble, between France and Germany; in 1840, the Rhine crisis evolved, because the French prime minister, Adolphe Thiers, started to talk about the Rhine border.</li> <li>1848: <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a> grip the German states after French liberalism becomes popular with German peasants.</li> <li>1870–71: <a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a>. The defeat of Napoleon III led to the unification of Germany, excluding Austria, in the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a> under Prussian leadership.</li> <li>1914–18: <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, mostly fought in trenches in France</li> <li>1923–30: French <a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">Occupation of the Ruhr</a>.</li> <li>1939–40: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a>. Victory of Hitler over the Allies (France, Great Britain <i>et al</i>). France was conquered by Germany in only 1 month and 12 days.</li> <li>1940–42: <a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_France_during_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="German occupation of France during World War II">North part of metropolitan France is occupied by Germany</a> per the <a href="/wiki/Second_Armistice_at_Compi%C3%A8gne" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Armistice at Compiègne">Second Armistice at Compiègne</a>.</li> <li>1942–44: Following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Torch" title="Operation Torch">Anglo-American landing in French North Africa</a>, the south part of France is occupied by Germany.</li> <li>1944–45: Following the <a href="/wiki/Operation_Overlord" title="Operation Overlord">Allies landing in Normandy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Operation_Dragoon" title="Operation Dragoon">Provence</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> forces), a Vichy French exile government is created in western Germany, the <a href="/wiki/Sigmaringen_enclave" title="Sigmaringen enclave">Sigmaringen enclave</a>.</li> <li>1945: The defeat of Germany during World War II led to the French occupation of parts of western Germany (and <a href="/wiki/West_Berlin" title="West Berlin">Berlin</a>)</li> <li>1963: <a href="/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Treaty" title="Élysée Treaty">Élysée Treaty</a> of friendship between <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Germany" title="West Germany">West Germany</a>, signed by <a href="/wiki/President_of_France" title="President of France">President</a> <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chancellor_of_Germany" title="Chancellor of Germany">Chancellor</a> <a href="/wiki/Konrad_Adenauer" title="Konrad Adenauer">Konrad Adenauer</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_relations" title="France–Germany relations">France–Germany relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1814%E2%80%931919)" title="International relations (1814–1919)">International relations (1814–1919)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French%E2%80%93Habsburg_rivalry" title="French–Habsburg rivalry">French–Habsburg rivalry</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julius Weis Friend: <i>The Linchpin: French–German Relations, 1950–1990</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fg-Vcjjyg7kC&pg=PA8">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFDrees2001" class="citation book cs1">Drees, Clayton J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8jDfydG6ReAC&pg=PA95"><i>The Late Medieval Age of Crisis and Renewal, 1300-1500: A Biographical Dictionary</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 95. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30588-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30588-7"><bdi>978-0-313-30588-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Late+Medieval+Age+of+Crisis+and+Renewal%2C+1300-1500%3A+A+Biographical+Dictionary&rft.pages=95&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30588-7&rft.aulast=Drees&rft.aufirst=Clayton+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8jDfydG6ReAC%26pg%3DPA95&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeller2006" class="citation book cs1">Beller, Steven (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0DT7eLFsw2AC&pg=PA40"><i>A Concise History of Austria</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47886-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-47886-1"><bdi>978-0-521-47886-1</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+Austria&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-521-47886-1&rft.aulast=Beller&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0DT7eLFsw2AC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGunnGrummittCools2007" class="citation book cs1">Gunn, Steven; Grummitt, David; Cools, Hans (15 November 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KQtREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA12"><i>War, State, and Society in England and the Netherlands 1477-1559</i></a>. OUP Oxford. p. 12. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152588-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-152588-9"><bdi>978-0-19-152588-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War%2C+State%2C+and+Society+in+England+and+the+Netherlands+1477-1559&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=OUP+Oxford&rft.date=2007-11-15&rft.isbn=978-0-19-152588-9&rft.aulast=Gunn&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Grummitt%2C+David&rft.au=Cools%2C+Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKQtREAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Girard" title="René Girard">René Girard</a>, Achever Clausewitz, Carnets Nord, Paris, 2007</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John Keiger, <i>France and the World since 1870</i> (2001) pp 111-117.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Andrews_(historian)" title="Thomas G. Andrews (historian)">Andrews, Thomas G.</a> (2008). <i>Killing for Coal: America's Deadliest Labor War</i>. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Harvard_University_Press" title="Harvard University Press">Harvard University Press</a>. p. 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03101-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03101-2"><bdi>978-0-674-03101-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Killing+for+Coal%3A+America%27s+Deadliest+Labor+War&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=89&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03101-2&rft.aulast=Andrews&rft.aufirst=Thomas+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karine Varley, "The Taboos of Defeat: Unmentionable Memories of the Franco-Prussian War in France, 1870–1914." in Jenny Macleod, ed., <i>Defeat and Memory: Cultural Histories of Military Defeat in the Modern Era</i> (Palgrave Macmillan, 2008) pp. 62-80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karine Varley, <i>Under the Shadow of Defeat: The War of 1870-71 in French Memory</i> (2008) </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert Jay, "Alphonse de Neuville's 'The Spy' and the Legacy of the Franco-Prussian War," <i>Metropolitan Museum Journal</i> (1984) 19: pp. 151-162 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1512817">in JSTOR</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllan_Mitchell2018" class="citation book cs1">Allan Mitchell (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gQZfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT190"><i>The German Influence in France after 1870: The Formation of the French Republic</i></a>. UNC Press Books. p. 190. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469622927" title="Special:BookSources/9781469622927"><bdi>9781469622927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+German+Influence+in+France+after+1870%3A+The+Formation+of+the+French+Republic&rft.pages=190&rft.pub=UNC+Press+Books&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781469622927&rft.au=Allan+Mitchell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgQZfDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT190&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> J.F.V. Keiger, <i>France and the World since 1870</i> (2001) pp 112–120, quoting p 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederic H. Seager, "The Alsace-Lorraine Question in France, 1871-1914." <i>From the Ancien Régime to the Popular Front: Essays in the History of Modern France</i> edited by Charles K. Warner, (1969): 111-26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E. Malcolm Carroll, <i>French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1870-1914</i> (1931) pp 47-48.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sally Marks, "Mistakes and Myths: The Allies, Germany, and the Versailles Treaty, 1918–1921." <i>Journal of Modern History;; 85.3 (2013): 632-659 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/670825">online</a>. </i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Becker-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Becker_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Becker_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Becker_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Becker_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBecker2009" class="citation web cs1">Becker, Daniel (September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=25519">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>"Black Horror" and the "White Race"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>H-net</i>. H-Net Reviews<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 May</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H-net&rft.atitle=%22Black+Horror%22+and+the+%22White+Race%22&rft.date=2009-09&rft.aulast=Becker&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.h-net.org%2Freviews%2Fshowrev.php%3Fid%3D25519&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBiddiscombe2001" class="citation journal cs1">Biddiscombe, Perry (2001). "Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the U.S. Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Social_History" title="Journal of Social History">Journal of Social History</a></i>. <b>34</b> (3): 635. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjsh.2001.0002">10.1353/jsh.2001.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3789820">3789820</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145470893">145470893</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Social+History&rft.atitle=Dangerous+Liaisons%3A+The+Anti-Fraternization+Movement+in+the+U.S.+Occupation+Zones+of+Germany+and+Austria%2C+1945%E2%80%931948&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=635&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145470893%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3789820%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjsh.2001.0002&rft.aulast=Biddiscombe&rft.aufirst=Perry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stephenson_2006,_289-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stephenson_2006,_289_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephenson, Jill (2006) <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rn6rr3bjG3EC">Hitler's Home Front: Württemberg under the Nazis</a></i> London: Continuum. p. 289. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-442-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-442-1">1-85285-442-1</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"[Chaos, Angst und leise Hoffnung. Kriegsende und französische Besatzung, in: Cornelia Kaiser, Ingrid Katz, Zwischen Hunger und Hoffnung. Nachkriegsalltag in Leonberg, Leonberg 1998, S. 7–12]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClayton1988" class="citation book cs1">Clayton, Anthony (1988). <i>France, Soldiers, and Africa</i>. Brassey's Defence Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0080347486" title="Special:BookSources/978-0080347486"><bdi>978-0080347486</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=France%2C+Soldiers%2C+and+Africa&rft.pub=Brassey%27s+Defence+Publishers&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0080347486&rft.aulast=Clayton&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNaimark1995" class="citation book cs1">Naimark, Norman M. (1995). <i>The Russians in Germany; A History of the Soviet Zone of occupation, 1945-1949</i>. Harvard University Press. pp. 106–107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-78406-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-78406-5"><bdi>0-674-78406-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russians+in+Germany%3B+A+History+of+the+Soviet+Zone+of+occupation%2C+1945-1949&rft.pages=106-107&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-674-78406-5&rft.aulast=Naimark&rft.aufirst=Norman+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanielKrumeich2006" class="citation cs2">Daniel, Ute; Krumeich, Gerd; et al. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.digibib.tu-bs.de/?docid=00001699"><i>Frankreich und Deutschland im Krieg (18.-20. Jahrhundert) : Zur Kulturgeschichte der europäischen "Erbfeindschaft"</i></a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.24355%2Fdbbs.084-200603150100-35">10.24355/dbbs.084-200603150100-35</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Frankreich+und+Deutschland+im+Krieg+%2818.-20.+Jahrhundert%29+%3A+Zur+Kulturgeschichte+der+europ%C3%A4ischen+%22Erbfeindschaft%22&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24355%2Fdbbs.084-200603150100-35&rft.aulast=Daniel&rft.aufirst=Ute&rft.au=Krumeich%2C+Gerd&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.digibib.tu-bs.de%2F%3Fdocid%3D00001699&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFrench%E2%80%93German+enmity" class="Z3988"></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_relations#Further_reading" title="France–Germany relations">France–Germany relations § Further reading</a></div> <ul><li>Albrecht-Carrié, René. <i>A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna</i> (1958), 736pp; basic survey</li> <li>Carroll, E. Malcolm. <i>French Public Opinion and Foreign Affairs: 1870-1914</i> (1931) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/frenchpublicopin0000carr_u2j4">online</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Clark_(historian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chris Clark (historian)">Clark, Christopher</a>. <i>The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went to War in 1914</i> (2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/The-Sleepwalkers-Europe-Went-1914/dp/006114665X/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li>Langer, William. <i>An Encyclopedia of World History</i> (5th ed. 1973); highly detailed outline of events</li> <li>MacMillan, Margaret. <i>The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914</i> (2013)</li> <li>Rich, Norman. <i>Great Power Diplomacy: 1814-1914</i> (1991), comprehensive survey</li> <li>Scheck, Raffael. “Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945” (2008) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colby.edu/personal/r/rmscheck/Contents.html">full text online</a>, a brief textbook by a leading scholar</li> <li>Steiner, Zara. <i>The Triumph of the Dark: European International History, 1933–1939</i> (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2011) 1236pp</li> <li>Taylor, A.J.P. <i>The Struggle for Mastery in Europe 1848–1918</i> (1954) 638pp; advanced history and analysis of major diplomacy</li> <li>Wetzel, David. <i>A Duel of Giants: Bismarck, Napoleon III, and the Origins of the Franco-Prussian War</i> (2003)</li> <li>Young, Robert <i>France and the Origins of the Second World War</i> (1996)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=French%E2%80%93German_enmity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cvce.eu/collections/unit-content/-/unit/02bb76df-d066-4c08-a58a-d4686a3e68ff/4761235b-a793-484a-80e2-b824093fa0e7/Resources">Aide-mémoire concerning the separation of Germany’s industrial regions</a> (8 September 1945) Franco-German relations. CVCE.eu</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/saar.htm">France, Germany and the Struggle for the War-making Natural Resources of the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CE7D8133CF934A25751C0A967958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=print">French–German enmity</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/New_York_Times" class="mw-redirect" title="New York Times">New York Times</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ji.lviv.ua/n12texts/fassler-ger.htm">Fäßler, Peter: <i>Der Rhein, Deutschlands Strom, nicht seine Grenze</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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/></a></span></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomatic posts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_France,_Berlin" title="Embassy of France, Berlin">Embassy of France, Berlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_France_to_Germany" title="List of ambassadors of France to Germany">Ambassadors of France to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Germany,_Paris" title="Embassy of Germany, Paris">Embassy of Germany, Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ambassadors_of_Germany_to_France" title="List of ambassadors of Germany to France">Ambassadors of Germany to France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Triple_Intervention" title="Triple Intervention">Triple Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morocco%E2%80%93Congo_Treaty" title="Morocco–Congo Treaty">Morocco–Congo Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schuman_Declaration" title="Schuman Declaration">Schuman Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilateral_Compensation_Agreements_for_Victims_of_the_Nazi_Regime" title="Bilateral Compensation Agreements for Victims of the Nazi Regime">Bilateral Compensation Agreements for Victims of the Nazi Regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lys%C3%A9e_Treaty" title="Élysée Treaty">Élysée Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saar_statute" title="Saar statute">Saar statute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saar_Treaty" title="Saar Treaty">Saar Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe_Conference" title="Guadeloupe Conference">Guadeloupe Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Final_Settlement_with_Respect_to_Germany" title="Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany">Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/April_2009_raid_off_Somalia" title="April 2009 raid off Somalia">April 2009 raid off Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aachen_Treaty" title="Aachen Treaty">Aachen Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-German_Ministerial_Council" title="Franco-German Ministerial Council">Franco-German Ministerial Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco-German_Parliamentary_Assembly" title="Franco-German Parliamentary Assembly">Franco-German Parliamentary Assembly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Triangle" title="Weimar Triangle">Weimar Triangle</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Conflicts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Franco-Prussian_War" title="Franco-Prussian War">Franco-Prussian War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_the_Franco-Prussian_War" title="Causes of the Franco-Prussian War">Causes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Die_Wacht_am_Rhein" title="Die Wacht am Rhein">Die Wacht am Rhein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Frankfurt_(1871)" title="Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)">Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles_(1871)" title="Treaty of Versailles (1871)">Treaty of Versailles (1871)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_occupation_of_north-east_France_during_World_War_I" title="German occupation of north-east France during World War I">German occupation of north-east France during World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Occupation of the Rhineland">Occupation of the Rhineland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_the_Ruhr" title="Occupation of the Ruhr">Occupation of the Ruhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Horror_on_the_Rhine" title="Black Horror on the Rhine">Black Horror on the Rhine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/French_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="French declaration of war on Germany (1939)">French declaration of war on Germany (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_declaration_of_war_on_Germany_(1939)" title="United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)">United Kingdom declaration of war on Germany (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_France" title="Battle of France">Battle of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_22_June_1940" title="Armistice of 22 June 1940">Armistice of 22 June 1940</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_military_administration_in_occupied_France_during_World_War_II" title="German military administration in occupied France during World War II">German military administration in occupied France during World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Administration_in_Belgium_and_Northern_France" title="Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France">Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Protocols" title="Paris Protocols">Paris Protocols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_du_travail_obligatoire" title="Service du travail obligatoire">Service du travail obligatoire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_of_France" title="Liberation of France">Liberation of France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allied-occupied_Germany" title="Allied-occupied Germany">Allied-occupied Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_occupation_zone_in_Germany" title="French occupation zone in Germany">French occupation zone in Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Ds" title="Four Ds">Four Ds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saar_Protectorate" title="Saar Protectorate">Saar Protectorate</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rhine_crisis" title="Rhine crisis">Rhine crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daily_Telegraph_Affair" title="Daily Telegraph Affair">Daily Telegraph Affair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinka_Bamberski_case" title="Kalinka Bamberski case">Kalinka Bamberski case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_of_Daniel_Nivel" title="Assault of Daniel Nivel">Assault of Daniel Nivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanwings_Flight_9525" title="Germanwings Flight 9525">Germanwings Flight 9525</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_border" title="France–Germany border">France–Germany border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_football_rivalry" title="France–Germany football rivalry">France–Germany football rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friendship_Bridge_(Germany-France)" title="Friendship Bridge (Germany-France)">Friendship Bridge (Germany-France)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euroberlin_France" title="Euroberlin France">Euroberlin France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palatinate_Forest-North_Vosges_Biosphere_Reserve" title="Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve">Palatinate Forest-North Vosges Biosphere Reserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundat_Forest" title="Mundat Forest">Mundat Forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adenauer-de_Gaulle_Prize" title="Adenauer-de Gaulle Prize">Adenauer-de Gaulle Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candide_Preis" title="Candide Preis">Candide Preis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koch%E2%80%93Pasteur_rivalry" title="Koch–Pasteur rivalry">Koch–Pasteur rivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/AbiBac" title="AbiBac">AbiBac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arte" title="Arte">Arte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_period" title="French period">French period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histoire/Geschichte" title="Histoire/Geschichte">Histoire/Geschichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greif_cannon" title="Greif cannon">Greif cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Left_Bank_of_the_Rhine" title="Left Bank of the Rhine">Left Bank of the Rhine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sisches_Gymnasium" title="Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium">Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lyc%C3%A9e_Franco-Allemand_de_Buc" title="Lycée Franco-Allemand de Buc">Lycée Franco-Allemand de Buc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DFG_/_LFA_Strasbourg" title="DFG / LFA Strasbourg">DFG / LFA Strasbourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sisches_Gymnasium_Freiburg_im_Breisgau" title="Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Freiburg im Breisgau">Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Freiburg im Breisgau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sisches_Gymnasium_Saarbr%C3%BCcken" title="Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Saarbrücken">Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Saarbrücken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sisches_Gymnasium_Hamburg" title="Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Hamburg">Deutsch-Französisches Gymnasium Hamburg</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Historical_Institute_Paris" title="German Historical Institute Paris">German Historical Institute Paris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deutsch-Franz%C3%B6sisches_Institut" title="Deutsch-Französisches Institut">Deutsch-Französisches Institut</a></li> 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