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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physical_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physical science subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physical_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Landmasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Landmasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Landmasses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Landmasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terrain" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terrain"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Terrain </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terrain-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geomorphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geomorphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Geomorphology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geomorphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Climate </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Features" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Features"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Features </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Features-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Features subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Features-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coasts_and_islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coasts_and_islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Coasts and islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coasts_and_islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mountains_and_plateaus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mountains_and_plateaus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Mountains and plateaus </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mountains_and_plateaus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plains_and_valleys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plains_and_valleys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Plains and valleys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plains_and_valleys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caves_and_craters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caves_and_craters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Caves and craters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caves_and_craters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Layers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Layers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Layers </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Layers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Layers subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Layers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Land_cover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_cover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Land cover </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_cover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soil" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Soil </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Continental_crust" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Continental_crust"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Continental crust </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Continental_crust-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Life science </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Life science subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Life_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Land_biomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_biomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Land biomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_biomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fauna_and_flora" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fauna_and_flora"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Fauna and flora </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fauna_and_flora-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humans_and_land" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humans_and_land"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Humans and land </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Humans_and_land-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Humans and land subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Humans_and_land-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Culture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Travel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Land_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Land_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Land use </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Land_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geopolitics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geopolitics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Geopolitics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geopolitics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Environmental issues </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Environmental issues subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soil_degradation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soil_degradation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Soil degradation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soil_degradation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Pollution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Biodiversity loss </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resource_depletion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resource_depletion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Resource depletion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resource_depletion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Land</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1" title="بر – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بر" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF" title="ভূমি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ভূমি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lio%CC%8Dk-t%C4%93" title="Lio̍k-tē – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lio̍k-tē" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%A0%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Ҡоро ер – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ҡоро ер" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Суша – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Суша" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="जमीन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जमीन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Суша – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Суша" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zemlji%C5%A1te" title="Zemljište – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Zemljište" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B8%D0%BF%C3%A7%C4%95%D1%80" title="Типçĕр – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Типçĕр" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuta" title="Yuta – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Yuta" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivhu" title="Ivhu – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ivhu" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%AC" title="Στεριά – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Στεριά" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lur_lehor" title="Lur lehor – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lur lehor" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="خشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="خشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terre_%C3%A9merg%C3%A9e" title="Terre émergée – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Terre émergée" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talamh" title="Talamh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Talamh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0" title="地 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="地" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%95%85" title="땅 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="땅" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF" title="भूमि – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भूमि" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daratan" title="Daratan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Daratan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Eurrlendi" title="Þurrlendi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þurrlendi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daratan" title="Daratan – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Daratan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%96%D9%86" title="زمیٖن – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="زمیٖن" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%9A%D2%B1%D1%80%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Құры жер – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Құры жер" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tir" title="Tir – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Tir" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nchi_kavu" title="Nchi kavu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Nchi kavu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A8" title="Tè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Tè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terra_(regio)" title="Terra (regio) – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Terra (regio)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sausuma" title="Sausuma – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sausuma" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8" title="जमीन – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जमीन" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darat" title="Darat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Darat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%B9%B3%CC%86k-d%C3%AA" title="Lṳ̆k-dê – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Lṳ̆k-dê" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF" title="भूमि – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भूमि" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0" title="地 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="地" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quruqlik" title="Quruqlik – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Quruqlik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%A8" title="ਜ਼ਮੀਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜ਼ਮੀਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DA%BE%D8%B1%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="دھرتی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="دھرتی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0" title="Суша – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Суша" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/tukus" title="tukus – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="tukus" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laund" title="Laund – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Laund" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trualli" title="Trualli – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Trualli" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land" title="Land – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Land" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AE%D8%A7%DA%A9" title="خاک – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="خاک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a 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title="Đất liền – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đất liền" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%B8%E5%9C%B0" title="陸地 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="陸地" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9C%B0" title="地 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="地" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%99%86%E5%9C%B0" title="陆地 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="陆地" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q11081619#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Land" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Land" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Dry land" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Dryland_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Dryland (disambiguation)">Dryland (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For land on astronomical objects, see <a href="/wiki/Planetary_surface" title="Planetary surface">Planetary surface</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Land_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Land (disambiguation)">Land (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock,_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A grassy isthmus running between two bodies of water." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg/300px-Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg/450px-Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg/600px-Coastline_as_seen_from_Chimney_Rock%2C_Point_Reyes_National_Seashore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5411" data-file-height="3382" /></a><figcaption>Land between bodies of water at <a href="/wiki/Point_Reyes_National_Seashore,_California" class="mw-redirect" title="Point Reyes National Seashore, California">Point Reyes National Seashore, California</a></figcaption></figure> Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> not submerged by the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a> or another <a href="/wiki/Body_of_water" title="Body of water">body of water</a>. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">islands</a>. Earth's land surface is almost entirely covered by <a href="/wiki/Regolith" title="Regolith">regolith</a>, a layer of <a href="/wiki/Rock_(geology)" title="Rock (geology)">rock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> that forms the outer part of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_crust" title="Earth's crust">crust</a>. Land plays an important role in Earth's <a href="/wiki/Climate_system" title="Climate system">climate system</a>, being involved in the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_cycle" title="Nitrogen cycle">nitrogen cycle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. One-third of land is covered in trees, another third is used for <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>, and one-tenth is covered in permanent snow and <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>. The remainder consists of <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Savannah" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannah">savannah</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prairie" title="Prairie">prairie</a>. Land <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a> varies greatly, consisting of mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, glaciers, and other <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a>. In physical geology, the land is divided into two major categories: <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">Mountain ranges</a> and relatively flat interiors called <a href="/wiki/Craton" title="Craton">cratons</a>. Both form over millions of years through <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stream" title="Stream">Streams</a> – a major part of Earth's water cycle – shape the <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscape</a>, carve rocks, transport sediments, and replenish groundwater. At high elevations or <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> is compacted and recrystallized over hundreds or thousands of years to form glaciers, which can be so heavy that they warp the Earth's crust. About 30 percent of land has a dry climate, due to losing more water through evaporation than it gains from <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>. Since warm air rises, this generates winds, though <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">Earth's rotation</a> and uneven sun distribution also play a part. Land is commonly defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth. It can also refer to the collective <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a> that the land holds, including <a href="/wiki/Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivers">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakes">lakes</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>. Human manipulation of the land, including <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a>, can also be considered part of land. Land is formed from the <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a>, the layer of rock on which <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>. <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>, and human and animal activity sits. Though modern terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_plant" title="Terrestrial plant">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">animals</a> evolved from aquatic creatures, Earth's <a href="/wiki/Earliest_known_life_forms" title="Earliest known life forms">first cellular life</a> likely originated on land. Survival on land relies on <a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">fresh water</a> from rivers, streams, lakes, and glaciers, which constitute only three percent of the water on Earth. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred in <a href="/wiki/Habitable" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitable">habitable</a> land areas supporting agriculture and various <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">natural resources</a>. In recent decades, scientists and policymakers have emphasized the need to <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_land_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable land management">manage</a> land and its biosphere more sustainably, through measures such as restoring <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">degraded soil</a>, preserving <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>, protecting <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a>, and addressing <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition">edit</a>]</div> Land is often defined as the solid, dry surface of Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Allaby_&_Park-1">[1]</a> The word land may also collectively refer the collective <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a> of Earth,<a href="#cite_note-:6-2">[2]</a> including its <a href="/wiki/Land_cover" title="Land cover">land cover</a>, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, shallow <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, its <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, the lowest layer of the atmosphere (<a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>), <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> reserves, and the physical results of human activity on land, such as <a href="/wiki/Architecture" title="Architecture">architecture</a> and agriculture.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> The boundary between land and sea is called the <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shoreline</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 625 <a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The word land is derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a>, from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Germanic">Proto-Germanic</a> word *landą, "untilled land", and then the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> *lendʰ-, especially in northern regions that were home to languages like <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Slavic">Proto-Slavic</a>. Examples include <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> land, "land, plot, church building" and <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> ithlann, "threshing floor", and <a href="/wiki/Old_East_Slavic" title="Old East Slavic">Old East Slavic</a> ljadina "wasteland, weeds".<a href="#cite_note-:6-2">[2]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Country" title="Country">country</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a> may be referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Motherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Motherland">motherland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fatherland" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatherland">fatherland</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Homeland" title="Homeland">homeland</a> of its people.<a href="#cite_note-Grosby-6">[6]</a>: 43  Many countries and other places have names incorporating the suffix <a href="/wiki/-land" class="mw-redirect" title="-land">-land</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>,<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand" title="New Zealand">New Zealand</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>). The equivalent suffix <a href="/wiki/-stan" title="-stan">-stan</a> from <a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a>, ultimately derived from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> * sthāna-,<a href="#cite_note-Oxford-10">[10]</a> is also present in many country and location names, such as <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, and others throughout <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The suffix is also used more generally, as in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> rigestân (ریگستان) "place of sand, desert", golestân (گلستان) "place of flowers, garden", gurestân (گورستان) "graveyard, cemetery",<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hindust%C3%A2n" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindustân">Hindustân</a> (هندوستان) "land of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">Indo</a> people".<a href="#cite_note-Kapur2019-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physical_science">Physical science</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Physical science">edit</a>]</div> The study of land and its history in general is called <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mineralogy" title="Mineralogy">Mineralogy</a> is the study of minerals, and <a href="/wiki/Petrology" title="Petrology">petrology</a> is the study of rocks. <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> is the study of soils, encompassing the sub-disciplines of <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">pedology</a>, which focuses on soil formation, and <a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">edaphology</a>, which focuses on the relationship between soil and life. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Earth" title="History of Earth">History of Earth</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth_formation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A depiction of the early Earth, with much of its surface covered in lava." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/200px-Earth_formation.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/300px-Earth_formation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Earth_formation.jpg/400px-Earth_formation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Artist's conception of <a href="/wiki/Hadean" title="Hadean">Hadean Eon</a> Earth</figcaption></figure> The earliest material found in the Solar System is dated to 4.5672±0.0006 <a href="/wiki/Billion_years_ago" class="mw-redirect" title="Billion years ago">bya</a> (billion years ago);<a href="#cite_note-bowring_housch1995-14">[14]</a> therefore, the Earth itself must have been formed by <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)" title="Accretion (astrophysics)">accretion</a> around this time. The <a href="/wiki/Formation_and_evolution_of_the_Solar_System" title="Formation and evolution of the Solar System">formation and evolution of the Solar System</a> bodies occurred in tandem with the Sun. In theory, a <a href="/wiki/Solar_nebula" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar nebula">solar nebula</a> partitions a volume out of a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_cloud" title="Molecular cloud">molecular cloud</a> by gravitational collapse, which begins to spin and flatten into a <a href="/wiki/Circumstellar_disc" title="Circumstellar disc">circumstellar disc</a>, out of which the planets then grow (in tandem with the star). A nebula contains gas, ice grains and <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">dust</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial nuclides</a>). In <a href="/wiki/Nebular_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebular theory">nebular theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Planetesimal" title="Planetesimal">planetesimals</a> begin to form as <a href="/wiki/Granular_material#Granular_gases" title="Granular material">particulate</a> matter accumulates by <a href="/wiki/Cohesion_(geology)" title="Cohesion (geology)">cohesive clumping</a> and then by gravity. The primordial Earth's assembly took 10–20 <a href="/wiki/Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">myr</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nature418_6901_949-15">[15]</a> By 4.54±0.04 bya, the primordial Earth had formed.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Earth's atmosphere and oceans were formed by <a href="/wiki/Volcanic" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic">volcanic</a> activity and <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgassing</a> that included <a href="/wiki/Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Water vapour">water vapour</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_world%27s_oceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of the world's oceans">origin of the world's oceans</a> was condensation augmented by water and ice delivered by <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Protoplanet" title="Protoplanet">protoplanets</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a>.<a href="#cite_note-watersource-18">[18]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Faint_young_Sun_paradox" title="Faint young Sun paradox">this model</a>, atmospheric "<a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a>" kept the oceans from freezing while the newly formed Sun was only at 70% <a href="/wiki/Solar_luminosity" title="Solar luminosity">luminosity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-asp2002-19">[19]</a> By 3.5 bya, the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a> was established, which helped prevent the atmosphere from being stripped away by the <a href="/wiki/Solar_wind" title="Solar wind">solar wind</a>.<a href="#cite_note-physorg20100304-20">[20]</a> The atmosphere and oceans of the Earth continuously shape the land by eroding and transporting solids on the surface.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Earth's crust formed when the molten outer layer of the planet Earth cooled to <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">form a solid mass</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> as the accumulated water vapour began to act in the atmosphere. Once land became capable of supporting life, biodiversity evolved over hundreds of millions of years, expanding continually except when punctuated by mass extinctions.<a href="#cite_note-SahneyBentonFerry2010-23">[23]</a> The two models<a href="#cite_note-williams_santosh2004-24">[24]</a> that explain land mass propose either a steady growth to the present-day forms<a href="#cite_note-science164_1229-25">[25]</a> or, more likely, a rapid growth<a href="#cite_note-tp322_19-26">[26]</a> early in Earth history<a href="#cite_note-rg6_175-27">[27]</a> followed by a long-term steady continental area.<a href="#cite_note-science310_5754_1671-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-jaes23_799-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-ajes38_613-30">[30]</a> <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">Continents</a> are formed by <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, a process ultimately driven by the continuous loss of heat from the Earth's interior. On <a href="/wiki/Geologic_time_scale" title="Geologic time scale">time scales</a> lasting hundreds of millions of years, the <a href="/wiki/Supercontinent" title="Supercontinent">supercontinents</a> have formed and broken apart three times. Roughly 750 <a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">mya</a> (million years ago), one of the earliest known supercontinents, <a href="/wiki/Rodinia" title="Rodinia">Rodinia</a>, began to break apart.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> The continents later recombined to form <a href="/wiki/Pannotia" title="Pannotia">Pannotia</a>, 600–540 mya, then finally <a href="/wiki/Pangaea" title="Pangaea">Pangaea</a>, which also broke apart 180 mya.<a href="#cite_note-as92_324-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Landmasses">Landmasses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Landmasses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Landmass" title="Landmass">Landmass</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Continental_models.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map showing various different definitions of the Earth's continents, ranging from 7 to 5." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Continental_models.gif/330px-Continental_models.gif" decoding="async" width="330" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Continental_models.gif/495px-Continental_models.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Continental_models.gif/660px-Continental_models.gif 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="755" /></a><figcaption>Animated map showing the world's continents according to different models.</figcaption></figure> A continuous area of land surrounded by an ocean is called a landmass. Although it is most often written as one word to distinguish it from the usage "land mass"—the measure of land area—it may also be written as two words.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> There are four major continuous landmasses on Earth: <a href="/wiki/Afro-Eurasia" title="Afro-Eurasia">Afro-Eurasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">America (landmass)</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mainland_Australia" title="Mainland Australia">Australia (landmass)</a>, which are subdivided into continents.<a href="#cite_note-McColl2-34">[34]</a> Up to seven geographical regions are commonly regarded as continents. Ordered from greatest to least land area, these continents are <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Australia_(continent)" title="Australia (continent)">Australia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Terrain">Terrain</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Terrain">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">Terrain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A topographical map of Japan and the surrounding ocean and landmasses, showing different elevations with different colors." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg/220px-Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg/330px-Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg/440px-Island_arc_of_Japan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="615" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographical</a> map of Japan showing the elevation of the terrain.</figcaption></figure> Terrain refers to an area of land and its features.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Terrain affects travel, mapmaking, ecosystems, and surface <a href="/wiki/Water_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Water flow">water flow</a> and distribution. Over a large area, it can influence climate and weather patterns. The terrain of a region largely determines its suitability for human settlement: flatter <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_plain" title="Alluvial plain">alluvial plains</a> tend to have better farming soils than steeper, rockier uplands.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">Elevation</a> is defined as the vertical distance between an object and sea level, while <a href="/wiki/Altitude" title="Altitude">altitude</a> is defined as the vertical distance from an object to Earth's surface.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The elevation of Earth's land surface varies from the low point of −418 m (−1,371 ft) at the <a href="/wiki/Dead_Sea" title="Dead Sea">Dead Sea</a>, to a maximum altitude of 8,848 m (29,029 ft) at the top of Mount Everest. The mean height of land above sea level is about 797 m (2,615 ft),<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> with 98.9% of dry land situated above sea level.<a href="#cite_note-:0-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Topographic_relief" class="mw-redirect" title="Topographic relief">Relief</a> refers to the difference in elevation within a landscape; for example, flat terrain would have "low relief", while terrain with a large elevation difference between the highest and lowest points would be deemed "high relief". Most land has relatively low relief.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The change in elevation between two points of the terrain is called a slope or gradient. A <a href="/wiki/Topographic_map" title="Topographic map">topographic map</a> is a form of <a href="/wiki/Terrain_cartography" title="Terrain cartography">terrain cartography</a> which depicts terrain in terms of its elevation, slope, and the orientation of its landforms. It has prominent <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">contour lines</a>, which connect points of similar elevation, while perpendicular slope lines point in the direction of the steepest slope.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hypsometric_tints" title="Hypsometric tints">Hypsometric tints</a> are colors placed between contour lines to indicate elevation relative to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> A difference between uplands, or <a href="/wiki/Highland" title="Highland">highlands</a>, and lowlands is drawn in several <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth science</a> fields. In river ecology, "<a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">upland</a>" rivers are fast-moving and colder than "lowland" rivers, encouraging different species of fish and other aquatic wildlife to live in these habitats. For example, nutrients are more present in slow-moving lowland rivers, encouraging different species of <a href="/wiki/Macrophytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophytes">macrophytes</a> to grow there.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The term "upland" is also used in wetland ecology, where "upland" plants indicate an area that is not a wetland.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In addition, the term <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moorland</a> refers to upland <a href="/wiki/Shrubland" title="Shrubland">shrubland</a> biomes with acidic soils, while <a href="/wiki/Heathland" class="mw-redirect" title="Heathland">heathlands</a> are lowland shrublands with acidic soils.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geomorphology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></div> Geomorphology refers to the study of the natural processes that shape land's surface, creating landforms.<a href="#cite_note-Huggett-47">[47]</a>: 3  <a href="/wiki/Erosion_and_tectonics" title="Erosion and tectonics">Erosion and tectonics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_eruptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic eruptions">volcanic eruptions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding">flooding</a>, <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glaciation" class="mw-redirect" title="Glaciation">glaciation</a>, the growth of <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a>, and meteorite impacts are among the processes that constantly reshape Earth's surface over <a href="/wiki/Geological_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological time">geological time</a>.<a href="#cite_note-kring-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a> transports one part of land to another via natural processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Aeolian_processes" title="Aeolian processes">wind</a>, water, <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mass_wasting" title="Mass wasting">gravity</a>. In contrast, weathering wears away rock and other solid land without transporting the land somewhere else.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 210–211  Natural erosional processes usually take a long time to cause noticeable changes in the landscape—for example, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a> was created over the past 70 million years by the <a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado River</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Witze-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> which scientists estimate continues to erode the canyon at a rate of 0.3 meters (1 foot) every 200 years.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> However, humans have caused erosion to be 10–40 times faster than normal,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> causing half the <a href="/wiki/Topsoil" title="Topsoil">topsoil</a> of the surface of Earth's land to be lost within the past 150 years.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a> refers to the theory that Earth's lithosphere is divided into "tectonic plates" that move over the mantle.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 66  This results in <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, with continents moving relative to each other.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The scientist <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Wegener" title="Alfred Wegener">Alfred Wegener</a> first hypothesized the theory of continental drift in 1912.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> More researchers gradually developed his idea throughout the 20th century into the widely accepted theory of plate tectonics of today. Several key characteristics define modern understanding of plate tectonics. The place where two tectonic plates meet is called a <a href="/wiki/Plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Plate boundary">plate boundary</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> with different geological phenomena occurring across different kinds of boundaries. For example, at <a href="/wiki/Divergent_plate_boundaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Divergent plate boundaries">divergent plate boundaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seafloor_spreading" title="Seafloor spreading">seafloor spreading</a> is usually seen,<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 74–75  in contrast with the <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> zones of <a href="/wiki/Convergent_plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergent plate boundary">convergent</a> or <a href="/wiki/Transform_fault" title="Transform fault">transform plate boundaries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 78–80  <a href="/wiki/Earthquakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Earthquakes">Earthquakes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Volcanic activity">volcanic activity</a> are common in all types of boundaries. Volcanic activity refers to any rupture in Earth's surface where <a href="/wiki/Magma" title="Magma">magma</a> escapes, therefore becoming <a href="/wiki/Lava" title="Lava">lava</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 170–172  The <a href="/wiki/Ring_of_Fire" title="Ring of Fire">Ring of Fire</a>, containing two-thirds of the world's volcanos, and over 70% of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismological activity</a>, comprises plate boundaries surrounding the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific Ocean</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-Siebert-59">[59]</a>: 68 <a href="#cite_note-Duda-60">[60]</a>: 409–452 <a href="#cite_note-VolcsExactCount-61">[a]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Climate">Climate</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Climate">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A portion of the Andes mountains from space, showing the contrast between the dry terrain west of the mountain ridge and wet terrain to the east." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg/220px-Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg/330px-Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg/440px-Satellite_image_of_Bolivia_in_June_2002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5279" data-file-height="6079" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Andes" title="Andes">Andes</a> create a rain shadow, separating the wet <a href="/wiki/Amazon_basin" title="Amazon basin">Amazon basin</a> from the dry <a href="/wiki/Altiplano" title="Altiplano">Altiplano</a>.</figcaption></figure> Earth's land interacts with and influences its <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> heavily, since the land's surface heats up and cools down faster than air or water.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Learning_Media-62">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">Latitude</a>, <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reflectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Reflectivity">reflectivity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">land use</a> all have varying effects on climate. The latitude of the land will influence how much <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a> reaches its surface. High latitudes receive less solar radiation than low latitudes.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Learning_Media-62">[61]</a> The land's topography is important in creating and transforming airflow and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a>. Large landforms, such as mountain ranges, can divert wind energy and make <a href="/wiki/Fluid_parcel" title="Fluid parcel">air parcels</a> less dense and therefore able to hold less heat.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Learning_Media-62">[61]</a> As air rises, this cooling effect causes <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a> and precipitation. Different types of land cover will influence the land's <a href="/wiki/Albedo" title="Albedo">albedo</a>, a measure of the solar radiation that is reflected, rather than absorbed and transferred to Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Alan_Betts:_Atmospheric_Research-63">[62]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">Vegetation</a> has a relatively low albedo, meaning that vegetated surfaces are good absorbers of the sun's energy. <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> have an albedo of 10–15 percent while <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grasslands</a> have an albedo of 15–20 percent. In comparison, sandy <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a> have an albedo of 25–40 percent.<a href="#cite_note-Alan_Betts:_Atmospheric_Research-63">[62]</a> Land use by humans also plays a role in the regional and global climate. Densely populated cities are warmer and create <a href="/wiki/Urban_heat_island" title="Urban heat island">urban heat islands</a> that have effects on the precipitation, <a href="/wiki/Cloud_cover" title="Cloud cover">cloud cover</a>, and temperature of the region.<a href="#cite_note-PBS_Learning_Media-62">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Features">Features</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Features">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landform</a></div> A landform is a natural or manmade<a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> land feature. Landforms together make up a given terrain, and their arrangement in the <a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">landscape</a> is known as <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>. Landforms include <a href="/wiki/Hill" title="Hill">hills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">canyons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valleys</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shoreline</a> features such as <a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">bays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">capes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">peninsulas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coasts_and_islands">Coasts and islands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Coasts and islands">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Littoral_Zones.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Littoral_Zones.jpg/440px-Littoral_Zones.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Littoral_Zones.jpg/660px-Littoral_Zones.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/Littoral_Zones.jpg 2x" data-file-width="666" data-file-height="292" /></a><figcaption>A simplified diagram of the <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral zone</a>, which includes the coast and nearby waters</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Shoreline" class="mw-redirect" title="Shoreline">shoreline</a> is the interface between the land and the <a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">ocean</a>. It migrates each day as <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a> rise and fall, and moves over long periods of time as <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea levels</a> change. The shore extends from the low tide line to the highest elevation that can be reached by storm waves, and the <a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">coast</a> stretches out inland until the point where ocean-related features are no longer found.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 625–626  When land is in contact with bodies of water, it can be eroded. The weathering of a coastline may be impacted by the <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>, caused by changes in gravitational forces on larger bodies of water.<a href="#cite_note-Huggett-47">[47]</a>: 352–353 <a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> Coasts are important zones in natural ecosystems, often home to a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[65]</a> On land, they harbour important ecosystems such as freshwater or estuarine <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetlands</a>, which are important for bird populations and other terrestrial animals. In wave-protected areas they harbor <a href="/wiki/Saltmarshes" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltmarshes">saltmarshes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangroves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrasses</a>, all of which can provide <a href="/wiki/Nursery_habitat" title="Nursery habitat">nursery habitat</a> for finfish, <a href="/wiki/Shellfish" title="Shellfish">shellfish</a>, and other aquatic species. Rocky shores are usually found along exposed coasts and provide habitat for a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Sessile_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessile animals">sessile animals</a> (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Mussel" title="Mussel">mussels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacles</a>) and various kinds of <a href="/wiki/Seaweed" title="Seaweed">seaweeds</a>. Along <a href="/wiki/Tropical" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical">tropical</a> coasts with clear, nutrient-poor water, <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">coral reefs</a> can often be found between depths of 1–50 meters (3.3–164.0 feet).<a href="#cite_note-67">[66]</a> According to a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> atlas, 44% of all people live within 150 km (93 mi) of the sea.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> Because of their importance in society and high concentration of population, the coast is important for major parts of the global food and economic system, and they provide many <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a> to humankind. For example, important human activities happen in <a href="/wiki/Port" title="Port">port cities</a>. Coastal <a href="/wiki/Fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries">fisheries</a> for commercial, recreational, and subsistence purposes, and <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture" title="Aquaculture">aquaculture</a> are major economic activities and provide jobs, livelihoods, and <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> for the majority of coastal human populations. Other coastal spaces like <a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">beaches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seaside_resort" title="Seaside resort">seaside resorts</a> generate economic activity through <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystems</a> can also provide protection against <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tsunami" title="Tsunami">tsunamis</a>. In many countries, the coastal <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> is the primary source of wood for fuel (e.g. charcoal) and building materials. Coastal ecosystems have a much higher capacity for <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sequestration" title="Carbon sequestration">carbon sequestration</a> than many <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a>, and as such can play a critical role in the near future to help <a href="/wiki/Mitigate_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitigate climate change">mitigate climate change</a> effects by uptake of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_in_Earth%27s_atmosphere" title="Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere">atmospheric anthropogenic carbon dioxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> A subcontinental area of land surrounded by water is an <a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">island</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Islands-70">[69]</a>: xxxi  and a chain of islands is an <a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">archipelago</a>. The smaller the island, the larger the percentage of its land area will be adjacent to the water, and subsequently will be coast or beach.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> Islands can be formed by a variety of processes. The <a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Hawaiian islands">Hawaiian islands</a>, for example, even though they are not near a plate boundary, formed from <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">isolated volcanic activity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Islands-70">[69]</a>: 406  <a href="/wiki/Atolls" class="mw-redirect" title="Atolls">Atolls</a> are ring-shaped islands made of <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, created when <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> causes an island to sink beneath the ocean surface and leaves a ring of reefs around it.<a href="#cite_note-Islands-70">[69]</a>: 69 <a href="#cite_note-darwincr1-72">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mountains_and_plateaus">Mountains and plateaus</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mountains and plateaus">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A mountain range with steep cliffs and peaks." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg/220px-Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg/330px-Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg/440px-Vihren_Pirin_IMG_8898.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1365" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Pirin" title="Pirin">Pirin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain range</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Mountain" title="Mountain">Mountains</a> are features that usually rise at least 300 metres (980 ft) higher than the surrounding terrain.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Mountain_formation" title="Mountain formation">formation of mountain belts</a> is called orogenesis, and results from <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 448–449  For example, where a plate at a convergent plate boundary pushes one plate above the other, mountains could be formed by either collisional events, such that Earth's crust is pushed upwards,<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 454–460  or subductional events, where Earth's crust is pushed into the mantle, causing the crust to melt, rise due to its low density, and solidify into hardened rock, thickening the crust.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 449–453  A <a href="/wiki/Plateau" title="Plateau">plateau</a>, also called a high plain or a tableland, is an area of a highland consisting of flat terrain that is raised sharply above the surrounding area on at least one side, creating steep <a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">cliffs</a> or <a href="/wiki/Escarpment" title="Escarpment">escarpments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Huggett-47">[47]</a>: 99  Both volcanic activity such as the <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> of magma and <a href="/wiki/Extrusion" title="Extrusion">extrusion</a> of lava, or erosion of mountains caused from water, glaciers, or aeolian processes, can create plateaus. Plateaus are classified according to their surrounding environment as <a href="/wiki/Intermontane" title="Intermontane">intermontane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foothills" title="Foothills">piedmont</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Continent" title="Continent">continental</a>.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> A few plateaus may have a small flat top while others are wider. <a href="/wiki/Buttes" class="mw-redirect" title="Buttes">Buttes</a> are smaller, with less extrusive and more intrusive igneous rock, while plateaus or highlands are the widest, and <a href="/wiki/Mesas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesas">mesas</a> are a general-sized plateau with horizontal <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> <a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">strata</a>.<a href="#cite_note-DuszyńskiOthers2019a-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-Migoń2004a-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-NeuendorfOthers2011a-77">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plains_and_valleys">Plains and valleys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Plains and valleys">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AlluvialPlain.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An alluvial plain near dry, rolling hills" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/AlluvialPlain.JPG/220px-AlluvialPlain.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/AlluvialPlain.JPG/330px-AlluvialPlain.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/AlluvialPlain.JPG/440px-AlluvialPlain.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>A small, <a href="/wiki/River_incision" title="River incision">incised</a> alluvial plain from <a href="/wiki/Red_Rock_Canyon_State_Park_(California)" title="Red Rock Canyon State Park (California)">Red Rock Canyon State Park (California)</a>.</figcaption></figure> Wide, flat areas of land are called <a href="/wiki/Plain" title="Plain">plains</a>, which cover more than one-third of Earth's land area.<a href="#cite_note-Wilson-78">[77]</a> When they occur as lowered areas between mountains, they can create <a href="/wiki/Valley" title="Valley">valleys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canyon" title="Canyon">canyons</a> or gorges, and <a href="/wiki/Ravines" class="mw-redirect" title="Ravines">ravines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> A plateau can be thought of as an elevated plain. Plains are known to have fertile soils and be important for agriculture due to their flatness supporting grasses suitable for livestock and facilitating the harvest of crops.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">Floodplains</a> provided agricultural land for some of the <a href="/wiki/Cradle_of_civilization" title="Cradle of civilization">earliest civilizations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> Erosion is often a main driver for the creation of plains and valleys, with <a href="/wiki/Rift_valley" title="Rift valley">rift valleys</a> being a noticeable exception. <a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjords</a> are glacial valleys that can be thousands of meters deep, opening out to the sea.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caves_and_craters">Caves and craters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Caves and craters">edit</a>]</div> Any natural void in the ground which can be entered by a human can be considered a <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">cave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a> They have been important to humans as a place of <a href="/wiki/Shelter_(building)" class="mw-redirect" title="Shelter (building)">shelter</a> since the dawn of humanity.<a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Crater" title="Crater">Craters</a> are depressions in the ground, but unlike caves, they do not provide shelter or extend <a href="/wiki/Subterranea_(geography)" title="Subterranea (geography)">underground</a>. There are many kinds of craters, such as <a href="/wiki/Impact_craters" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact craters">impact craters</a>, volcanic <a href="/wiki/Calderas" class="mw-redirect" title="Calderas">calderas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Isostatic_depression" title="Isostatic depression">isostatic depressions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">Karst</a> processes can create both <a href="/wiki/Solution_cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Solution cave">solution caves</a>, the most frequent cave type, and craters, as seen in karst <a href="/wiki/Sinkhole" title="Sinkhole">sinkholes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Layers">Layers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Layers">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Pedosphere" title="Pedosphere">pedosphere</a> is the outermost layer of Earth's continental surface and is composed of soil and subject to <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedogenesis">soil formation processes</a>. Below it, the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> encompasses both Earth's crust and the uppermost layer of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_mantle" title="Earth's mantle">mantle</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> The lithosphere rests, or "floats", on top of the mantle below it via <a href="/wiki/Isostasy" title="Isostasy">isostasy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 463  Above the solid ground, the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> and humans' use of land can be considered layers of the land.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_cover">Land cover</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Land cover">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Land_cover" title="Land cover">Land cover</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_cover_mapping" class="mw-redirect" title="Land cover mapping">Land cover mapping</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land_cover_IGBP.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A map of the earth showing different forms of land cover in different colors" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Land_cover_IGBP.png/330px-Land_cover_IGBP.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Land_cover_IGBP.png/495px-Land_cover_IGBP.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Land_cover_IGBP.png/660px-Land_cover_IGBP.png 2x" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>Land cover as classified by the <a href="/wiki/International_Geosphere-Biosphere_Programme" title="International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme">International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme</a> (IGBP) into 17 classes</figcaption></figure> Land cover refers to the material physically present on the land surface, for example, woody crops, herbaceous crops, barren land, and shrub-covered areas. Artificial surfaces (including cities) account for about a third of a percent of all land.<a href="#cite_note-:3-88">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a> refers to human allocation of land for various purposes, including farming, ranching, and recreation (e.g. national parks); worldwide, there are an estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland, and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.<a href="#cite_note-Hooke2012-89">[88]</a> Land cover change detection using <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> and geospatial data provides baseline information for assessing the climate change impacts on habitats and biodiversity, as well as natural resources, in the target areas. Land cover change detection and mapping is a key component of interdisciplinary <a href="/wiki/Land_change_science" title="Land change science">land change science</a>, which uses it to determine the consequences of land change on climate.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a> is used to predict and analyze changes in land cover and use.<a href="#cite_note-:32-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil">Soil</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Soil">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg/220px-2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg/330px-2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg/440px-2013-morbihan-ile-berder-rankosol-granite0109.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4224" data-file-height="3168" /></a><figcaption>Cross section of <a href="/wiki/Rankers" title="Rankers">rankers</a> soil, with plants and protruding roots near the top</figcaption></figure> Soil is a <a href="/wiki/Mixture" title="Mixture">mixture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Organic_matter" title="Organic matter">organic matter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liquid" title="Liquid">liquids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> that together support <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>. Soil consists of a solid phase of minerals and organic matter (the soil matrix),<a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 222  as well as a <a href="/wiki/Porous" class="mw-redirect" title="Porous">porous</a> phase that holds <a href="/wiki/Soil_gas" title="Soil gas">gases</a> (the soil atmosphere) and <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> (the soil solution).<a href="#cite_note-92">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[92]</a> Accordingly, soil is a three-<a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">state</a> system of solids, liquids, and gases.<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> Soil is a product of several factors: the influence of <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">relief</a> (elevation, orientation, and slope of terrain), organisms, and the soil's <a href="/wiki/Parent_material" title="Parent material">parent materials</a> (original minerals) interacting over time.<a href="#cite_note-Gilluly1975-95">[94]</a> It continually undergoes development by way of numerous physical, chemical and biological processes, which include weathering and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Huggett-47">[47]</a>: 148–150  Given its complexity and strong internal <a href="/wiki/Connectedness" title="Connectedness">connectedness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_ecology" title="Soil ecology">soil ecologists</a> regard soil as an <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> Soil acts as an engineering medium, a habitat for <a href="/wiki/Soil_organisms" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil organisms">soil organisms</a>, a recycling system for <a href="/wiki/Nutrients" class="mw-redirect" title="Nutrients">nutrients</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic waste">organic wastes</a>, a regulator of <a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">water quality</a>, a modifier of <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_chemistry" title="Atmospheric chemistry">atmospheric composition</a>, and a medium for <a href="/wiki/Plant_growth" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant growth">plant growth</a>, making it a critically important provider of <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>.<a href="#cite_note-97">[96]</a> Since soil has a tremendous range of available <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitats</a>, it contains a prominent part of the Earth's <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>. A gram of soil can contain billions of organisms, belonging to thousands of species, mostly microbial and largely still unexplored.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> Soil is a major component of the Earth's ecosystem. The world's ecosystems are impacted in far-reaching ways by the processes carried out in the soil, with effects ranging from <a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">ozone depletion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Global_warming" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">global warming</a> to <a href="/wiki/Rainforest_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainforest destruction">rainforest destruction</a> and <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">water pollution</a>. With respect to Earth's <a href="/wiki/Carbon_cycle" title="Carbon cycle">carbon cycle</a>, soil acts as an important <a href="/wiki/Carbon_sink" title="Carbon sink">carbon reservoir</a>,<a href="#cite_note-100">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> and it is potentially one of the most reactive to human disturbance<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> and climate change.<a href="#cite_note-Davidson-103">[102]</a> As the planet warms, it has been predicted that soils will add carbon dioxide to the atmosphere due to increased <a href="/wiki/Soil_biology" title="Soil biology">biological</a> activity at higher temperatures, a <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a> (amplification).<a href="#cite_note-104">[103]</a> This prediction has, however, been questioned on consideration of more recent knowledge on <a href="/wiki/Soil_carbon" title="Soil carbon">soil carbon</a> turnover.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Continental_crust">Continental crust</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Continental crust">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">Continental crust</a> and <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">Abundance of elements in Earth's crust</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohomap.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A world map of the Earth's crust thickness. It is lowest in deep oceans, higher on continental shelves and landmasses, and highest in highland regions such as the Tibetan Plateau." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mohomap.png/330px-Mohomap.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mohomap.png/495px-Mohomap.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mohomap.png/660px-Mohomap.png 2x" data-file-width="3282" data-file-height="1821" /></a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a>'s depth from the surface, indicating the thickness of the Earth's crust.</figcaption></figure> Continental crust is the layer of <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">sedimentary</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">metamorphic rocks</a> that forms the geological continents and the areas of shallow seabed close to their shores, known as <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a>. This layer is sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Sial" title="Sial">sial</a> because its bulk composition is richer in <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_silicate" title="Aluminium silicate">aluminium silicate</a> and has a lower density compared to the <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>,<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> called <a href="/wiki/Sima_(geology)" title="Sima (geology)">sima</a> which is richer in <a href="/wiki/Magnesium_silicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Magnesium silicate">magnesium silicate</a>. Changes in <a href="/wiki/Seismic_wave" title="Seismic wave">seismic wave</a> velocities have shown that at a certain depth (the <a href="/wiki/Conrad_discontinuity" title="Conrad discontinuity">Conrad discontinuity</a>), there is a reasonably sharp contrast between the more <a href="/wiki/Felsic" title="Felsic">felsic</a> upper continental crust and the lower continental crust, which is more <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> in character.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> The composition of land is not uniform across the Earth, varying between locations and between <a href="/wiki/Strata" class="mw-redirect" title="Strata">strata</a> within the same location. The most prominent components of upper continental crust include <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">aluminium oxide</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-108">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> consists of lower density material such as the igneous rocks <a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">granite</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[108]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Andesite" title="Andesite">andesite</a>. Less common is <a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">basalt</a>, a denser volcanic rock that is the primary constituent of the <a href="/wiki/Ocean_floor" class="mw-redirect" title="Ocean floor">ocean floors</a>.<a href="#cite_note-layers_earth-110">[109]</a> Sedimentary rock is formed from the accumulation of sediment that becomes buried and <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">compacted together</a>. Nearly 75% of the continental surfaces are covered by sedimentary rocks, although they form about 5% of the crust.<a href="#cite_note-jessey-111">[110]</a> The most abundant <a href="/wiki/Silicate_mineral" title="Silicate mineral">silicate minerals</a> on Earth's surface include <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feldspar" title="Feldspar">feldspars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amphibole" title="Amphibole">amphibole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mica" title="Mica">mica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-de_pater_lissauer2010-112">[111]</a> Common <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate minerals</a> include <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> (found in <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wekn_bulakh2004-113">[112]</a> The rock that makes up land is thicker than <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">oceanic crust</a>, and it is far more varied in terms of composition. About 31% of this continental crust is submerged in shallow water, forming continental shelves.<a href="#cite_note-:1-108">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life_science">Life science</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Life science">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">Terrestrial ecosystem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></div> Land provides many <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_service" title="Ecosystem service">ecosystem services</a>, such as mitigating climate change, regulating water supply through drainage basins and river systems, and supporting food production. Land resources are finite, which has led to regulations intended to safeguard these ecosystem services, and a set of practices called <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_land_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Sustainable land management">sustainable land management</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_biomes">Land biomes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Land biomes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biome</a></div> A biome is an area "characterized by its vegetation, soil, climate, and <a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">wildlife</a>."<a href="#cite_note-:02-114">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-115">[114]</a> There are five major types of biomes on land: grasslands, forests, deserts, tundras, and freshwater.<a href="#cite_note-:02-114">[113]</a> Other types of biomes include shrublands,<a href="#cite_note-117">[b]</a> wetlands,<a href="#cite_note-118">[c]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_caps" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar ice caps">polar ice caps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> An <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> refers to the interaction between organisms within a particular environment, and a <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> refers to the environment where a given species or population of organisms lives. Biomes may span more than one continent, and contain a variety of ecosystems and habitats.<a href="#cite_note-120">[117]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Desert,_Rock_formations,_Egypt.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A picture of the White Desert in Egypt, with cliffs, dunes, and white chalk rock formations created through erosion by wind and sand" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg/220px-White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg/330px-White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg/440px-White_Desert%2C_Rock_formations%2C_Egypt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/White_Desert_National_Park" title="White Desert National Park">White Desert National Park</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A dense forest, showing various sorts of tree and underbrush" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg/220px-Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg/330px-Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg/440px-Ryssebergen_2012b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4928" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> in Ryssbergen, <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">Deserts</a> have an <a href="/wiki/Arid" class="mw-redirect" title="Arid">arid</a> climate, generally defined to mean that they receive less than 25 centimetres (9.8 in) of <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">precipitation</a> per year. They make up around one fifth of the Earth's land area, are found on every continent, and can be very hot or very cold (see <a href="/wiki/Polar_desert" title="Polar desert">polar desert</a>). They are home to animals and plants which evolved to be tolerant of droughts. In deserts, most erosion is caused by running water, usually during violent <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorms" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorms">thunderstorms</a>, which cause <a href="/wiki/Flash_flood" title="Flash flood">flash floods</a>. Deserts are expanding due to <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>, which is caused by excessive deforestation and overgrazing.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-Tarbuck-4">[4]</a>: 598–621 </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a> is a biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> There are types of tundra associated with different regions: Arctic tundra, <a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">alpine tundra</a>, and Antarctic tundra.<a href="#cite_note-berkeley-123">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-wwf-124">[121]</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> is an area of land dominated by <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>. Many definitions of "forest" are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function. The United Nations' <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">Food and Agriculture Organization</a> (FAO) defines a forest as: "land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(biology)" title="Canopy (biology)">canopy</a> cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use."<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[122]</a> Types of forests include <a href="/wiki/Rainforests" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainforests">rainforests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deciduous_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Deciduous forests">deciduous forests</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boreal_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Boreal forests">boreal forests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:7-125">[122]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">Grasslands</a> are areas where the <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> is dominated by grasses (<a href="/wiki/Poaceae" title="Poaceae">Poaceae</a>). However, sedge (<a href="/wiki/Cyperaceae" title="Cyperaceae">Cyperaceae</a>) and rush (<a href="/wiki/Juncaceae" title="Juncaceae">Juncaceae</a>) can also be found, along with variable proportions of <a href="/wiki/Legumes" class="mw-redirect" title="Legumes">legumes</a> like <a href="/wiki/Clover" title="Clover">clover</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Herbaceous_plant" title="Herbaceous plant">herbs</a>. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> and are found in most <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">ecoregions</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on earth and dominate the landscape worldwide. Types include natural, semi-natural, and agricultural grasslands. <a href="/wiki/Savannas" class="mw-redirect" title="Savannas">Savannas</a> are grasslands with occasional, scattered trees.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fauna_and_flora">Fauna and flora</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Fauna and flora">edit</a>]</div> Land plants evolved from <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, and are called <a href="/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">embryophytes</a>. They include <a href="/wiki/Tree" title="Tree">trees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrub" title="Shrub">shrubs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">ferns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Grass">grass</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moss" title="Moss">moss</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Flower" title="Flower">flowers</a>. Most plants are <a href="/wiki/Vascular_plant" title="Vascular plant">vascular plants</a>, meaning that their tissues distribute water and minerals throughout the plant.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a> Through <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, most plants nourish themselves from sunlight and water, breathing in carbon dioxide and breathing out oxygen. Between 20 and 50% of oxygen is produced by land vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a> Unlike plants, <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Terrestrial animals">terrestrial animals</a> are not a <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic group</a>—that is, a group including all terrestrial animals does not encompass all lineages from a <a href="/wiki/Common_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common ancestor">common ancestor</a>. This is because there are organisms, such as the <a href="/wiki/Whale" title="Whale">whale</a>, that <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_cetaceans" title="Evolution of cetaceans">evolved</a> from terrestrial mammals back to an aquatic lifestyle.<a href="#cite_note-Garwood-129">[126]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Megafauna" title="Megafauna">megafauna</a> of the past, such as non-avian <a href="/wiki/Dinosaurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Dinosaurs">dinosaurs</a>, have become extinct due to extinction events, e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary_extinction_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternary extinction event">Quaternary extinction event</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Humans_and_land">Humans and land</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Humans and land">edit</a>]</div> Land is "deeply intertwined with human development."<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a>: 21  It is a crucial resource for human survival,<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> humans depend on land for subsistence, and can develop strong symbolic attachments to it. Access to land can determine "survival and wealth," particularly in developing countries, giving rise to complex power relationships in production and consumption. Most of the world's philosophies and religions recognize a human duty of <a href="/wiki/Stewardship_(theology)" title="Stewardship (theology)">stewardship</a> towards land and nature.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Culture">Culture</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Earth_in_culture" title="Earth in culture">Earth in culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Mount Fuji as seen from space, with surrounding forest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg/220px-Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg/330px-Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg/440px-Mt_Fuji_NASA_ISS002-E-6971_large.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3060" data-file-height="2036" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mount_Fuji" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a> in early summer seen from the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>. Mount Fuji is a geological feature of the land that is of great cultural and religious significance.<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a></figcaption></figure> Many humans see land as a source of "spirituality, inspiration, and beauty." Many also derive a sense of belonging from land, especially if it also belonged to their ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> Various <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religions</a> teach about a connection between humans and the land (such as veneration of <a href="/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)" title="Bhumi (goddess)">Bhumi</a>, a personification of the Earth in <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[130]</a> and the obligation to protect land as <a href="/wiki/Hima_(environmental_protection)" title="Hima (environmental protection)">hima</a> in <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>), and in almost every <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous group">Indigenous group</a> there are <a href="/wiki/Etiological" class="mw-redirect" title="Etiological">etiological</a> stories about the land they live on.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> For Indigenous peoples, connection to the land is an important part of their identity and culture,<a href="#cite_note-World's_Indigenous_Peoples-134">[131]</a> and some religious groups consider a particular area of land to be <a href="/wiki/Sacred" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred">sacred</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation myths</a> in many religions involve stories of the creation of the world by a supernatural <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a> or deities, including accounts wherein the land is separated from the oceans and the air. The Earth itself has often been personified as a <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deity</a>, in particular a <a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">goddess</a>. In many cultures, the <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">mother goddess</a> is also portrayed as a <a href="/wiki/Fertility_deity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertility deity">fertility deity</a>. To the <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztecs</a>, Earth was called <a href="/wiki/Tonantzin" title="Tonantzin">Tonantzin</a>—"our mother"; to the <a href="/wiki/Incas" class="mw-redirect" title="Incas">Incas</a>, Earth was called <a href="/wiki/Pachamama" title="Pachamama">Pachamama</a>—"mother earth". The Chinese Earth goddess <a href="/wiki/Hou_Tu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hou Tu">Hou Tu</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> is similar to <a href="/wiki/Gaia" title="Gaia">Gaia</a>, the Greek goddess personifying the Earth. In <a href="/wiki/Norse_mythology" title="Norse mythology">Norse mythology</a>, the Earth giantess <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6r%C3%B0" title="Jörð">Jörð</a> was the mother of <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a> and the daughter of <a href="/wiki/Annar" title="Annar">Annar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[134]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egyptian mythology</a> is different from that of other cultures because Earth (<a href="/wiki/Geb" title="Geb">Geb</a>) is male and the sky (<a href="/wiki/Nut_(goddess)" title="Nut (goddess)">Nut</a>) is female.<a href="#cite_note-138">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Near_East" title="Ancient Near East">Ancient Near Eastern</a> cultures conceived of the world as a flat disk of land surrounded by ocean. The <a href="/wiki/Pyramid_Texts" title="Pyramid Texts">Pyramid Texts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coffin_Texts" title="Coffin Texts">Coffin Texts</a> reveal that the ancient Egyptians believed <a href="/wiki/Nu_(mythology)" title="Nu (mythology)">Nun</a> (the ocean) was a circular body surrounding nbwt (a term meaning "dry lands" or "islands").<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Bible" title="Hebrew Bible">Hebrew Bible</a>, drawing on other Near Eastern ideas, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_cosmology#Earth" title="Biblical cosmology">depicts the Earth</a> as a flat disc floating on water, with another expanse of water above it.<a href="#cite_note-Berlin_2011_189-140">[137]</a> A similar model is found in the <a href="/wiki/Homeric" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric">Homeric</a> account of the 8th century BC in which "Okeanos, the personified body of water surrounding the circular surface of the Earth, is the begetter of all life and possibly of all gods."<a href="#cite_note-141">[138]</a> The spherical form of the Earth was suggested by early <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophers">Greek philosophers</a>, a belief espoused by <a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a>. Contrary to popular belief, most educated people in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> did not believe the Earth was flat: this misconception is often called the "<a href="/wiki/Myth_of_the_Flat_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Myth of the Flat Earth">Myth of the Flat Earth</a>". As evidenced by thinkers such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a>, the European belief in a <a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">spherical Earth</a> was widespread by this point in time.<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> Prior to <a href="/wiki/Magellan_expedition" title="Magellan expedition">circumnavigation of the planet</a> and the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a>, belief in a spherical Earth was based on observations of the secondary effects of the Earth's shape and parallels drawn with the shape of other planets.<a href="#cite_note-143">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel">Travel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Travel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Travel" title="Travel">Travel</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A8-A26_Besnate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/A8-A26_Besnate.jpg/220px-A8-A26_Besnate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/A8-A26_Besnate.jpg/330px-A8-A26_Besnate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/A8-A26_Besnate.jpg/440px-A8-A26_Besnate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Autostrada_dei_Laghi" class="mw-redirect" title="Autostrada dei Laghi">Autostrada dei Laghi</a> ("Lakes Motorway"; part of the <a href="/wiki/Autostrada_A8_(Italy)" title="Autostrada A8 (Italy)">A8</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autostrada_A9_(Italy)" title="Autostrada A9 (Italy)">A9</a>), <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, the first motorway built in the world.<a href="#cite_note-independent-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-motorwebmuseum-145">[142]</a></figcaption></figure> Humans have commonly <a href="/wiki/Travel" title="Travel">traveled</a> for business, pleasure, discovery, and adventure, all made easier in recent human history as a result of technologies like <a href="/wiki/Car" title="Car">cars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Train" title="Train">trains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airplane" title="Airplane">planes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a>. <a href="/wiki/Land_navigation" title="Land navigation">Land navigation</a> is an aspect of travel and refers to progressing through unfamiliar terrain using navigational tools like maps with references to terrain, a <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">compass</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">satellite navigation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hofman-146">[143]</a> Navigation on land is often facilitated by reference to <a href="/wiki/Landmark" title="Landmark">landmarks</a> – enduring and recognizable natural or artificial features that stand out from their nearby environment and are often visible from long distances.<a href="#cite_note-147">[144]</a> Natural landmarks can be characteristic features, such as mountains or plateaus, with examples including <a href="/wiki/Table_Mountain" title="Table Mountain">Table Mountain</a> in South Africa, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Ararat" title="Mount Ararat">Mount Ararat</a> in Turkey, the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a> in the United States, <a href="/wiki/Uluru" title="Uluru">Uluru</a> in Australia, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Fuji" title="Mount Fuji">Mount Fuji</a> in Japan.<a href="#cite_note-WTO2012Highlights-148">[145]</a> Two major eras of exploration occurred in human history: one of divergence, and one of convergence. The former saw humans moving out of Africa, settling in new lands, and developing distinct cultures in relative isolation.<a href="#cite_note-:12-149">[146]</a> Early explorers settled in Europe and Asia; 14,000 years ago, some crossed the <a href="/wiki/Settlement_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement of the Americas">Ice Age land bridge</a> from Siberia to Alaska and moved southbound to settle in the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-:03-150">[147]</a> For the most part, these cultures were ignorant of each other's existence.<a href="#cite_note-:12-149">[146]</a> The second period, occurring over roughly the last 10,000 years, saw increased cross-cultural exchange through trade and exploration, marking a new era of cultural intermingling.<a href="#cite_note-:12-149">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trade">Trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Trade" title="Trade">Trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_international_trade" title="Timeline of international trade">Timeline of international trade</a></div> Human trade has occurred since the prehistoric era. <a href="/wiki/Peter_Watson_(business_writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Watson (business writer)">Peter Watson</a> dates the <a href="/wiki/History_of_international_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="History of international trade">history of long-distance commerce</a> from <abbr>c.</abbr> 150,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Watson2005_150-151">[148]</a> Major <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">trade routes</a> throughout history have existed on land, such as the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> which linked <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> with <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a><a href="#cite_note-152">[149]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Amber_Road" title="Amber Road">Amber Road</a> which was used to transfer <a href="/wiki/Amber" title="Amber">amber</a> from <a href="/wiki/Northern_Europe" title="Northern Europe">Northern Europe</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[150]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a> led trade to collapse in the West, but it continued to flourish among the kingdoms of Africa, the Middle East, India, China, and Southeast Asia. During the Middle Ages, Central Asia was the economic centre of the world, and luxury goods were commonly traded in Europe. Physical money (either barter or precious metals) was dangerous to carry over a long distance. To address this, a burgeoning banking industry enabled the shift to movable wealth or capital, making it far easier and safer to trade across long distances. After the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Sail" title="Age of Sail">Age of Sail</a>, international trade mostly occurred along sea routes, notably to prevent intermediary countries from being able to control trade routes and the flow of goods.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In economics, <a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a> refers to a <a href="/wiki/Factor_of_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Factor of production">factor of production</a>. It can be leased in exchange for <a href="/wiki/Renting" title="Renting">rent</a>, and use of its various <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a> resources (trees, oil, metals).<a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_use">Land use</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Land use">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Land use</a> and <a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anthromes_map_and_timeline_(10,000_BCE_to_2017_CE).png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png/440px-Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png" decoding="async" width="440" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png/660px-Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png/880px-Anthromes_map_and_timeline_%2810%2C000_BCE_to_2017_CE%29.png 2x" data-file-width="4900" data-file-height="2817" /></a><figcaption>World map of land use as of 2017. A historical distribution of land use, beginning at 10,000 BCE, is shown at the bottom-right.</figcaption></figure> For more than 10,000 years, humans have engaged in activities on land such as <a href="/wiki/Hunting" title="Hunting">hunting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">foraging</a>, <a href="/wiki/Controlled_burn" title="Controlled burn">controlled burning</a>, <a href="/wiki/Land_clearing" class="mw-redirect" title="Land clearing">land clearing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a>. Beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a> and the spread of agriculture around the world, human land use has significantly altered <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_ecosystem" title="Terrestrial ecosystem">terrestrial ecosystems</a>, with an essentially global transformation of Earth's landscape by 3000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 30 <a href="#cite_note-156">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-157">[154]</a> From around 1750, human land use has increased at an accelerating rate due to the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, which created a greater demand for natural resources and caused rapid population growth.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 34  Agriculture includes both <a href="/wiki/Crop" title="Crop">crop</a> farming and <a href="/wiki/Animal_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">animal husbandry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Office1999-158">[155]</a> A third of Earth's land surface is used for agriculture,<a href="#cite_note-worldbankagri-159">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_7-160">[157]</a>: 126  with estimated 16.7 million km2 (6.4 million sq mi) of cropland and 33.5 million km2 (12.9 million sq mi) of pastureland.<a href="#cite_note-Hooke2012-89">[88]</a> This has had significant impacts on Earth's ecosystems. When land is cleared to make way for agriculture, native flora and fauna are replaced with newly introduced crops and livestock.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 31  Excessively high agricultural land use is driven by poor management practices (which lead to lower food yields, necessitating more land use), food demand, <a href="/wiki/Food_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Food waste">food waste</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production#Land_use" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">diets high in meat</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_7-160">[157]</a>: 126  <a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> has led to greater population growth in <a href="/wiki/Urban_areas" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban areas">urban areas</a> in the last century. Although urban areas make up less than 3 percent of Earth's land area, the global population shifted from a majority living in <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural areas</a> to a majority living in urban areas in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 35  People living in urban areas depend on food produced in rural areas outside of their cities, which creates greater demand for agriculture and drives <a href="/wiki/Land_use_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Land use change">land use change</a> well beyond city boundaries.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 35  Urbanization also displaces agricultural land because it mainly takes place on the most fertile land. Urban expansion in <a href="/wiki/Peri-urban" class="mw-redirect" title="Peri-urban">peri-urban</a> areas fragments agricultural and natural lands, forcing agriculture to move to less fertile land elsewhere. Because this land is less fertile, more land is needed for the same output, which increases the total agricultural land use.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_6-161">[158]</a>: 119  Another form of land use is <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a>, whereby <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> are extracted from the ground using a variety of methods. Evidence of mining activity dates back to around 3000 BCE in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 34  Important minerals include <a href="/wiki/Iron_ore" title="Iron ore">iron ore</a>, mined for use as a <a href="/wiki/Raw_material" title="Raw material">raw material</a>; <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a>, mined for <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">energy production</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstones</a>, mined for use in <a href="/wiki/Jewellery" title="Jewellery">jewellery</a> and <a href="/wiki/Currency" title="Currency">currency</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 34  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Land law</a></div> The phrase "<a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_land" title="Law of the land">the law of the land</a>" first appeared in 1215 in <a href="/wiki/Magna_Carta" title="Magna Carta">Magna Carta</a>, inspiring its later usage in the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Constitution">United States Constitution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-162">[159]</a> The idea of <a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">common land</a> also originated with medieval <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a>, and refers collective ownership of land, treating it as a <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> In environmental science, economics, and game theory, the <a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of the commons</a> refers to individuals' use of common spaces for their own gain, deteriorating the land overall by taking more than their fair share and not cooperating with others.<a href="#cite_note-163">[160]</a> The idea of common land suggests public ownership; but there is still some land that can be privatized as <a href="/wiki/Property" title="Property">property</a> for an individual, such as a <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlord</a> or <a href="/wiki/King" title="King">king</a>. In the developed world, land is expected to be privately owned by an individual with legal <a href="/wiki/Title_(property)" title="Title (property)">title</a>, but in the developing world the right to use land is often divided, with the rights to land resources being given to different people at different times for the same area of land.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> Beginning in the late 20th century, the international community has begun to recognise <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_land_rights" title="Indigenous land rights">Indigenous land rights</a> in law, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Waitangi" title="Treaty of Waitangi">Treaty of Waitangi</a> for <a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_people" title="Māori people">Māori</a> people, the <a href="/wiki/2008_Greenlandic_self-government_referendum" title="2008 Greenlandic self-government referendum">Act on Greenland Self-Government</a> for <a href="/wiki/Inuit" title="Inuit">Inuit</a> people, and the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-World's_Indigenous_Peoples-134">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Geopolitics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Territorial_dispute" title="Territorial dispute">Territorial dispute</a> and <a href="/wiki/Border" title="Border">Border</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg/220px-Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg/330px-Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg/440px-Kashmir_region._LOC_2003626427_-_showing_Kashmir_division_administered_by_India_in_neon_blue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4597" data-file-height="4920" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Kashmir" title="Kashmir">Kashmir</a>, showing border disputes between <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>. Undisputed borders between the three countries are also visible.</figcaption></figure> Borders are geographical boundaries imposed either by geographic features (<a href="/wiki/Ocean" title="Ocean">oceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mountain_range" title="Mountain range">mountain ranges</a>, <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>) or by <a href="/wiki/Political_entities" class="mw-redirect" title="Political entities">political entities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">governments</a>, states, or subnational entities). Political borders can be established through <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>, or mutual agreements between the political entities that reside in those areas;<a href="#cite_note-Slater-164">[161]</a> the creation of these agreements is called <a href="/wiki/National_boundary_delimitation" title="National boundary delimitation">boundary delimitation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sidaway-165">[162]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">wars</a> and other conflicts have occurred in efforts by participants to expand the land under their control, or to assert control of a specific area of considered to hold strategic, historical, or cultural significance. The <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> of the 13th and 14th centuries became the <a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest contiguous land empire</a> in <a href="/wiki/Human_history" title="Human history">history</a> through war and conquest.<a href="#cite_note-166">[163]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_the_United_States" title="19th century in the United States">19th-century United States</a>, a concept of <a href="/wiki/Manifest_destiny" title="Manifest destiny">manifest destiny</a> was developed by various groups, asserting that American settlers were destined to expand across <a href="/wiki/North_America" title="North America">North America</a>. This concept was used to justify military action against the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous peoples of North America">indigenous peoples of North America</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Mexico" title="Indigenous peoples of Mexico">of Mexico</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Merk215-167">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[167]</a> The aggression of <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> was motivated in part by the concept of <a href="/wiki/Lebensraum" title="Lebensraum">Lebensraum</a> ("living space"), which had first became a geopolitical goal of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Germany">Imperial Germany</a> in <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> (1914–1918) originally, as the core element of the <a href="/wiki/Septemberprogramm" title="Septemberprogramm">Septemberprogramm</a> of territorial expansion.<a href="#cite_note-E/N301-171">[168]</a> The most extreme form of this ideology was supported by the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> (NSDAP). Lebensraum was one of the leading motivations Nazi Germany had in initiating <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, and it would continue this policy until the end of World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Ref-3-172">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_issues">Environmental issues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Environmental issues">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A graph showing the rise of temperature over time since 2000, with different continents represented by different lines. Although varying year-to-year, an overall rise is visible." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg/220px-Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg/330px-Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg/440px-Temperature_Change_Measured_Over_Land_By_Region.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="247" /></a><figcaption>Temperature change, measured over land by region</figcaption></figure> Land degradation is "the reduction or loss of the biological or economic productivity and complexity" of land as a result of human activity.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 42  Land degradation is driven by many different activities, including agriculture, urbanization, energy production, and mining.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 43  Humans have altered more than three-quarters of ice-free land through habitation and other use, fundamentally changing ecosystems.<a href="#cite_note-:4-174">[171]</a> Human activity is a major factor in the <a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[172]</a> and human-caused climate change is causing <a href="/wiki/Rising_sea_levels" class="mw-redirect" title="Rising sea levels">rising sea levels</a> and ecosystem loss. Environmental scientists study land's ecosystems, natural resources, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flora" title="Flora">flora</a>), <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>, and the impact of human activity on these.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">[3]</a> Their recommendations have led to international action to prevent <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">desertification</a>, and encourage sustainable <a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">forest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waste_management" title="Waste management">waste</a> management.<a href="#cite_note-:5-176">[173]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation movement</a> lobbies for the protection of <a href="/wiki/Endangered_species" title="Endangered species">endangered species</a> and the protection of natural areas, such as <a href="/wiki/Parks" class="mw-redirect" title="Parks">parks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[174]</a>: 253  International frameworks have focused on analyzing how humans can meet their needs while using land more efficiently and preserving its natural resources, notably under the United Nations' <a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a> framework.<a href="#cite_note-:5-176">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soil_degradation">Soil degradation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Soil degradation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Soil_retrogression_and_degradation" title="Soil retrogression and degradation">Soil retrogression and degradation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:World_soil_degradation.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A world map showing the conditions of soil." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/World_soil_degradation.jpg/400px-World_soil_degradation.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/World_soil_degradation.jpg/600px-World_soil_degradation.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/World_soil_degradation.jpg/800px-World_soil_degradation.jpg 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="388" /></a><figcaption>World map of soil degradation</figcaption></figure> Human land use can cause soil to degrade, both in quality and in quantity.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 44  Soil degradation can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Agrochemical" title="Agrochemical">agrochemicals</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Fertilizer" title="Fertilizer">fertilizers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Herbicide" title="Herbicide">herbicides</a>), <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> development, and <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> among other activities.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 43–47  There are several different processes that lead to soil degradation. Physical processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Soil_erosion" title="Soil erosion">erosion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_sealing" title="Soil sealing">sealing</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Soil_crust#Physical_soil_crusts" title="Soil crust">crusting</a>, lead to the structural breakdown of the soil. This means water cannot penetrate the soil surface, causing <a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">surface runoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 44  Chemical processes, such as <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity" title="Soil salinity">salinization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_acidification" title="Soil acidification">acidification</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Toxication" title="Toxication">toxication</a>, lead to chemical imbalances in the soil.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 44  Salinization in particular is detrimental, as it makes land less productive for agriculture and affects at least 20% of all irrigated lands.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_7-160">[157]</a>: 137  Deliberate disruption of soil in the form of <a href="/wiki/Tillage" title="Tillage">tillage</a> can also alter biological processes in the soil, which leads to excessive <a href="/wiki/Mineralization_(soil_science)" title="Mineralization (soil science)">mineralization</a> and the loss of nutrients.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 44  <a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a> is a type of land degradation in <a href="/wiki/Drylands" title="Drylands">drylands</a> in which fertile areas become increasingly arid as a result of natural processes or human activities, resulting in loss of biological productivity.<a href="#cite_note-178">[175]</a> This spread of arid areas can be influenced by a variety of human factors, such as <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, improper <a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">land management</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">overgrazing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:2-179">[176]</a> anthropogenic <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Zeng_L17401-180">[177]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">soil</a>.<a href="#cite_note-181">[178]</a> Throughout geological history, desertification has occurred naturally, though in recent times it is greatly accelerated by human activity.<a href="#cite_note-:2-179">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-182">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-183">[180]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pollution">Pollution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Pollution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></div> Ground pollution is <a href="/wiki/Soil_contamination" title="Soil contamination">soil contamination</a> via <a href="/wiki/Pollutants" class="mw-redirect" title="Pollutants">pollutants</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Hazardous_waste" title="Hazardous waste">hazardous waste</a> or <a href="/wiki/Litter" title="Litter">litter</a>. Ground pollution can be prevented by properly monitoring and disposing of waste, along with reducing unnecessary chemical and plastic use. Unfortunately, proper disposal of waste often is not economically beneficial or technologically viable, leading to short-term solutions of waste disposal that pollute the earth. Examples include dumping harmful industrial byproducts, overusing agricultural fertilizers and other chemicals, and poorly maintaining <a href="/wiki/Landfills" class="mw-redirect" title="Landfills">landfills</a>. Some landfills can be thousands of acres in size, such as the <a href="/wiki/Apex_landfill" title="Apex landfill">Apex Regional landfill</a> in Las Vegas.<a href="#cite_note-184">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a> on land is the contamination of non-oceanic hydrological surface and underground water features such as <a href="/wiki/Lakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakes">lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ponds" class="mw-redirect" title="Ponds">ponds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rivers" class="mw-redirect" title="Rivers">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Streams" class="mw-redirect" title="Streams">streams</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquifers" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquifers">aquifers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reservoirs" class="mw-redirect" title="Reservoirs">reservoirs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a> as a result of human activities.<a href="#cite_note-Von_Sperling3-185">[182]</a>: 6  It may be caused by toxic substances (e.g., oil, metals, plastics, <a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">pesticides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persistent_organic_pollutant" title="Persistent organic pollutant">persistent organic pollutants</a>, industrial waste products),<a href="#cite_note-Burton_&_Pitt-186">[183]</a> stressful conditions (e.g., changes of pH, <a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">hypoxia</a> or anoxia, increased temperatures, excessive turbidity, unpleasant taste or odor, and changes of <a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">salinity</a>),<a href="#cite_note-187">[184]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic organisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Von_Sperling-188">[185]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biodiversity_loss">Biodiversity loss</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Biodiversity loss">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">Biodiversity loss</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea,_Julho-2016_(29399454651).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An overhead view of widespread deforestation in the Amazon rainforest, showing the border between jungle and areas recently clear-cut." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/220px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/330px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg/440px-Opera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_Hymenaea%2C_Julho-2016_%2829399454651%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Deforestation in the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>. Human activity can destroy previously diverse ecosystems.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">biodiversity</a> of Earth—the variety and variability of life—is threatened by climate change, human activities, and invasive species. Due to an increase in the rate of <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinction</a>, biodiversity loss is increasing.<a href="#cite_note-189">[186]</a> Agriculture can cause biodiversity loss as land is converted for agricultural use at a very high rate, particularly in the tropics, which directly causes habitat loss. The use of pesticides and herbicides can also negatively impact the health of local species.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 43  Ecosystems can also be divided and degraded by <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> development outside of urban areas.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 46  Biodiversity loss can sometimes be reversed through <a href="/wiki/Ecological_restoration" title="Ecological restoration">ecological restoration</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">ecological resilience</a>, such as through the restoration of abandoned agricultural areas;<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_3-173">[170]</a>: 45  however, it may also be permanent (e.g. through <a href="/wiki/Land_loss" title="Land loss">land loss</a>). The planet's ecosystem is quite sensitive: occasionally, minor changes from a healthy <a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Equilibrium point">equilibrium</a> can have dramatic influence on a <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> or <a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">food chain</a>, up to and including the <a href="/wiki/Coextinction" title="Coextinction">coextinction</a> of that entire food chain. Biodiversity loss leads to reduced <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a>, and can eventually threaten <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food security</a>.<a href="#cite_note-cardinale20122-190">[187]</a> Earth is currently undergoing its <a href="/wiki/Sixth_mass_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Sixth mass extinction">sixth mass extinction</a> (the Holocene extinction) as a result of human activities which push beyond the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">planetary boundaries</a>. So far, this extinction has proven irreversible.<a href="#cite_note-GhastlyFuture2-191">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-193">[190]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resource_depletion">Resource depletion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Resource depletion">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict resource</a></div> Although humans have used land for its <a href="/wiki/Natural_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural resources">natural resources</a> since ancient times, demand for resources such as <a href="/wiki/Timber" class="mw-redirect" title="Timber">timber</a>, <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> has grown exponentially since the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> due to population growth.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">[152]</a>: 34  When a natural resource is depleted to the point of <a href="/wiki/Diminishing_returns" title="Diminishing returns">diminishing returns</a>, it is considered the overexploitation of that resource.<a href="#cite_note-194">[191]</a> Some natural resources, such as timber, are considered renewable, because with sustainable practices they replenish to their previous levels.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_5-195">[192]</a>: 90  <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuels" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuels">Fossil fuels</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">coal</a> are not considered renewable, as they take millions of years to form, with the current supply of coal expected to peak in the middle of the 21st century.<a href="#cite_note-GLO_Chapter_5-195">[192]</a>: 90  <a href="/wiki/Economic_materialism" title="Economic materialism">Economic materialism</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Consumerism" title="Consumerism">consumerism</a>, has influenced destructive patterns of modern resource usage, in contrast with pre-industrial usage.<a href="#cite_note-196">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a>]</div> Different varieties of landscapes: <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional" style="max-width: 978px;"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Central Park, New York City"><img alt="parkland in the middle of a big city" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg/120px-2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg/180px-2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg/240px-2010_New_York_City_Central_Park_aerial.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3271" data-file-height="2453" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Central_Park" title="Central Park">Central Park</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sahara Desert, Libya"><img alt="sand hills in a desert" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/120px-Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/180px-Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg/240px-Libya_4985_Tadrart_Acacus_Luca_Galuzzi_2007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1333" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Sahara_Desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara Desert">Sahara Desert</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Amazon rainforest, Peru"><img alt="a large forest" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG/120px-7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG/180px-7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG/240px-7_-_Itahuania_-_Ao%C3%BBt_2008.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Amazon_rainforest" title="Amazon rainforest">Amazon rainforest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_(flickr).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Permafrost, Antarctica"><img alt="Ice and snow on the ground" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg/120px-Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg/180px-Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg/240px-Mount_Vinson_from_NW_at_Vinson_Plateau_by_Christian_Stangl_%28flickr%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="991" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Permafrost" title="Permafrost">Permafrost</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Spiaggia_rosa,_isola_di_budelli,_sardegna.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Seaside in Budelli, Italy"><img alt="Seaside in Budelli, Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg/120px-Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg/180px-Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg/240px-Spiaggia_rosa%2C_isola_di_budelli%2C_sardegna.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3870" data-file-height="1790" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Seaside</a> in <a href="/wiki/Budelli" title="Budelli">Budelli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Foopass.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Meadow in the Swiss Alps"><img alt="a meadow between mountains" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Foopass.jpg/120px-Foopass.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Foopass.jpg/180px-Foopass.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Foopass.jpg/240px-Foopass.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Alps" title="Swiss Alps">Swiss Alps</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Farming_near_Klingerstown,_Pennsylvania.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Farmland in Pennsylvania"><img alt="Hilly farmland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/120px-Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/180px-Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg/240px-Farming_near_Klingerstown%2C_Pennsylvania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3223" data-file-height="2119" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Farm" title="Farm">Farmland</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pennsylvania" title="Pennsylvania">Pennsylvania</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_land" title="Public land">Public land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solid_earth" title="Solid earth">Solid earth</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-VolcsExactCount-61"><a href="#cite_ref-VolcsExactCount_61-0">^</a> The exact number of volcanoes depends on the geographic boundaries used by the source. This number excludes Antarctica and the western islands of Indonesia and includes the Izu, Bonin, and Mariana Islands. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes <a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas_and_shrublands" class="mw-redirect" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands">Temperate grasslands, savannas and shrublands</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Biomes-116">[115]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> World Wildlife Fund's definition of 14 biomes includes <a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">Mangroves</a>, which are both wetlands.<a href="#cite_note-Biomes-116">[115]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Land&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Allaby_&_Park-1"><a href="#cite_ref-Allaby_&_Park_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAllabyPark2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Allaby" title="Michael Allaby">Allaby, M.</a>; Park, C. (2013). A Dictionary of Environment and Conservation. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 239. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964166-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-964166-6"><bdi>978-0-19-964166-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Environment+and+Conservation&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-964166-6&rft.aulast=Allaby&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Park%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/land">"Definition of LAND"</a>. www.merriam-webster.com. July 31, 2024. Retrieved August 5, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.merriam-webster.com&rft.atitle=Definition+of+LAND&rft.date=2024-07-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Global_Land_Outlook-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Global_Land_Outlook_3-9">j</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch1.pdf">"Chapter 1 – Meaning of Land"</a> (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a>. 2017. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-95110-48-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-95110-48-9"><bdi>978-92-95110-48-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220920172701/https://knowledge.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch1.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on September 20, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Global+Land+Outlook&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=United+Nations+Convention+to+Combat+Desertification&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-92-95110-48-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fknowledge.unccd.int%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F2018-06%2FGLO%2520English_Ch1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tarbuck-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tarbuck_4-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTarbuckLutgens2016" class="citation book cs1">Tarbuck, Edward J.; Lutgens, Frederick K. (2016). Earth: An Introduction to Physical Geology (12th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-407425-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-407425-2"><bdi>978-0-13-407425-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Earth%3A+An+Introduction+to+Physical+Geology&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-13-407425-2&rft.aulast=Tarbuck&rft.aufirst=Edward+J.&rft.au=Lutgens%2C+Frederick+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGniadek2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Gniadek, Melissa Myra (August 2011). Unsettled spaces, Unsettled stories; Travel and Historical Narrative in the United States, 1799-1859 (PhD). <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University" title="Cornell University">Cornell University</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Unsettled+spaces%2C+Unsettled+stories%3B+Travel+and+Historical+Narrative+in+the+United+States%2C+1799-1859&rft.inst=Cornell+University&rft.date=2011-08&rft.aulast=Gniadek&rft.aufirst=Melissa+Myra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grosby-6"><a href="#cite_ref-Grosby_6-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrosby2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Grosby" title="Steven Grosby">Grosby, Steven</a> (2005). Nationalism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-177628-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-177628-1"><bdi>978-0-19-177628-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Nationalism%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-19-177628-1&rft.aulast=Grosby&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/England">"England"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved October 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=England&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2FEngland&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/Greenland#etymonline_v_11952">"Greenland"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved October 20, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Greenland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Fword%2FGreenland%23etymonline_v_11952&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.etymonline.com/word/New%20Zealand#etymonline_v_35532">"New Zealand"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. 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London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 365. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144545/https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/macdonell_query.py?page=365">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved September 1, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+practical+Sanskrit+dictionary+with+transliteration%2C+accentuation%2C+and+etymological+analysis+throughout&rft.place=London&rft.pages=365&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1929&rft.aulast=Macdonell&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdsal.uchicago.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fapp%2Fmacdonell_query.py%3F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFord2014" class="citation news cs1">Ford, Matt (February 7, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/02/kazakhstans-president-is-tired-of-his-countrys-name-ending-in-stan/283676/">"Kazakhstan's President Is Tired of His Country's Name Ending in 'Stan'"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. 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Retrieved December 26, 2007. <q>... on January 6, 1912, Wegener... proposed instead a grand vision of drifting continents and widening seas to explain the evolution of Earth's geography.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=On+the+Shoulders+of+Giants&rft.atitle=Alfred+Wegener+%281880%E2%80%931930%29%3A+A+Geographic+Jigsaw+Puzzle&rft.date=2001-02-08&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2FFeatures%2FWegener%2Fwegener_2.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/facts/plate-boundaries.html">"What are the different types of plate tectonic boundaries?"</a>. 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Retrieved April 3, 2022. <q>Our analysis of pedon data from several disturbed soil profiles suggests that physical disturbances and anthropogenic inputs of various materials (direct effects) can greatly alter the amount of C stored in these human "made" soils.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Environmental+Pollution&rft.atitle=Soil+carbon+pools+and+fluxes+in+urban+ecosystems&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=S107-S118&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0269-7491%2801%2900263-9&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11833898&rft.aulast=Pouyat&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft.au=Groffman%2C+Peter&rft.au=Yesilonis%2C+Ian&rft.au=Hernandez%2C+Luis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Fscience%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Fpii%2FS0269749101002639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davidson-103"><a href="#cite_ref-Davidson_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavidsonJanssens2006" class="citation journal cs1">Davidson, Eric A.; Janssens, Ivan A. 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Vol. 4: The Crust (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. pp. 1–51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-098300-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-098300-4"><bdi>978-0-08-098300-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220903010959/https://www.sciencedirect.com/referencework/9780080983004/treatise-on-geochemistry">Archived</a> from the original on September 3, 2022. 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Retrieved October 10, 2022. <q>Earth (भूमि, bhūmi) is one of the five primary elements (pañcabhūta)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Wisdom+Library&rft.atitle=Bhumi%2C+Bh%C5%ABmi%2C+Bh%C5%ABm%C4%AB%3A+41+definitions&rft.date=2009-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wisdomlib.org%2Fdefinition%2Fbhumi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-World's_Indigenous_Peoples-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-World's_Indigenous_Peoples_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-World's_Indigenous_Peoples_134-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Department_of_Economic_and_Social_Affairs" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Economic_and_Social_Affairs" title="United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs">United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.un.org/development/desa/indigenouspeoples/wp-content/uploads/sites/19/2021/03/State-of-Worlds-Indigenous-Peoples-Vol-V-Final.pdf">"State of the World's Indigenous Peoples, Volume V, Rights to Lands, Territories and Resources"</a> (PDF). 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Werner">Werner, E.T.C.</a> (1922). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15250">Myths & Legends of China</a>. New York: <a href="/wiki/George_G._Harrap_and_Co." title="George G. Harrap and Co.">George G. Harrap and Co.</a> Ltd. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080907150422/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15250">Archived</a> from the original on September 7, 2008. Retrieved March 14, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myths+%26+Legends+of+China&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=George+G.+Harrap+and+Co.+Ltd.&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Werner&rft.aufirst=E.T.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F15250&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindow2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lindow" title="John Lindow">Lindow, John</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC">Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983969-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-983969-8"><bdi>978-0-19-983969-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221014075024/https://books.google.com/books?id=KlT7tv3eMSwC">Archived</a> from the original on October 14, 2022. Retrieved October 10, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Norse+Mythology%3A+A+Guide+to+Gods%2C+Heroes%2C+Rituals%2C+and+Beliefs&rft.pages=205&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-983969-8&rft.aulast=Lindow&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKlT7tv3eMSwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPinch2002" class="citation book cs1">Pinch, Geraldine (2002). Handbook of Egyptian Mythology. Handbooks of World Mythology. <a href="/wiki/ABC-CLIO" class="mw-redirect" title="ABC-CLIO">ABC-CLIO</a>. pp. 135, 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-57607-763-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-57607-763-2"><bdi>1-57607-763-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Egyptian+Mythology&rft.series=Handbooks+of+World+Mythology&rft.pages=135%2C+173&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=1-57607-763-2&rft.aulast=Pinch&rft.aufirst=Geraldine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPritchard2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_B._Pritchard" title="James B. Pritchard">Pritchard, James B.</a>, ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA374">Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament with Supplement</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. 374. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1400882762" title="Special:BookSources/978-1400882762"><bdi>978-1400882762</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210923022133/https://books.google.com/books?id=UEWWCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA374">Archived</a> from the original on September 23, 2021. Retrieved November 10, 2020 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Near+Eastern+Texts+Relating+to+the+Old+Testament+with+Supplement&rft.pages=374&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1400882762&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUEWWCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA374&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berlin_2011_189-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Berlin_2011_189_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerlin2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Adele_Berlin" title="Adele Berlin">Berlin, Adele</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&q=Bible+Cosmology&pg=PA189">"Cosmology and creation"</a>. In Berlin, Adele; Grossman, Maxine (eds.). The Oxford Dictionary of the Jewish Religion. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. pp. 188–189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973004-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-973004-9"><bdi>978-0-19-973004-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160611032518/https://books.google.com/books?id=hKAaJXvUaUoC&pg=PA189&dq=Bible+Cosmology&hl=en&sa=X&ei=jvHuTu_wDcStiQeFz62dBw&ved=0CGcQ6AEwCTgo#v=onepage&q=Bible%20Cosmology&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on June 11, 2016 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Cosmology+and+creation&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Jewish+Religion&rft.pages=188-189&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-973004-9&rft.aulast=Berlin&rft.aufirst=Adele&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhKAaJXvUaUoC%26q%3DBible%2BCosmology%26pg%3DPA189&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGottlieb2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anthony_Gottlieb" title="Anthony Gottlieb">Gottlieb, Anthony</a> (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dreamofreasonhis00anth/page/6">The Dream of Reason</a>. <a href="/wiki/Penguin_Books" title="Penguin Books">Penguin</a>. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04951-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-04951-0"><bdi>978-0-393-04951-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dream+of+Reason&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-393-04951-0&rft.aulast=Gottlieb&rft.aufirst=Anthony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdreamofreasonhis00anth%2Fpage%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Burton_Russell" title="Jeffrey Burton Russell">Russell, Jeffrey B.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110903182955/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html">"The Myth of the Flat Earth"</a>. <a href="/wiki/American_Scientific_Affiliation" title="American Scientific Affiliation">American Scientific Affiliation</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asa3.org/ASA/topics/history/1997Russell.html">the original</a> on September 3, 2011. Retrieved March 14, 2007;</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Flat+Earth&rft.pub=American+Scientific+Affiliation&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asa3.org%2FASA%2Ftopics%2Fhistory%2F1997Russell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> but see also <a href="/wiki/Cosmas_Indicopleustes" title="Cosmas Indicopleustes">Cosmas Indicopleustes</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1998" class="citation web cs1">Jacobs, James Q. (February 1, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070423055810/http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html">"Archaeogeodesy, a Key to Prehistory"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jqjacobs.net/astro/aegeo.html">the original</a> on April 23, 2007. Retrieved April 21, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archaeogeodesy%2C+a+Key+to+Prehistory&rft.date=1998-02-01&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=James+Q.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jqjacobs.net%2Fastro%2Faegeo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-independent-144"><a href="#cite_ref-independent_144-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLenarduzzi2016" class="citation news cs1">Lenarduzzi, Thea (January 30, 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/europe/the-worlds-first-motorway-piero-puricellis-masterpiece-is-the-focus-of-an-unlikely-pilgrimage-a6840816.html">"The motorway that built Italy: Piero Puricelli's masterpiece"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Independent" title="The Independent">The Independent</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/europe/the-worlds-first-motorway-piero-puricellis-masterpiece-is-the-focus-of-an-unlikely-pilgrimage-a6840816.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 26, 2022. Retrieved May 12, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=The+motorway+that+built+Italy%3A+Piero+Puricelli%27s+masterpiece&rft.date=2016-01-30&rft.aulast=Lenarduzzi&rft.aufirst=Thea&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Ftravel%2Feurope%2Fthe-worlds-first-motorway-piero-puricellis-masterpiece-is-the-focus-of-an-unlikely-pilgrimage-a6840816.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-motorwebmuseum-145"><a href="#cite_ref-motorwebmuseum_145-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.motorwebmuseum.it/en/places/varese/the-milano-laghi-by-piero-puricelli-the-first-motorway-in-the-world/">"The "Milano-Laghi" by Piero Puricelli, the first motorway in the world"</a>. Retrieved May 10, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+%22Milano-Laghi%22+by+Piero+Puricelli%2C+the+first+motorway+in+the+world&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.motorwebmuseum.it%2Fen%2Fplaces%2Fvarese%2Fthe-milano-laghi-by-piero-puricelli-the-first-motorway-in-the-world%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hofman-146"><a href="#cite_ref-hofman_146-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHofmann-WellenhofLegatWieserLichtenegger2007" class="citation book cs1">Hofmann-Wellenhof, Bernhard; Legat, K.; Wieser, M.; Lichtenegger, H. (2007). Navigation: Principles of Positioning and Guidances. <a href="/wiki/Springer_Science%2BBusiness_Media" title="Springer Science+Business Media">Springer</a>. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-211-00828-7"><bdi>978-3-211-00828-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Navigation%3A+Principles+of+Positioning+and+Guidances&rft.pages=5-6&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-3-211-00828-7&rft.aulast=Hofmann-Wellenhof&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rft.au=Legat%2C+K.&rft.au=Wieser%2C+M.&rft.au=Lichtenegger%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/landmark">"LANDMARK | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary"</a>. dictionary.cambridge.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813232254/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/landmark">Archived</a> from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved August 2, 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dictionary.cambridge.org&rft.atitle=LANDMARK+%7C+meaning+in+the+Cambridge+English+Dictionary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.cambridge.org%2Fdictionary%2Fenglish%2Flandmark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WTO2012Highlights-148"><a href="#cite_ref-WTO2012Highlights_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120709215809/http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf">"2012 Tourism Highlights"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/World_Tourism_Organization" class="mw-redirect" title="World Tourism Organization">World Tourism Organization</a>. June 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mkt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/unwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on July 9, 2012. Retrieved June 17, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=2012+Tourism+Highlights&rft.pub=World+Tourism+Organization&rft.date=2012-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmkt.unwto.org%2Fsites%2Fall%2Ffiles%2Fdocpdf%2Funwtohighlights12enlr_1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:12-149">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:12_149-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_149-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:12_149-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernández-Armesto2007" class="citation book cs1">Fernández-Armesto, Felipe (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ">Pathfinders: A Global History of Exploration</a>. <a href="/wiki/W._W._Norton_%26_Company" title="W. W. Norton & Company">W. W. Norton & Company</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24247-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-24247-8"><bdi>978-0-393-24247-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=6bYQAAAAQBAJ">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathfinders%3A+A+Global+History+of+Exploration&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-393-24247-8&rft.aulast=Fern%C3%A1ndez-Armesto&rft.aufirst=Felipe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6bYQAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-150"><a href="#cite_ref-:03_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoyal_Geographical_Society2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Geographical_Society" title="Royal Geographical Society">Royal Geographical Society</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ">Atlas of Exploration</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534318-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-534318-2"><bdi>978-0-19-534318-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221016144552/https://books.google.com/books?id=uo8SAQAAIAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2022. Retrieved October 6, 2022 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Exploration&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-534318-2&rft.au=Royal+Geographical+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Duo8SAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watson2005_150-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Watson2005_150_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Watson_(intellectual_historian)" title="Peter Watson (intellectual historian)">Watson, Peter</a> (2005). Ideas: A History of Thought and Invention from Fire to Freud. New York: <a href="/wiki/HarperCollins" title="HarperCollins">HarperCollins</a> Publishers. Introduction. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621064-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-621064-3"><bdi>978-0-06-621064-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ideas%3A+A+History+of+Thought+and+Invention+from+Fire+to+Freud&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=Introduction&rft.pub=HarperCollins+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-06-621064-3&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Geographic_Society2019" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a> (July 26, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/silk-road/">"The Silk Road"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Geographic_Society" title="National Geographic Society">National Geographic Society</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220323201006/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/silk-road/">Archived</a> from the original on March 23, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Geographic+Society&rft.atitle=The+Silk+Road&rft.date=2019-07-26&rft.au=National+Geographic+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feducation.nationalgeographic.org%2Fresource%2Fsilk-road%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger" class="citation web cs1">Singer, Graciela Gestoso. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/241848">"Graciela Gestoso Singer, "Amber in the Ancient Near East", i-Medjat No. 2 (December 2008). Papyrus Electronique des Ankou"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925203419/https://www.academia.edu/241848">Archived</a> from the original on September 25, 2022. Retrieved September 25, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Graciela+Gestoso+Singer%2C+%22Amber+in+the+Ancient+Near+East%22%2C+i-Medjat+No.+2+%28December+2008%29.+Papyrus+Electronique+des+Ankou.&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=Graciela+Gestoso&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F241848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/land.asp">"Understanding Land in Business and Economics"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Investopedia" title="Investopedia">Investopedia</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220926020450/https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/land.asp">Archived</a> from the original on September 26, 2022. Retrieved September 18, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Investopedia&rft.atitle=Understanding+Land+in+Business+and+Economics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.investopedia.com%2Fterms%2Fl%2Fland.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GLO_Chapter_2-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GLO_Chapter_2_155-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unccd.int/sites/default/files/2018-06/GLO%20English_Ch2.pdf">"Chapter 2 – Brief History of Land Use"</a> (PDF). Global Land Outlook (Report). <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Convention_to_Combat_Desertification" title="United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification">United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification</a>. 2017. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-95110-48-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-95110-48-9"><bdi>978-92-95110-48-9</bdi></a>. 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Gauthier, Nicolas; Goldewijk, Kees Klein; Bird, Rebecca Bliege; <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Boivin" title="Nicole Boivin">Boivin, Nicole</a>; <a href="/wiki/Sandra_D%C3%ADaz_(ecologist)" title="Sandra Díaz (ecologist)">Díaz, Sandra</a>; <a href="/wiki/Dorian_Fuller" title="Dorian Fuller">Fuller, Dorian Q.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jacquelyn_Gill" title="Jacquelyn Gill">Gill, Jacquelyn L.</a>; Kaplan, Jed O.; Kingston, Naomi; <a href="/wiki/Harvey_Locke" title="Harvey Locke">Locke, Harvey</a> (April 27, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8092386">"People have shaped most of terrestrial nature for at least 12,000 years"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences">Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences</a>. 118 (17): e2023483118. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021PNAS..11823483E">2021PNAS..11823483E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.2023483118">10.1073/pnas.2023483118</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0027-8424">0027-8424</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8092386">8092386</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33875599">33875599</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=People+have+shaped+most+of+terrestrial+nature+for+at+least+12%2C000+years&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=e2023483118&rft.date=2021-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8092386%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021PNAS..11823483E&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33875599&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.2023483118&rft.issn=0027-8424&rft.aulast=Ellis&rft.aufirst=Erle+C.&rft.au=Gauthier%2C+Nicolas&rft.au=Goldewijk%2C+Kees+Klein&rft.au=Bird%2C+Rebecca+Bliege&rft.au=Boivin%2C+Nicole&rft.au=D%C3%ADaz%2C+Sandra&rft.au=Fuller%2C+Dorian+Q.&rft.au=Gill%2C+Jacquelyn+L.&rft.au=Kaplan%2C+Jed+O.&rft.au=Kingston%2C+Naomi&rft.au=Locke%2C+Harvey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8092386&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Office1999-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Office1999_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC&pg=PA77">Safety and health in agriculture</a>. <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>. 1999. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-2-111517-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-2-111517-5"><bdi>978-92-2-111517-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110722061757/http://books.google.com/books?id=GtBa6XIW_aQC">Archived</a> from the original on July 22, 2011. Retrieved September 13, 2010 – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>. <q>defined agriculture as 'all forms of activities connected with growing, harvesting and primary processing of all types of crops, with the breeding, raising and caring for animals, and with tending gardens and nurseries'.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safety+and+health+in+agriculture&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=International+Labour+Organization&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-92-2-111517-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGtBa6XIW_aQC%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-worldbankagri-159"><a href="#cite_ref-worldbankagri_159-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.AGRI.ZS">"Agricultural land (% of land area) | Data"</a>. data.worldbank.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190530044611/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ag.lnd.agri.zs">Archived</a> from the original on May 30, 2019. 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Oxford History of the United States. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TTzRCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA706">706</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972657-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972657-8"><bdi>978-0-19-972657-8</bdi></a> – via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Hath+God+Wrought%3A+The+Transformation+of+America%2C+1815%E2%80%931848&rft.series=Oxford+History+of+the+United+States&rft.pages=706&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-972657-8&rft.aulast=Howe&rft.aufirst=D.W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTTzRCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandazzoHitt2019" class="citation book cs1">Randazzo, Michele E.; Hitt, John R. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Psychology&rft.atitle=The+Not-So-Dark+Side+of+Materialism%3A+Can+Public+Versus+Private+Contexts+Make+Materialists+Less+Eco-Unfriendly%3F&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=790&rft.date=2019-04-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460118%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1664-1078&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31024411&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffpsyg.2019.00790&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=Luxiao&rft.au=Gu%2C+Dian&rft.au=Jiang%2C+Jiang&rft.au=Sun%2C+Ying&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6460118&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALand" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Air_pollution" title="Air pollution">Pollution / quality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Ambient_Air_Quality_Standards" title="National Ambient Air Quality Standards">Ambient standards (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_index" title="Air quality index">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_quality_law" title="Air quality law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act (US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Emissions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airshed" title="Airshed">Airshed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emissions_trading" title="Emissions trading">Trading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reducing_emissions_from_deforestation_and_forest_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation">Deforestation (REDD)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioenergy" title="Bioenergy">Bio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_law" title="Energy law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_resources" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy resources">Resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuels</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fuel_gas" title="Fuel gas">gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_coal" title="Peak coal">peak coal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_gas" title="Peak gas">peak gas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peak_oil" title="Peak oil">peak oil</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_energy" title="Geothermal energy">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydropower" title="Hydropower">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_energy" title="Solar energy">Solar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shade_(shadow)" title="Shade (shadow)">shade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Land</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_land" title="Agricultural land">Agricultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arable_land" title="Arable land">arable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_farmland" title="Peak farmland">peak farmland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_(agriculture)" title="Field (agriculture)">Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape" title="Landscape">Landscape</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cityscape" title="Cityscape">cityscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seascape" title="Seascape">seascape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soundscape" title="Soundscape">soundscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewshed" title="Viewshed">viewshed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_law" title="Land law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_management" title="Land management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_conservation" title="Habitat conservation">habitat conservation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">Minerals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gemstone" title="Gemstone">gemstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_mineral" title="Industrial mineral">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ore" title="Ore">ore</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metal" title="Metal">metal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mining_law" title="Mining law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_mining" title="Sand mining">sand</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_minerals" title="Peak minerals">peak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peak_copper" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak copper">copper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_phosphorus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peak phosphorus">phosphorus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_rights" title="Mineral rights">rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil" title="Soil">Soil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soil_conservation" title="Soil conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_fertility" title="Soil fertility">fertility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_health" title="Soil health">health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_resilience" title="Soil resilience">resilience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use" title="Land use">Use</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Land-use_planning" title="Land-use planning">planning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_space_reserve" title="Open space reserve">reserve</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">Life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopiracy" title="Biopiracy">biopiracy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">Biosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushfood" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushfood">Bushfood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishery" title="Fishery">Fisheries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_fisheries" title="Climate change and fisheries">climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_law" title="Fisheries law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">Forests</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forest_genetic_resources" title="Forest genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_law" title="Forestry law">law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_management" title="Forest management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-timber_forest_product" title="Non-timber forest product">non-timber products</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">Game</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Game_law" title="Game law">law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Marine conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadow" title="Meadow">Meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pasture" title="Pasture">Pasture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plant_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant Treaty">FAO Plant Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_genetic_resources" title="Plant genetic resources">genetic resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_bank" title="Gene bank">gene banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_plants_used_in_herbalism" title="List of plants used in herbalism">herbal medicines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UPOV" class="mw-redirect" title="UPOV">UPOV Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood" title="Wood">wood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangeland" title="Rangeland">Rangeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_bank" title="Seed bank">Seed bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife" title="Wildlife">Wildlife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_conservation" title="Wildlife conservation">conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_management" title="Wildlife management">management</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Types / location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">Aquifer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquifer_storage_and_recovery" title="Aquifer storage and recovery">storage and recovery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">Drinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fresh_water" title="Fresh water">Fresh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">Groundwater</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_pollution" title="Groundwater pollution">pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_remediation" title="Groundwater remediation">remediation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iceberg" title="Iceberg">bergs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glacial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polar_ice_cap" title="Polar ice cap">polar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huerta" title="Huerta">huerta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_resources" title="Marine resources">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">Rain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rainwater_harvesting" title="Rainwater harvesting">harvesting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stormwater" title="Stormwater">Stormwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_water" title="Surface water">Surface water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">reclaimed water</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drainage_basin" title="Drainage basin">Watershed</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Desalination" title="Desalination">Desalination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">Floods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Water law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leaching_(agriculture)" title="Leaching (agriculture)">Leaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_sanitation" title="Improved sanitation">improved</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Scarcity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_security" title="Water security">Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_efficiency" title="Water efficiency">Efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conflict" title="Water conflict">Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_water" title="Peak water">Peak water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_privatization" title="Water privatization">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_quality" title="Water quality">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_right" title="Water right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Improved_water_source" title="Improved water source">improved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commons" title="Commons">Commons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_commons" title="Global commons">global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_land" title="Common land">land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tragedy_of_the_commons" title="Tragedy of the commons">tragedy of</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_economics" title="Natural resource economics">Economics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_(economics)" title="Land (economics)">land</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_natural_resources" title="Exploitation of natural resources">Exploitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_Overshoot_Day" title="Earth Overshoot Day">Earth Overshoot Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resource_management" title="Natural resource management">Management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital" title="Natural capital">Natural capital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_capital_accounting" title="Natural capital accounting">accounting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_good" title="Environmental good">good</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_heritage" title="Natural heritage">Natural heritage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_reserve" title="Nature reserve">Nature reserve</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remnant_natural_area" title="Remnant natural area">remnant natural area</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilderness" title="Wilderness">Wilderness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.0em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Resource" title="Resource">Resource</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common-pool_resource" title="Common-pool resource">Common-pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Conflict resource">Conflict (perpetuation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_curse" title="Resource curse">Curse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource extraction">Extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_nationalism" title="Resource nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a 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