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Specific genes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specific_genes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pathophysiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pathophysiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Pathophysiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pathophysiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pathophysiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Stages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Stages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Early AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intermediate_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intermediate_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Intermediate AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intermediate_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3 Late AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dry_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dry_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.3.1 Dry AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dry_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_atrophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_atrophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4 Geographic atrophy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_atrophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Wet_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wet_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.4.1 Wet AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wet_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diagnosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagnosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Diagnosis </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Diagnosis subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Diagnosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Histology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Histology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Histology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Histology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Management" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Management"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Management </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Management-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Management subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Management-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Dietary_supplements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dietary_supplements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Dietary supplements </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dietary_supplements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dry_AMD_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dry_AMD_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Dry AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dry_AMD_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wet_AMD_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wet_AMD_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Wet AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wet_AMD_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptive_devices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptive_devices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Adaptive devices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adaptive_devices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epidemiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epidemiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Epidemiology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Epidemiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Research </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Research-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Research subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Association_with_other_age-related_diseases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Association_with_other_age-related_diseases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Association with other age-related diseases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Association_with_other_age-related_diseases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_testing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_testing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Genetic testing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genetic_testing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genome_editing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genome_editing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Genome editing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Genome_editing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-RPE,_L-DOPA_and_Melanin_in_amelioration_of_wet_AMD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#RPE,_L-DOPA_and_Melanin_in_amelioration_of_wet_AMD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 RPE, L-DOPA and Melanin in amelioration of wet AMD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-RPE,_L-DOPA_and_Melanin_in_amelioration_of_wet_AMD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Artificial_intelligence_for_prediction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Artificial_intelligence_for_prediction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Artificial intelligence for prediction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Artificial_intelligence_for_prediction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Other types </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_cases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_cases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notable cases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_cases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Macular degeneration</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" > 40 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%83%D8%B3_%D8%A8%D9%82%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="تنكس بقعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تنكس بقعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneraci%C3%B3_macular_associada_a_l%27edat" title="Degeneració macular associada a l'edat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Degeneració macular associada a l'edat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makul%C3%A1rn%C3%AD_degenerace" title="Makulární degenerace – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Makulární degenerace" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuladegeneration" title="Makuladegeneration – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Makuladegeneration" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maakuli_degeneratsioon" title="Maakuli degeneratsioon – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Maakuli degeneratsioon" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%BA%CF%86%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CF%89%CF%87%CF%81%CE%AC%CF%82_%CE%BA%CE%B7%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%B4%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Εκφύλιση της ωχράς κηλίδας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εκφύλιση της ωχράς κηλίδας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneraci%C3%B3n_macular_asociada_a_la_edad" title="Degeneración macular asociada a la edad – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Degeneración macular asociada a la edad" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makula-endekapen" title="Makula-endekapen – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Makula-endekapen" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%87%DB%8C_%D9%84%DA%A9%D9%87_%D8%B2%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="تباهی لکه زرد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تباهی لکه زرد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rescence_maculaire_li%C3%A9e_%C3%A0_l%27%C3%A2ge" title="Dégénérescence maculaire liée à l'âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dégénérescence maculaire liée à l'âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dexeneraci%C3%B3n_macular" title="Dexeneración macular – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dexeneración macular" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%99%A9%EB%B0%98%EB%B3%80%EC%84%B1" title="황반변성 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="황반변성" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AC%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A1" title="Մակուլոդեգեներացիա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մակուլոդեգեներացիա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracija_makule" title="Degeneracija makule – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Degeneracija makule" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerasi_makula" title="Degenerasi makula – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Degenerasi makula" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenerazione_maculare" title="Degenerazione maculare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Degenerazione maculare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9F_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%99" title="ניוון מקולרי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ניוון מקולרי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuladegener%C3%A1ci%C3%B3" title="Makuladegeneráció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Makuladegeneráció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC_%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B7%E0%B5%BB" title="മാക്യുലാർ ഡീജനറേഷൻ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="മാക്യുലാർ ഡീജനറേഷൻ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pereputan_makular" title="Pereputan makular – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pereputan makular" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maculadegeneratie" title="Maculadegeneratie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Maculadegeneratie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BB%84%E6%96%91%E5%A4%89%E6%80%A7%E7%97%87" title="黄斑変性症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="黄斑変性症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makuladegenerasjon" title="Makuladegenerasjon – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Makuladegenerasjon" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%81%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%B0_%E0%AC%A1%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%A8%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%A8" title="ମାକୁଲାର ଡିଜେନେରେସନ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ମାକୁଲାର ଡିଜେନେରେସନ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zwyrodnienie_plamki_%C5%BC%C3%B3%C5%82tej" title="Zwyrodnienie plamki żółtej – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zwyrodnienie plamki żółtej" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degenera%C3%A7%C3%A3o_macular" title="Degeneração macular – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Degeneração macular" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Макулодистрофия – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Макулодистрофия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degjenerimi_makular" title="Degjenerimi makular – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Degjenerimi makular" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degeneracija_makule" title="Degeneracija makule – 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Vision loss due to damage to the macula of the eye</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the advanced form, see <a href="/wiki/Geographic_atrophy" title="Geographic atrophy">Geographic atrophy</a>.</div> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Macular degeneration</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Other names</th><td class="infobox-data">Age-related macular degeneration</td></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg/220px-Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg/330px-Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Intermediate_age_related_macular_degeneration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="343" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Picture of the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">back of the eye</a> showing intermediate age-related macular degeneration</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optometry" title="Optometry">optometry</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">Blurred</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">no vision</a> in the center of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Visual_hallucination" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual hallucination">Visual hallucinations</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Usual onset</th><td class="infobox-data">Older people<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types</th><td class="infobox-data">Early, intermediate, late<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Damage to the <a href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of retina">macula</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Risk_factor" title="Risk factor">Risk factors</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Genetics, smoking<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic method</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eye_examination" title="Eye examination">Eye examination</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Prevention</th><td class="infobox-data">Exercising, eating well, not smoking<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Treatment</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Anti-VEGF_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-VEGF medication">Anti-VEGF medication</a> injected into the eye, <a href="/wiki/Laser_coagulation" title="Laser coagulation">laser coagulation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Photodynamic_therapy" title="Photodynamic therapy">photodynamic therapy</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Frequency</th><td class="infobox-data">8.7% global prevalence in 2020<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Macular degeneration, also known as age-related macular degeneration (AMD or ARMD), is a medical condition which may result in <a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">blurred</a> or <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">no vision</a> in the center of the <a href="/wiki/Visual_field" title="Visual field">visual field</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Early on there are often no symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Over time, however, some people experience a gradual worsening of vision that may affect one or both eyes.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> While it does not result in complete <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">blindness</a>, loss of central vision can make it hard to recognize faces, drive, read, or perform other activities of daily life.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Visual_release_hallucinations" title="Visual release hallucinations">Visual hallucinations</a> may also occur.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Macular degeneration typically occurs in older people,<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> and is caused by damage to the <a href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of retina">macula</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Genetic factors and smoking may play a role.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> The condition is diagnosed through a complete <a href="/wiki/Eye_exam" class="mw-redirect" title="Eye exam">eye exam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Severity is divided into early, intermediate, and late types.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> The late type is additionally divided into "dry" and "wet" forms, with the dry form making up 90% of cases.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meh2015-3">[3]</a> The difference between the two forms is categorized by the change in the macula. Those with dry form AMD have <a href="/wiki/Drusen" title="Drusen">drusen</a>, cellular debris in their macula that gradually damages light-sensitive cells and leads to vision loss. In wet form AMD, blood vessels grow under the macula, causing blood and fluid to leak into the retina.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Exercising, eating well, and not smoking may reduce the risk of macular degeneration.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> There is no cure or treatment that restores the vision already lost.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> In the wet form, <a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93vascular_endothelial_growth_factor_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti–vascular endothelial growth factor therapy">anti–vascular endothelial growth factor</a> injected into the eye or, less commonly, <a href="/wiki/Laser_coagulation" title="Laser coagulation">laser coagulation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Photodynamic_therapy" title="Photodynamic therapy">photodynamic therapy</a> may slow worsening.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> Dietary <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">minerals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> do not appear to affect the onset;<a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a> however, <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">dietary supplements</a> may slow the progression in those who already have the disease.<a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a> Age-related macular degeneration is a main cause of central blindness among the working-aged population worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> As of 2022, it affects more than 200 million people globally with the prevalence expected to increase to 300 million people by 2040 as the proportion of elderly persons in the population increases.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It affects females more frequently than males, and it is more common in those of European or North American ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In 2013, it was the fourth most common cause of blindness, after <a href="/wiki/Cataracts" class="mw-redirect" title="Cataracts">cataracts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preterm_birth" title="Preterm birth">preterm birth</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> It most commonly occurs in people over the age of fifty and in the United States is the most common cause of vision loss in this age group.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Meh2015-3">[3]</a> About 0.4% of people between 50 and 60 have the disease, while it occurs in 0.7% of people 60 to 70, 2.3% of those 70 to 80, and nearly 12% of people over 80 years old.<a href="#cite_note-Meh2015-3">[3]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Signs_and_symptoms">Signs and symptoms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Signs and symptoms">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eye_disease_simulation,_normal_vision.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg/220px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg/330px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg/440px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_normal_vision.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1500" /></a><figcaption>Normal vision</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eye_disease_simulation,_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg/220px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg/330px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg/440px-Eye_disease_simulation%2C_age-related_macular_degeneration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The same view with age-related macular degeneration<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></figcaption></figure> Early or intermediate AMD may be asymptomatic, or it may present with blurred or decreased vision in one or both eyes. This may manifest initially as difficulty with reading or driving (especially in poorly lit areas).<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> Other symptoms of AMD include distortion of vision and blind spots (especially in and around the central visual field).<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> Other signs and symptoms of macular degeneration include: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blurred_vision" title="Blurred vision">Distorted vision</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Metamorphopsia" title="Metamorphopsia">metamorphopsia</a>, in which a grid of straight lines appears wavy and parts of the grid may appear blank: Patients often first notice this when looking at things like miniblinds in their home or telephone poles while driving. There may also be central <a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">scotomas</a>, shadows or missing areas of vision.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Slow recovery of visual function after exposure to bright light (<a href="/wiki/Photostress_test" title="Photostress test">photostress test</a>)[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Visual acuity drastically decreasing (two levels or more), e.g.: 20/20 to 20/80<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></li> <li>Blurred vision: Those with nonexudative (dry) macular degeneration may be asymptomatic or notice a gradual loss of central vision, whereas those with exudative (wet) macular degeneration often notice a rapid onset of vision loss (often caused by leakage and bleeding of abnormal blood vessels).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Trouble discerning colors, specifically dark ones from dark ones and light ones from light ones[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>A loss in <a href="/wiki/Contrast_(vision)" title="Contrast (vision)">contrast sensitivity</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Formed visual hallucinations and flashing lights have also been associated with severe visual loss secondary to wet AMD<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></li></ul> Macular degeneration by itself will not lead to total blindness. For that matter, only a small number of people with visual impairment are totally blind. In almost all cases, some vision remains, mainly peripheral. Other complicating conditions may lead to such an acute condition (severe stroke or trauma, untreated <a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">glaucoma</a>, etc.), but few macular degeneration patients experience total visual loss.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The area of the macula constitutes only about 2.1% of the retina, and the remaining 97.9% (the peripheral field) remains unaffected by the disease. Even though the macula provides such a small fraction of the visual field, almost half of the visual cortex is devoted to processing macular information.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In addition, people with dry macular degeneration often do not experience any symptoms but can experience gradual onset of blurry vision in one or both eyes.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham_2017-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lim_2012-16">[16]</a> People with wet macular degeneration may experience acute onset of visual symptoms.<a href="#cite_note-Cunningham_2017-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lim_2012-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Risk_factors">Risk factors</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Risk factors">edit</a>]</div> The pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is intricately linked to gene-environment interactions.<a href="#cite_note-pmid39004382-17">[17]</a> Key risk factors are age, race/ethnicity, smoking, and <a href="/wiki/Family_history_(medicine)" title="Family history (medicine)">family history</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Advanced age is the strongest predictor of AMD, particularly over 50.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21609220-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Race_and_ethnicity">Race and ethnicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Race and ethnicity">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg/400px-AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="258" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg/600px-AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg/800px-AMD_by_race_and_age_from_National_Eye_Institute_data.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1882" data-file-height="1216" /></a><figcaption>AMD by race and age from National Eye Institute data</figcaption></figure> As illustrated by the Figure in this section, derived from data presented by the National Eye Institute of the United States,<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> among those over 80 years of age, White individuals are more than 6-fold more likely to develop AMD than Black or Hispanic individuals. Thus, white background is a major risk factor for AMD.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In Caucasian (white) skin, there is a specific group of <a href="/wiki/Gene_polymorphism" title="Gene polymorphism">polymorphic genes</a> (with single nucleotide alterations) that encode for <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factors</a> responsible for the early steps (including the first step, formation of <a href="/wiki/L-DOPA" title="L-DOPA">L-DOPA</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a> <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>) of the <a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">melanin</a> synthesis pathway. Many of these enzymes and <a href="/wiki/Transcription_factor" title="Transcription factor">transcription factors</a> are reviewed by Markiewicz and Idowu.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32210602-21">[21]</a> Also, as reviewed by Sturm et al.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11602344-22">[22]</a> "increasing intracellular concentrations of either tyrosine or L-DOPA both result in an increase in melanogenesis" or formation of the black pigment melanin. Thus there appears to be an association between reduced L-DOPA production and white skin. As suggested by the Figure and information in this section, reduced L-DOPA, resulting in white skin, appears to be associated with an increased risk of macular degeneration for white individuals over the age of 80.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment_and_lifestyle">Environment and lifestyle</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Environment and lifestyle">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Smoking: Smoking tobacco increases the risk of AMD by two to three times that of someone who has never smoked, and may be the most important modifiable factor in its prevention. A review of previous studies found "a strong association between current smoking and AMD. ... Cigarette smoking is likely to have toxic effects on the retina."<a href="#cite_note-ThorntonEye-23">[23]</a></li> <li>Hypertension (<a href="/wiki/High_blood_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="High blood pressure">high blood pressure</a>): In the ALIENOR study 2013, early and late AMD were not significantly associated with systolic or diastolic blood pressure (BP), hypertension, or use of antihypertensive medications, but elevated <a href="/wiki/Pulse_pressure" title="Pulse pressure">pulse pressure</a> [(PP) systolic BP minus diastolic BP] was significantly associated with an increased risk of late AMD.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_cholesterol" class="mw-redirect" title="High cholesterol">High cholesterol</a>: Elevated cholesterol may increase the risk of AMD<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li> <li>Obesity: Abdominal <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a> is a risk factor, especially among men<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li> <li>Fat intake: Consuming high amounts of certain fats, including <a href="/wiki/Saturated_fat" title="Saturated fat">saturated fats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trans_fat" title="Trans fat">trans fats</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Omega-6_fatty_acid" title="Omega-6 fatty acid">omega-6 fatty acids</a>, likely contributes to AMD, while <a href="/wiki/Monounsaturated_fat" title="Monounsaturated fat">monounsaturated fats</a> are potentially protective.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In particular, <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Omega-3 fatty acids">omega-3 fatty acids</a> may decrease the risk of AMD.<a href="#cite_note-areds20-30">[30]</a></li> <li>Exposure to <a href="/wiki/UV_light" class="mw-redirect" title="UV light">UV light</a> from sunlight is maybe associated with an increased risk of developing AMD, although evidence is weaker than other causes.<a href="#cite_note-Lim_2012-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a></li> <li>A <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_blue_light_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of blue light technology">digital screen</a> does not radiate harmful energy against human eyes, but staring at the screen for a long time without pauses does increase <a href="/wiki/Eye_strain" title="Eye strain">eye strain</a>. There is no evidence to support the claim that exposure to digital screens contributes to the risk of macular degeneration.<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lim_2012-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-AAO2017-32">[32]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetics">Genetics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Genetics">edit</a>]</div> AMD is a highly heritable condition.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Recurrence ratios for siblings of an affected individual are three- to six-fold higher than in the general population.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Genetic_linkage" title="Genetic linkage">Genetic linkage</a> analysis has identified 5 sets of gene variants at three locations on different chromosomes (1, 6 and 10) as explaining at least 50% of the risk.<a href="#cite_note-Schmitz-Valckenberg_Fleckenstein_Zouache_Pfau_2022_p.-34">[34]</a> These genes have roles regulating the immune response, inflammatory processes and homeostasis of the retina. Variants of these genes give rise to different kinds of dysfunction in these processes. Over time, this results in accumulation of intracellular and extracellular metabolic debris. This can cause scarring of the retina or breakdown of its vascularization.<a href="#cite_note-:5-35">[35]</a> The list of genetic variations association with AMD include <a href="/wiki/Complement_factor" class="mw-redirect" title="Complement factor">complement factors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Apolipoprotein_E" title="Apolipoprotein E">apolipoprotein E</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast_growth_factor_2" title="Fibroblast growth factor 2">fibroblast growth factor 2</a>, DNA excision repair protein, and age-related <a href="/wiki/Maculopathy" title="Maculopathy">maculopathy</a> susceptibility protein 2.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Although <a href="/wiki/Genetic_testing" title="Genetic testing">genetic testing</a> can lead to the identification of genetic variation which can predispose to AMD, the complex pathogenesis of the condition prevents the use of these tests in routine practice.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Nevertheless, they can be useful in selecting patients for clinical trials and analysing their response to treatment.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> The three loci where identified gene variants are found are designated: <ul><li>Complement Factor H (CFH) on chromosome 1 at location 1q31.3<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a></li> <li>HTRA serine peptidase 1/Age Related Maculopathy Susceptibility 2 (HTRA1/ARMS2) on chromosome 10 at location 10q26<a href="#cite_note-Schmitz-Valckenberg_Fleckenstein_Zouache_Pfau_2022_p.-34">[34]</a></li> <li>Complement Factor B/Complement Component 2 (CFB/CC2) on chromosome 6 at 6p21.3[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Specific_genes">Specific genes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Specific genes">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Polymorphisms in genes for complement system proteins: Variation in the genes for the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a> proteins <a href="/wiki/Factor_H" title="Factor H">factor H</a> (CFH), factor B (CFB) and factor 3 (C3), among others, are strongly associated with a person's risk for developing AMD.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> CFH is involved in inhibiting the inflammatory response.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> The mutation in CFH (Y402H) results in reduced ability of the protein to localise to and protect tissues such as the retina from complement overactivation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Absence of the complement factor H-related genes R3 and R1 protects against AMD.<a href="#cite_note-HughesAE2006-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FritscheLG2010-39">[39]</a> Two independent studies in 2007 showed a certain common mutation Arg80Gly in the C3 gene, which is a central protein of the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>, is strongly associated with the occurrence of AMD.<a href="#cite_note-Yates-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The authors of both papers consider their study to underscore the influence of the complement pathway in the pathogenesis of this disease.</li> <li>In two 2006 studies, another gene that has implications for the disease, called HTRA1 (encoding a secreted serine protease), was identified.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></li> <li>Six mutations of the gene <a href="/wiki/SERPING1" class="mw-redirect" title="SERPING1">SERPING1</a> (Serpin Peptidase Inhibitor, Clade G (C1 Inhibitor), Member 1) are associated with AMD. Mutations in this gene can also cause <a href="/wiki/Hereditary_angioedema" title="Hereditary angioedema">hereditary angioedema</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FBLN5" title="FBLN5">Fibulin-5</a> mutation: Rare forms of the disease are caused by genetic defects in fibulin-5, in an autosomal dominant manner. In 2004, Stone et al. performed a screen on 402 AMD patients and revealed a statistically significant correlation between mutations in fibulin-5 and incidence of the disease.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">Mitochondrial</a>-related <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">gene</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphisms</a> such as that in the <a href="/wiki/MT-ND2" title="MT-ND2">MT-ND2</a> molecule, predicts wet AMD.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pathophysiology">Pathophysiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Pathophysiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png/220px-Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png/330px-Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Human_eye_cross-sectional_view_grayscale.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Human eye</a> cross-sectional view</figcaption></figure> The pathogenesis of age-related macular degeneration is not well known, although some theories have been put forward, including oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammatory processes.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The imbalance between the production of damaged cellular components and degradation leads to the accumulation of harmful products, for example, intracellular lipofuscin and extracellular drusen. Incipient atrophy is demarcated by areas of <a href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a> (RPE) thinning or depigmentation that precede geographic atrophy in the early stages of AMD. In advanced stages of AMD, atrophy of the RPE (geographic atrophy) and/or development of new blood vessels (neovascularization) result in the death of photoreceptors and central vision loss.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In the dry (<a href="/wiki/Exudate" title="Exudate">nonexudative</a>) form, drusen accumulates between the retina and the <a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</a>, causing atrophy and scarring to the retina. In the wet (exudative) form, which is more severe, blood vessels grow up from the choroid (neovascularization) behind the retina which can leak exudate and fluid and also cause hemorrhaging.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Early work demonstrated a family of immune mediators was plentiful in drusen.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Complement <a href="/wiki/Factor_H" title="Factor H">factor H</a> (CFH) is an important inhibitor of this inflammatory cascade, and a disease-associated polymorphism in the CFH gene strongly associates with AMD.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Thus an AMD pathophysiological model of chronic low grade complement activation and inflammation in the macula has been advanced.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Lending credibility to this has been the discovery of disease-associated genetic polymorphisms in other elements of the complement cascade including <a href="/wiki/Complement_component_3" title="Complement component 3">complement component 3</a> (C3).<a href="#cite_note-Yates-40">[40]</a> A powerful predictor of AMD is found on chromosome 10q26 at LOC 387715. An insertion/deletion polymorphism at this site reduces expression of the <a href="/wiki/ARMS2" title="ARMS2">ARMS2</a> gene though destabilization of its mRNA through deletion of the <a href="/wiki/Polyadenylation" title="Polyadenylation">polyadenylation</a> signal.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <a href="/wiki/ARMS2" title="ARMS2">ARMS2</a> protein may localize to the mitochondria and participate in energy metabolism, though much remains to be discovered about its function.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Other gene markers of progression risk includes tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 3 (<a href="/wiki/TIMP3" title="TIMP3">TIMP3</a>), suggesting a role for <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> metabolism in AMD progression.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-56">[56]</a> Variations in cholesterol metabolising genes such as the <a href="/wiki/Hepatic_lipase" title="Hepatic lipase">hepatic lipase</a>, cholesterol ester transferase, <a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein_lipase" title="Lipoprotein lipase">lipoprotein lipase</a> and the <a href="/wiki/ABCA1" title="ABCA1">ATP-binding cassette A1</a> correlate with disease progression. The early stigmata of disease, drusen, are rich in cholesterol, offering face validity to the results of genome-wide association studies.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceC-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stages">Stages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Stages">edit</a>]</div> In AMD there is a progressive accumulation of characteristic yellow deposits, called <a href="/wiki/Drusen" title="Drusen">drusen</a> (buildup of extracellular proteins and lipids), in the <a href="/wiki/Macula" title="Macula">macula</a> (a part of the retina), between the <a href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a> and the underlying <a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</a>. This accumulation is believed to damage the retina over time. <a href="/wiki/Amyloid_beta" title="Amyloid beta">Amyloid beta</a>, which builds up in <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> brains, is one of the proteins that accumulate in AMD, which is a reason why AMD is sometimes called "Alzheimer's of the eye" or "Alzheimer's of the retina".<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> AMD can be divided into 3 stages: early, intermediate, and late, based partially on the extent (size and number) of <a href="/wiki/Drusen" title="Drusen">drusen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> AMD-like pathology begins with small yellow deposits (drusen) in the macula, between the retinal pigment epithelium and the underlying choroid. Most people with these early changes (referred to as age-related maculopathy) still have good vision. People with drusen may or may not develop AMD. In fact, the majority of people over age 60 have drusen with no adverse effects. The risk of developing symptoms is higher when the drusen are large and numerous, and associated with the disturbance in the pigmented cell layer under the macula. Large and soft drusen are thought to be related to elevated <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a> deposits.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Early_AMD">Early AMD</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early AMD">edit</a>]</div> Early AMD is diagnosed based on the presence of medium-sized drusen, about the width of an average human hair. Early AMD is usually asymptomatic.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intermediate_AMD">Intermediate AMD</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Intermediate AMD">edit</a>]</div> Intermediate AMD is diagnosed by large drusen and/or any retinal pigment abnormalities. Intermediate AMD may cause some vision loss, but, like early AMD, it is usually asymptomatic.<a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-59">[59]</a> Recently, subgroups of intermediate AMD have been identified, which have a very high risk of progression toward late AMD. This subgroup (depending on the precise definitions) is termed nascent <a href="/wiki/Geographic_atrophy" title="Geographic atrophy">GA</a> and/or iRORA (incomplete retinal pigment epithelium and outer retinal atrophy).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> These 'high-risk' subgroups of intermediate AMD can be used to inform patients of theirs prognosis. In addition, these can be applied in clinical trials as endpoints.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Late_AMD">Late AMD</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Late AMD">edit</a>]</div> In late AMD, enough retinal damage occurs that, in addition to drusen, people will also begin to experience symptomatic central vision loss. The damage can either be the development of atrophy or the onset of neovascular disease. Late AMD is further divided into two subtypes based on the types of damage: Geographic atrophy and Wet AMD (also called Neovascular AMD).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-NEI2015-1">[1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Dry_AMD">Dry AMD</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Dry AMD">edit</a>]</div> Dry AMD (also called nonexudative AMD) is a broad designation, encompassing all forms of AMD that are not neovascular (wet AMD). This includes early and intermediate forms of AMD, as well as the advanced form of dry AMD known as geographic atrophy. Dry AMD patients tend to have minimal symptoms in the earlier stages; visual function loss occurs more often if the condition advances to geographic atrophy. Dry AMD accounts for 80–90% of cases and tends to progress slowly. In 10–20% of people, dry AMD progresses to the wet type.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geographic_atrophy">Geographic atrophy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Geographic atrophy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geographic_atrophy" title="Geographic atrophy">Geographic atrophy</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Geographic_atrophy" title="Geographic atrophy">Geographic atrophy</a> (also called atrophic AMD) is an advanced form of AMD in which progressive and irreversible loss of retinal cells leads to a loss of visual function. There are multiple layers that make up the retina, and in geographic atrophy, there are three specific layers that undergo atrophy: the choriocapillaris, retinal pigment epithelium, and the overlying photoreceptors.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The three layers that undergo atrophy in geographic atrophy are all adjacent to each other. The photoreceptors are the most superficial and they are the cells that are responsible for converting energy from the light from the outside world, into an electrical signal to be sent to the brain. There are several functions of the retinal pigment epithelium. One of the main functions of the retinal pigment epithelium is to minimize oxidative stress. It does so by absorbing light, and thus preventing it from getting to the underlying layers. The layers underlying the retinal pigment epithelium are very vascularlized so they have very high oxygen tension. Thus, if light was to get to those layers, many free radicals would form and cause damage to nearby tissues. The deepest layer that undergoes atrophy in geographic atrophy is called the choriocappilaris. It is a capillary network that provides nutrients to the retinal pigment epithelium.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The pathophysiology of geographic atrophy is still uncertain. Some studies questioned whether it was due to a deficient retinal pigment epithelium, leading to increased oxidative stress.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Other studies have looked for inflammatory causes of damage.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Thus far, the medical community is still not certain. Recent studies have begun to look at each layer individually. They found that decreased blood flow in the choriocapillaris precedes atrophy of the retinal pigment epithelium and the overlying photoreceptors.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Since the choriocapillaris is a vascular layer, this may be used as an argument for why geographic atrophy could be a disease due to decreased blood flow.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Wet_AMD">Wet AMD</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Wet AMD">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Neovascular" class="mw-redirect" title="Neovascular">Neovascular</a> or <a href="/wiki/Exudative" class="mw-redirect" title="Exudative">exudative</a> AMD, the "wet" form of advanced AMD, causes vision loss due to abnormal blood vessel growth (<a href="/wiki/Choroidal_neovascularization" title="Choroidal neovascularization">choroidal neovascularization</a>) in the <a href="/wiki/Choriocapillaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Choriocapillaris">choriocapillaris</a>, through <a href="/wiki/Bruch%27s_membrane" title="Bruch's membrane">Bruch's membrane</a>. It is usually, but not always, preceded by the dry form of AMD. The proliferation of abnormal blood vessels in the retina is stimulated by <a href="/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor" title="Vascular endothelial growth factor">vascular endothelial growth factor</a> (VEGF). Because these blood vessels are abnormal, these are also more fragile than typical blood vessels, which ultimately leads to blood and protein leakage below the macula. Bleeding, leaking, and scarring from these blood vessels eventually cause irreversible damage to the photoreceptors and rapid vision loss if left untreated.<a href="#cite_note-:5-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diagnosis">Diagnosis</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Diagnosis">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png/250px-Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png/375px-Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png/500px-Opthalmology_AMD_Super_Resolution_Cremer.png 2x" data-file-width="596" data-file-height="514" /></a><figcaption>Super resolution microscopic investigation of human eye tissue affected by AMD</figcaption></figure> Diagnosis of age-related macular degeneration depends on signs in the <a href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of retina">macula</a>, not necessarily vision.<a href="#cite_note-:3-65">[65]</a> Early diagnosis of AMD can prevent further visual deterioration and potentially improve vision.<a href="#cite_note-:3-65">[65]</a> Diagnosis of dry (or early stage) AMD may include the following clinical examinations as well as procedures and tests: <ul><li>The transition from dry to wet AMD can happen rapidly, and if it is left untreated can lead to legal blindness in as little as six months. To prevent this from occurring and to initiate preventive strategies earlier in the disease process, dark adaptation testing may be performed. A dark adaptometer can detect subclinical AMD at least three years earlier than it is clinically evident.<a href="#cite_note-Owsley,_Cynthia_2015-66">[66]</a></li> <li>There is a loss of contrast sensitivity, so that contours, shadows, and color vision are less vivid. The loss in contrast sensitivity can be quickly and easily measured by a <a href="/wiki/Contrast_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Contrast sensitivity">contrast sensitivity</a> test like Pelli Robson performed either at home or by an eye specialist.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>When viewing an <a href="/wiki/Amsler_grid" title="Amsler grid">Amsler grid</a>, some straight lines appear wavy and some patches appear blank<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a></li> <li>When viewing a <a href="/wiki/Snellen_chart" title="Snellen chart">Snellen chart</a>, at least 2 lines decline[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>In dry macular degeneration, which occurs in 85–90 percent of AMD cases, drusen spots can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Fundus_photography" title="Fundus photography">Fundus photography</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Using an <a href="/wiki/Electroretinogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Electroretinogram">electroretinogram</a>, points in the macula with a weak or absent response compared to a normal eye may be found[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farnsworth-Munsell_100_hue_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test">Farnsworth-Munsell 100 hue test</a> and Maximum Color Contrast Sensitivity test (MCCS) for assessing color acuity and color contrast sensitivity</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_coherence_tomography" title="Optical coherence tomography">Optical coherence tomography</a> is now used by most ophthalmologists in the diagnosis and the follow-up evaluation of the response to treatment with antiangiogenic drugs.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> Diagnosis of wet (or late stage) AMD may include the following in addition to the above tests: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preferential_hyperacuity_perimetry" title="Preferential hyperacuity perimetry">Preferential hyperacuity perimetry</a> changes (for wet AMD). Preferential hyperacuity perimetry is a test that detects drastic changes in vision and involves the macula being stimulated with distorted patterns of dots and the patient identification of where in the visual field this occurs.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a></li> <li>In wet macular degeneration, <a href="/wiki/Angiography" title="Angiography">angiography</a> can visualize the leakage of bloodstream behind the macula. <a href="/wiki/Fluorescein_angiography" title="Fluorescein angiography">Fluorescein angiography</a> allows for the identification and localization of abnormal vascular processes.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Histology">Histology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Histology">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Pigmentary changes in the retina – In addition to the pigmented cells in the iris (the colored part of the eye), there are pigmented cells beneath the retina. As these cells break down and release their pigment, dark clumps of released pigment and later, areas that are less pigmented may appear[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li>Exudative changes: <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhages" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhages">hemorrhages</a> in the eye, hard exudates, subretinal/sub-RPE/intraretinal fluid[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drusen" title="Drusen">Drusen</a>, tiny accumulations of extracellular material that build up on the retina. While there is a tendency for drusen to be blamed for the progressive loss of vision, drusen deposits can be present in the retina without vision loss. Some patients with large deposits of drusen have normal visual acuity. If normal retinal reception and image transmission are sometimes possible in a retina when high concentrations of drusen are present, then, even if drusen can be implicated in the loss of visual function, there must be at least one other factor that accounts for the loss of vision.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Management">Management</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Management">edit</a>]</div> Treatment of AMD varies depending on the category of the disease at the time of diagnosis. In general, treatment is aimed at slowing down the progression of AMD.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a> As of 2018, there are no treatments to reverse the effects of AMD.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a> As of 2024, there are two drugs to dissolve the drusen in dry AMD, see below. Early-stage and intermediate-stage AMD is managed by modifying known risk factors such as smoking cessation, management of hypertension and atherosclerosis and making dietary modifications.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a> For intermediate-stage AMD, management also includes <a href="/wiki/Antioxidant" title="Antioxidant">antioxidant</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)" title="Mineral (nutrient)">mineral</a> supplementation.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-70">[70]</a> Advanced-stage AMD is managed based on the presence of <a href="/wiki/Choroidal_neovascularization" title="Choroidal neovascularization">choroidal neovascularization</a> (CNV): dry AMD (no CNV present) or wet AMD (CNV present).<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a> No effective treatments exist for dry AMD.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a> The CNV present in wet AMD is managed with vascular endothelial growth factor (<a href="/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor" title="Vascular endothelial growth factor">VEGF</a>) inhibitors.<a href="#cite_note-Bishop_2018-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-:12-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-70">[70]</a> Daily use of an <a href="/wiki/Amsler_grid" title="Amsler grid">Amsler grid</a> or other home visual monitoring tools can be used to monitor for development of distorted vision, which may be a sign of disease progression.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dietary_supplements">Dietary supplements</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Dietary supplements">edit</a>]</div> Dietary supplements may be suggested for people with AMD, with the goal of reducing damage to the cells in the retina with antioxidants. The formulations commonly suggested are known as <a href="/wiki/AREDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AREDS">AREDS</a>. The specific vitamins and minerals in AREDS-1 are <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a> (500 mg), <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> (80 mg), <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_E" title="Vitamin E">vitamin E</a> (400 IU), <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a> (2 mg) and <a href="/wiki/Beta-carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-carotene">beta-carotene</a> (15 mg). In the AREDS-2 formulation, <a href="/wiki/Lutein" title="Lutein">lutein</a> (10 mg) and <a href="/wiki/Zeaxanthin" title="Zeaxanthin">zeaxanthin</a> (2 mg) replaced <a href="/wiki/Beta-carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-carotene">beta-carotene</a> due to the risk of lung cancer in smokers taking beta-carotene.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> There is some evidence to indicate that people with bilateral early or intermediate AMD, or intermediate AMD in one eye and advanced AMD in the other eye may benefit from vitamin and mineral supplementation.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> AREDS supplementation may help slow the progression to more severe forms of AMD<a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a> and there is some evidence of improved visual acuity at 5 years.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a> There is no evidence that micronutrient supplementation prevents AMD progression in those with severe disease or prevents disease onset in those without AMD.<a href="#cite_note-Apte-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a> With regards to AREDS-1 compared with AREDS-2 formulations, there is only weak evidence comparing the effectiveness of each formulation and the effectiveness of lutein and zeaxanthin as a replacement in the AREDS-2 formulation.<a href="#cite_note-:6-5">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dry_AMD_2">Dry AMD</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Dry AMD">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information on the investigational new drug: <a href="/wiki/Tinlarebant" title="Tinlarebant">Tinlarebant</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Pegcetacoplan" title="Pegcetacoplan">Pegcetacoplan</a> (Syfovre)<a href="#cite_note-Syfovre_FDA_label-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avacincaptad_pegol" title="Avacincaptad pegol">avacincaptad pegol</a> (Izervay)<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> are approved for medical use in the United States. In 2023 it was reported that the aging pigment lipofuscin can be broken down with the help of melanin and drugs through a newly discovered mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-76">[76]</a> The pigment lipofuscin plays a central role in the development of dry AMD and Stargardt's disease. The clinical development of this mechanism, which has the potential to clear Bruch's membrane and to reduce formation of Drusen, is in preparation.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wet_AMD_2">Wet AMD</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Wet AMD">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ranibizumab" title="Ranibizumab">Ranibizumab</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aflibercept" title="Aflibercept">aflibercept</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brolucizumab" title="Brolucizumab">brolucizumab</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Faricimab" title="Faricimab">faricimab</a> are approved VEGF inhibitors for the treatment of CNV in wet AMD.<a href="#cite_note-:12-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> All three drugs are administered via <a href="/wiki/Intravitreal_administration" title="Intravitreal administration">intravitreal injection</a>, meaning they are injected directly into the eye. Bevacizumab is another VEGF inhibitor that has been shown to have similar efficacy and safety as the previous two drugs, however, is not currently indicated for AMD.<a href="#cite_note-:22-70">[70]</a> AMD can also be treated with <a href="/wiki/Laser_coagulation" title="Laser coagulation">laser coagulation</a> therapy.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> A randomized control trial found that <a href="/wiki/Bevacizumab" title="Bevacizumab">bevacizumab</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ranibizumab" title="Ranibizumab">ranibizumab</a> had similar efficacy, and reported no significant increase in adverse events with bevacizumab.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> A 2014 <a href="/wiki/Cochrane_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane review">Cochrane review</a> found that the systemic safety of bevacizumab and ranibizumab are similar when used to treat neovascular AMD, except for gastrointestinal disorders.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Bevacizumab however is not FDA approved for treatment of macular degeneration. A controversy in the UK involved the <a href="/wiki/Off-label" class="mw-redirect" title="Off-label">off-label</a> use of cheaper bevacizumab over the approved, but expensive, ranibizumab.<a href="#cite_note-copleyreuters2012-81">[81]</a> Ranibizumab is a smaller fragment, Fab fragment, of the parent bevacizumab molecule specifically designed for eye injections.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> Other approved antiangiogenic drugs for the treatment of neo-vascular AMD include <a href="/wiki/Pegaptanib" title="Pegaptanib">pegaptanib</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aflibercept" title="Aflibercept">aflibercept</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> These anti-VEGF agents may be administered monthly or adaptively. For adaptive anti-VEGF treatment, two approaches are conventionally applied. In the case of pro re nata, the patient comes at fixed intervals, but treatment is only administered if an activity is detected (i.e., presence of fluid). In the case of treat-and-extend, the patients always receive treatment, but the interval to the next visit is extended if the lesion was inactive.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Recently, researchers have started to apply AI algorithms to predict the future need for treatment.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The <a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Ophthalmology" title="American Academy of Ophthalmology">American Academy of Ophthalmology</a> practice guidelines do not recommend laser coagulation therapy for macular degeneration, but state that it may be useful in people with new blood vessels in the <a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</a> outside of the <a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a> who don't respond to drug treatment.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> There is strong evidence that laser coagulation will result in the disappearance of drusen but does not affect <a href="/wiki/Choroidal_neovascularisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroidal neovascularisation">choroidal neovascularisation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Virgili-91">[91]</a> A 2007 Cochrane review on found that laser photocoagulation of new blood vessels in the <a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">choroid</a> outside of the <a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis" title="Fovea centralis">fovea</a> is effective and economical method, but that the benefits are limited for vessels next to or below the fovea.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Photodynamic_therapy" title="Photodynamic therapy">Photodynamic therapy</a> has also been used to treat wet AMD.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> The drug <a href="/wiki/Verteporfin" title="Verteporfin">verteporfin</a> is administered intravenously; light of a certain wavelength is then applied to the abnormal blood vessels. This activates the verteporfin destroying the vessels. Cataract surgery could improve visual outcomes for people with AMD, though there have been concerns about surgery increasing the progression of AMD. A randomized controlled trial found that people who underwent immediate cataract surgery (within two weeks) had improved visual acuity and better quality of life outcomes than those who underwent delayed cataract surgery (6 months).<a href="#cite_note-Casparis-94">[94]</a> Radiotherapy has been proposed as a treatment for wet AMD but the evidence to support the use of modern stereotactic radiotherapy combined with anti-VEGF is currently uncertain and is awaiting the results of ongoing studies.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> Nucleoside reverse transcription inhibitors like they are used in anti-HIV therapy was associated with a reduced risk of developing atrophic macular degeneration. This is because Alu elements undergo <a href="/wiki/L1_(protein)" title="L1 (protein)">L1 (protein)</a>-mediated reverse transcription in the cytoplasm resulting in DNA synthesis. First clinical trials are being prepared as of January 2021.<a href="#cite_note-pnas-96">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adaptive_devices">Adaptive devices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Adaptive devices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg/220px-Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg/330px-Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg/440px-Josef_Tal_%26_Computer_Screen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Josef_Tal" title="Josef Tal">Josef Tal</a>, an Israeli composer who was affected by macular degeneration, checks a manuscript using a <a href="/wiki/Closed-circuit_television_camera" title="Closed-circuit television camera">CCTV</a> desktop unit.</figcaption></figure> Because peripheral vision is not affected, persons with macular degeneration can learn to use their remaining vision to partially compensate.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Assistance and resources are available in many countries and every state in the U.S.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Classes for "independent living" are given and some technology can be obtained from a state department of rehabilitation. Adaptive devices can help people read. These include magnifying glasses, special eyeglass lenses, computer screen readers, <a href="/wiki/Electronic_glasses" title="Electronic glasses">electronic glasses</a>, and TV systems that enlarge the reading material. Computer screen readers such as <a href="/wiki/JAWS_(screen_reader)" title="JAWS (screen reader)">JAWS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Thunder_(assistive_technology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunder (assistive technology)">Thunder</a> work with standard <a href="/wiki/Microsoft_Windows" title="Microsoft Windows">Windows</a> computers. Also, Apple devices provide a wide range of features (voice-over, screen readers, Braille etc.). Video cameras can be fed into standard or special-purpose computer monitors, and the image can be zoomed in and magnified. These systems often include a movable table to move the written material. <a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a> provides larger fonts for printed books, patterns to make tracking easier, <a href="/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">audiobooks</a> and <a href="/wiki/DAISY_Digital_Talking_Book" class="mw-redirect" title="DAISY Digital Talking Book">DAISY</a> books with both text and audio. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epidemiology">Epidemiology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Epidemiology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macular_degeneration_and_other_(sense_organ_diseases)_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/250px-Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/375px-Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg/500px-Macular_degeneration_and_other_%28sense_organ_diseases%29_world_map_-_DALY_-_WHO2004.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="415" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Disability-adjusted_life_year" title="Disability-adjusted life year">Disability-adjusted life year</a> for macular degeneration and other (sense organ diseases) per 100,000 inhabitants in 2004<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small" style="column-width: 10em;"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend">  no data</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  less than 100</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  100–114</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  114–128</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  128–142</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  142–156</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  156–170</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  170–184</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  184–198</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  198–212</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  212–226</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  226–240</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend">  more than 240</div> </div></figcaption></figure> The prevalence of any age-related macular degeneration is higher in Europeans than in Asians and Africans.<a href="#cite_note-:2-100">[100]</a> There is no difference in prevalence between Asians and Africans.<a href="#cite_note-:2-100">[100]</a> The incidence of age-related macular degeneration and its associated features increases with age and is low in people <55 years of age.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> Smoking is the strongest modifiable risk factor.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> As of 2008, age-related macular degeneration accounts for more than 54% of all vision loss in the white population in the US.<a href="#cite_note-:4-103">[103]</a> An estimated 8 million Americans are affected with early age-related macular degeneration, of whom over 1 million will develop advanced age-related macular degeneration within the next 5 years. In the UK, age-related macular degeneration is the cause of blindness in almost 42% of those who go blind aged 65–74 years, almost two-thirds of those aged 75–84 years, and almost three-quarters of those aged 85 years or older.<a href="#cite_note-:4-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Association_with_other_age-related_diseases">Association with other age-related diseases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Association with other age-related diseases">edit</a>]</div> Studies indicate <a href="/wiki/Drusen" title="Drusen">drusen</a> associated with AMD are similar in molecular composition to amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques and deposits in other age-related diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a> and atherosclerosis. This suggests that similar pathways may be involved in the etiologies of AMD and other age-related diseases.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genetic_testing">Genetic testing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Genetic testing">edit</a>]</div> Genetic testing can help identify whether a patient with AMD is at a greater risk of developing the condition and can inform disease progression.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Genetic testing can also allow researchers to identify whether patients are more or less likely to respond to treatments, such <a href="/wiki/Anti-VEGF_medication" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-VEGF medication">anti-VEGF medication</a> or complement inhibitors.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> However, there remain several challenges to using predictive tools which incorporate genetic variation in clinical practice. As well as our limited understanding of the way that different genetic variants and environmental factors interact to influence AMD risk, the single nucleotide polymorphisms which are common in the population have small effects on individual patients with AMD.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Therefore, there is increasing interest in understanding the functional consequences of rare mutations, which often have more pronounced effects.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> Genetic testing to guide clinical management is not currently recommended.<a href="#cite_note-:1-18">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Genome_editing">Genome editing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Genome editing">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/CRISPR_gene_editing" title="CRISPR gene editing">CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing</a> may be used to treat wet age-related macular degeneration caused by <a href="/wiki/Vascular_endothelial_growth_factor_A" title="Vascular endothelial growth factor A">VEGFA</a>. Scientists described an approach in which <a href="/wiki/Lentivirus#Use_as_gene_delivery_vectors" title="Lentivirus">engineered lentiviruses</a> are injected into the affected anatomical regions for transient editing that could reduce the area of <a href="/wiki/Choroidal_neovascularization" title="Choroidal neovascularization">choroidal neovascularization</a> by 63% without inducing undesired <a href="/wiki/Off-target_genome_editing" title="Off-target genome editing">off-target edits</a> or anti-Cas9 immune responses.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="RPE,_L-DOPA_and_Melanin_in_amelioration_of_wet_AMD">RPE, L-DOPA and Melanin in amelioration of wet AMD</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: RPE, L-DOPA and Melanin in amelioration of wet AMD">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg/300px-Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg/450px-Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg/600px-Retinal_pigment_epithelium.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1602" data-file-height="1799" /></a><figcaption>This is an enlarged diagram showing the retinal pigment epithelium and its position in the eye.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Retinal_pigment_epithelium" title="Retinal pigment epithelium">retinal pigment epithelium</a> (RPE) (see diagram) has an essential role in the eye. It secretes a large variety of factors including at least 22 proteins important in maintaining the structure, function and micro-environments on the two sides of the RPE.<a href="#cite_note-pmid23663427-108">[108]</a> (The two sides of the RPE include the choroid side, where blood vessels form and bring nourishment to the eye, and the photoreceptor side, with rods and cones that receive light signals.) In particular, the RPE secretes vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) at its basement membrane, with the VEGF reaching the choriocapillaris to maintain proper blood vessel formation in the choroid region. Many factors, including genetic factors, hypoxia, oxidative stress and inflammatory stressors, may cause pathologic over-production of VEGF by the RPE. This over-production causes excess blood vessel formation in the choroid region (the choriocapillaris), which is a major cause of wet AMD.<a href="#cite_note-pmid18653375-109">[109]</a> It was recently discovered that the aging pigment lipofuscin can be broken down with the help of melanin and drugs through a newly discovered mechanism (chemical excitation).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceD-76">[76]</a> The pigment lipofuscin plays a central role in the development of dry AMD and geographic atrophy. This breakdown can be supported by medication. This discovery can be translated into the development of a therapy to treat dry AMD. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Artificial_intelligence_for_prediction">Artificial intelligence for prediction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Artificial intelligence for prediction">edit</a>]</div> Research is exploring if <a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> can help in predicting wet AMD early enough to make prevention possible. A study tested an AI model for predicting whether people with wet AMD in one eye would develop it in the other within six months. Compared to doctors and <a href="/wiki/Optometry" title="Optometry">optometrists</a> the AI model predicted the development more accurately.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_types">Other types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Other types">edit</a>]</div> There are a few other (rare) kinds of macular degeneration with similar symptoms but unrelated in etiology to Wet or Dry age-related macular degeneration. They are all genetic disorders that may occur in childhood or middle age. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorsby%27s_fundus_dystrophy" title="Sorsby's fundus dystrophy">Sorsby's fundus dystrophy</a> is an autosomal dominant, retinal disease characterized by sudden acuity loss resulting from untreatable submacular neovascularisation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stargardt%27s_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Stargardt's disease">Stargardt's disease</a> (juvenile macular degeneration, STGD) is an autosomal recessive retinal disorder characterized by juvenile-onset macular dystrophy, alterations of the peripheral retina, and subretinal deposition of lipofuscin-like material.</li></ul> Similar symptoms with a very different etiology and different treatment can be caused by <a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">epiretinal membrane</a> or <a href="/wiki/Macular_pucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Macular pucker">macular pucker</a> or any other condition affecting the macula, such as <a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">central serous retinopathy</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_cases">Notable cases</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Notable cases">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judi_Dench" title="Judi Dench">Judi Dench</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Plowright" title="Joan Plowright">Joan Plowright</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Sallis" title="Peter Sallis">Peter Sallis</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/18px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/24px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macula_of_retina" class="mw-redirect" title="Macula of retina">Macula of retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy_for_color_blindness" title="Gene therapy for color blindness">Gene therapy for color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gene_therapy_of_the_human_retina" title="Gene therapy of the human retina">Gene therapy of the human retina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stem_cell_therapy_for_macular_degeneration" title="Stem cell therapy for macular degeneration">Stem cell therapy for macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">epiretinal membrane</a> = <a href="/wiki/Macular_pucker" class="mw-redirect" title="Macular pucker">macular pucker</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output 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Nature Medicine. 26 (6): 892–899. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41591-020-0867-7">10.1038/s41591-020-0867-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1078-8956">1078-8956</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32424211">32424211</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:218682821">218682821</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Predicting+conversion+to+wet+age-related+macular+degeneration+using+deep+learning&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=892-899&rft.date=2020-05-18&rft.issn=1078-8956&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A218682821%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32424211&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41591-020-0867-7&rft.aulast=Yim&rft.aufirst=Jason&rft.au=Chopra%2C+Reena&rft.au=Spitz%2C+Terry&rft.au=Winkens%2C+Jim&rft.au=Obika%2C+Annette&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Christopher&rft.au=Askham%2C+Harry&rft.au=Lukic%2C+Marko&rft.au=Huemer%2C+Josef&rft.au=Fasler%2C+Katrin&rft.au=Moraes%2C+Gabriella&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Clemens&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Marc&rft.au=Dixon%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Cian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fs41591-020-0867-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMacular+degeneration" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/feb/23/judi-dench-failing-eyesight">Judi Dench 'can't read any more due to failing eyesight</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161019155627/https://www.theguardian.com/culture/2014/feb/23/judi-dench-failing-eyesight">Archived</a> 2016-10-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The Guardian, 23 February 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-news/10825654/Joan-Plowright-bows-out-to-a-standing-ovation.html">Joan bows out to a standing ovation</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160420064158/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/theatre/theatre-news/10825654/Joan-Plowright-bows-out-to-a-standing-ovation.html">Archived</a> 2016-04-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", The Guardian, 13 May 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.macularsociety.org/How-we-help/About-us/Who-we-are/Patrons">Patrons of the Macular Society</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130208035759/http://www.macularsociety.org/how-we-help/About-us/Who-we-are/Patrons">Archived</a> 2013-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>", Macular Society. (notable for doing the voice of Wallace from <a href="/wiki/Wallace_and_Gromit" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace and Gromit">Wallace and Gromit</a> until 2012) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Macular_degeneration&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div style="position:relative; float:right; font-size:0.8em;"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q27429789" class="extiw" title="d:Q27429789">D</a></div><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/ICD-10" title="ICD-10">10</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://icd.who.int/browse10/2019/en#/H35.3">H35.3</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/International_Statistical_Classification_of_Diseases_and_Related_Health_Problems" class="mw-redirect" title="International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems">ICD</a>-<a href="/wiki/List_of_ICD-9_codes" title="List of ICD-9 codes">9-CM</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icd9data.com/getICD9Code.ashx?icd9=362.50">362.50</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Subject_Headings" title="Medical Subject Headings">MeSH</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://meshb.nlm.nih.gov/record/ui?ui=D008268">D008268</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_Database" title="Diseases Database">DiseasesDB</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.diseasesdatabase.com/ddb11948.htm">11948</a></li></ul></div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #EAECF0;color:black;">External resources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div class="hlist" style="text-align:left;"><ul><li><a 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colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Adnexa" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Accessory_visual_structures" title="Accessory visual structures">Adnexa</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelid" title="Eyelid">Eyelid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Inflammation" scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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href="/wiki/Blepharophimosis" title="Blepharophimosis">Blepharophimosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xanthelasma" title="Xanthelasma">Xanthelasma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ankyloblepharon" title="Ankyloblepharon">Ankyloblepharon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eyelash" title="Eyelash">Eyelash</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trichiasis" title="Trichiasis">Trichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarosis" title="Madarosis">Madarosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distichiasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distichiasis">Distichiasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trichomegaly" title="Trichomegaly">Trichomegaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lacrimal_apparatus" title="Lacrimal apparatus">Lacrimal apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacryoadenitis" title="Dacryoadenitis">Dacryoadenitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphora_(medicine)" title="Epiphora (medicine)">Epiphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacryocystitis" title="Dacryocystitis">Dacryocystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerophthalmia" title="Xerophthalmia">Xerophthalmia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Orbit_(anatomy)" title="Orbit (anatomy)">Orbit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exophthalmos" title="Exophthalmos">Exophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enophthalmos" title="Enophthalmos">Enophthalmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_cellulitis" title="Orbital cellulitis">Orbital cellulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_lymphoma" title="Orbital lymphoma">Orbital lymphoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periorbital_cellulitis" title="Periorbital cellulitis">Periorbital cellulitis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">Conjunctiva</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemosis" title="Chemosis">Chemosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">Conjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allergic_conjunctivitis" title="Allergic conjunctivitis">allergic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pterygium_(conjunctiva)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterygium (conjunctiva)">Pterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopterygium" title="Pseudopterygium">Pseudopterygium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinguecula" title="Pinguecula">Pinguecula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subconjunctival_bleeding" title="Subconjunctival bleeding">Subconjunctival hemorrhage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Globe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Globe_(human_eye)" title="Globe (human eye)">Globe</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_tunic_of_eyeball" title="Fibrous tunic of eyeball">Fibrous tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sclera" title="Sclera">Sclera</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scleritis" title="Scleritis">Scleritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Episcleritis" title="Episcleritis">Episcleritis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cornea" title="Cornea">Cornea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratitis" title="Keratitis">Keratitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Herpetic_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpetic keratitis">herpetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acanthamoeba_keratitis" title="Acanthamoeba keratitis">acanthamoebic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">fungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_keratitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure keratitis">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photokeratitis" title="Photokeratitis">Photokeratitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ulcer" title="Corneal ulcer">Corneal ulcer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thygeson%27s_superficial_punctate_keratopathy" title="Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy">Thygeson's superficial punctate keratopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_dystrophy" title="Corneal dystrophy">Corneal dystrophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fuchs%27_dystrophy" title="Fuchs' dystrophy">Fuchs'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meesmann_corneal_dystrophy" title="Meesmann corneal dystrophy">Meesmann</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_ectatic_disorders" title="Corneal ectatic disorders">Corneal ectasia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconus" title="Keratoconus">Keratoconus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pellucid_marginal_degeneration" title="Pellucid marginal degeneration">Pellucid marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoglobus" title="Keratoglobus">Keratoglobus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrien%27s_marginal_degeneration" title="Terrien's marginal degeneration">Terrien's marginal degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-LASIK_ectasia" title="Post-LASIK ectasia">Post-LASIK ectasia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis" title="Keratoconjunctivitis">Keratoconjunctivitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keratoconjunctivitis_sicca" class="mw-redirect" title="Keratoconjunctivitis sicca">sicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_opacity" title="Corneal opacity">Corneal opacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corneal_neovascularization" title="Corneal neovascularization">Corneal neovascularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayser%E2%80%93Fleischer_ring" title="Kayser–Fleischer ring">Kayser–Fleischer ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haab%27s_striae" title="Haab's striae">Haab's striae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcus_senilis" title="Arcus senilis">Arcus senilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Band_keratopathy" title="Band keratopathy">Band keratopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Uvea" title="Uvea">Vascular tunic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iris_(anatomy)" title="Iris (anatomy)">Iris</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ciliary_body" title="Ciliary body">Ciliary body</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uveitis" title="Uveitis">Uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_uveitis" title="Intermediate uveitis">Intermediate uveitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyphema" title="Hyphema">Hyphema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubeosis_iridis" title="Rubeosis iridis">Rubeosis iridis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_pupillary_membrane" title="Persistent pupillary membrane">Persistent pupillary membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iridodialysis" title="Iridodialysis">Iridodialysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synechia_(eye)" title="Synechia (eye)">Synechia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Choroid" title="Choroid">Choroid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Choroideremia" title="Choroideremia">Choroideremia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choroiditis" class="mw-redirect" title="Choroiditis">Choroiditis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_choroidal_excavation" title="Focal choroidal excavation">Focal choroidal excavation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypoidal_choroidal_vasculopathy" title="Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy">Polypoidal choroidal vasculopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lens_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (anatomy)">Lens</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">Cataract</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congenital_cataract" title="Congenital cataract">Congenital cataract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_cataract" title="Childhood cataract">Childhood cataract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphakia" title="Aphakia">Aphakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ectopia_lentis" title="Ectopia lentis">Ectopia lentis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Retinal_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Retinal disease">Retina</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis" title="Retinitis">Retinitis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chorioretinitis" title="Chorioretinitis">Chorioretinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytomegalovirus_retinitis" title="Cytomegalovirus retinitis">Cytomegalovirus retinitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_detachment" title="Retinal detachment">Retinal detachment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_vitreous_detachment" title="Posterior vitreous detachment">Posterior vitreous detachment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinoschisis" title="Retinoschisis">Retinoschisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_ischemic_syndrome" title="Ocular ischemic syndrome">Ocular ischemic syndrome</a> / <a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_vein_occlusion" title="Central retinal vein occlusion">Central retinal vein occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Central retinal artery occlusion">Central retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Branch_retinal_artery_occlusion" title="Branch retinal artery occlusion">Branch retinal artery occlusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy" title="Retinopathy">Retinopathy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_retinopathy" title="Diabetic retinopathy">diabetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertensive_retinopathy" title="Hypertensive retinopathy">hypertensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purtscher%27s_retinopathy" title="Purtscher's retinopathy">Purtscher's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinopathy_of_prematurity" title="Retinopathy of prematurity">of prematurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bietti%27s_crystalline_dystrophy" title="Bietti's crystalline dystrophy">Bietti's crystalline dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coats%27_disease" title="Coats' disease">Coats' disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sickle_cell_retinopathy" title="Sickle cell retinopathy">Sickle cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_retinopathy" title="Photic retinopathy">photic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Macular degeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinitis_pigmentosa" title="Retinitis pigmentosa">Retinitis pigmentosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retinal_haemorrhage" title="Retinal haemorrhage">Retinal haemorrhage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_serous_retinopathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Central serous retinopathy">Central serous retinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macular_edema" title="Macular edema">Macular edema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiretinal_membrane" title="Epiretinal membrane">Epiretinal membrane</a> (Macular pucker)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitelliform_macular_dystrophy" title="Vitelliform macular dystrophy">Vitelliform macular dystrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birdshot_chorioretinopathy" title="Birdshot chorioretinopathy">Birdshot chorioretinopathy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glaucoma" title="Glaucoma">Glaucoma</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypertension" title="Ocular hypertension">Ocular hypertension</a> / <a href="/wiki/Primary_juvenile_glaucoma" title="Primary juvenile glaucoma">Primary juvenile glaucoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floater" title="Floater">Floater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocular_hypotony" title="Ocular hypotony">Ocular hypotony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_eye_(medicine)" title="Red eye (medicine)">Red eye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globe_rupture" title="Globe rupture">Globe rupture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungal_keratitis" title="Fungal keratitis">Keratomycosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phthisis_bulbi" title="Phthisis bulbi">Phthisis bulbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_fetal_vasculature" title="Persistent fetal vasculature">Persistent fetal vasculature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persistent_tunica_vasculosa_lentis" title="Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis">Persistent tunica vasculosa lentis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_exudative_vitreoretinopathy" title="Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy">Familial exudative vitreoretinopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease">Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Pathways" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Visual_system" title="Visual system">Pathways</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_nerve" title="Optic nerve">Optic nerve</a> <a href="/wiki/Optic_disc" title="Optic disc">Optic disc</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuritis" title="Optic neuritis">Optic neuritis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Optic_papillitis" title="Optic papillitis">optic papillitis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papilledema" title="Papilledema">Papilledema</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foster_Kennedy_syndrome" title="Foster Kennedy syndrome">Foster Kennedy syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_atrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Optic atrophy">Optic atrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optic_disc_drusen" title="Optic disc drusen">Optic disc drusen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Optic_neuropathy" title="Optic neuropathy">Optic neuropathy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Ischemic optic neuropathy">Ischemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">anterior (AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Posterior ischemic optic neuropathy">posterior (PION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">arteritic anterior (AAION or arteritic AION)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-arteritic_anterior_ischemic_optic_neuropathy" title="Non-arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy">non-arteritic anterior (NAION)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjer%27s_optic_neuropathy" title="Kjer's optic neuropathy">Kjer's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_hereditary_optic_neuropathy" title="Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy">Leber's hereditary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_and_nutritional_optic_neuropathy" title="Toxic and nutritional optic neuropathy">Toxic and nutritional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus" title="Strabismus">Strabismus</a> <a href="/wiki/Extraocular_muscles" title="Extraocular muscles">Extraocular muscles</a> <a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">Binocular vision</a> <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(eye)" class="mw-redirect" title="Accommodation (eye)">Accommodation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Paralytic_strabismus" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Paralytic_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Paralytic strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmoparesis" title="Ophthalmoparesis">Ophthalmoparesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronic_progressive_external_ophthalmoplegia" title="Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia">Chronic progressive external ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kearns%E2%80%93Sayre_syndrome" title="Kearns–Sayre syndrome">Kearns–Sayre syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cranial_nerve_disease" title="Cranial nerve disease">palsies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve_palsy" title="Oculomotor nerve palsy">Oculomotor (III)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_nerve_palsy" title="Fourth nerve palsy">Fourth-nerve (IV)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sixth_nerve_palsy" title="Sixth nerve palsy">Sixth-nerve (VI)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strabismus#Other_strabismus" title="Strabismus">Other strabismus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esotropia" title="Esotropia">Esotropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Exotropia" title="Exotropia">Exotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypertropia" title="Hypertropia">Hypertropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterophoria" title="Heterophoria">Heterophoria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Esophoria" title="Esophoria">Esophoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exophoria" title="Exophoria">Exophoria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyclotropia" title="Cyclotropia">Cyclotropia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown%27s_syndrome" title="Brown's syndrome">Brown's syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duane_syndrome" title="Duane syndrome">Duane syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other binocular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_gaze_palsy" title="Conjugate gaze palsy">Conjugate gaze palsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convergence_insufficiency" title="Convergence insufficiency">Convergence insufficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internuclear_ophthalmoplegia" title="Internuclear ophthalmoplegia">Internuclear ophthalmoplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_and_a_half_syndrome" title="One and a half syndrome">One and a half syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">Refraction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Refractive_error" title="Refractive error">Refractive error</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Far-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Far-sightedness">Hyperopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-sightedness" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-sightedness">Myopia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astigmatism" title="Astigmatism">Astigmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anisometropia" title="Anisometropia">Anisometropia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Aniseikonia" title="Aniseikonia">Aniseikonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyopia" title="Presbyopia">Presbyopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vision_disorder" title="Vision disorder">Vision disorders</a> <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amblyopia" title="Amblyopia">Amblyopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leber%27s_congenital_amaurosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Leber's congenital amaurosis">Leber's congenital amaurosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplopia" title="Diplopia">Diplopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotoma" title="Scotoma">Scotoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_blindness" title="Color blindness">Color blindness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achromatopsia" title="Achromatopsia">Achromatopsia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dichromacy" title="Dichromacy">Dichromacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">Monochromacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyctalopia" title="Nyctalopia">Nyctalopia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oguchi_disease" title="Oguchi disease">Oguchi disease</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">Blindness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Vision_loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Vision loss">Vision loss</a> / <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment" title="Visual impairment">Visual impairment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anopsia" title="Anopsia">Anopsia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hemianopsia" title="Hemianopsia">Hemianopsia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Binasal_hemianopsia" title="Binasal hemianopsia">binasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bitemporal_hemianopsia" title="Bitemporal hemianopsia">bitemporal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homonymous_hemianopsia" title="Homonymous hemianopsia">homonymous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadrantanopia" title="Quadrantanopia">Quadrantanopia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">subjective</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenopia">Asthenopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemeralopia" title="Hemeralopia">Hemeralopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophobia" title="Photophobia">Photophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scintillating_scotoma" title="Scintillating scotoma">Scintillating scotoma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pupil" title="Pupil">Pupil</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anisocoria" title="Anisocoria">Anisocoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argyll_Robertson_pupil" title="Argyll Robertson pupil">Argyll Robertson pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Gunn_pupil" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Gunn pupil">Marcus Gunn pupil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adie_syndrome" title="Adie syndrome">Adie syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miosis" title="Miosis">Miosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mydriasis" title="Mydriasis">Mydriasis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycloplegia" title="Cycloplegia">Cycloplegia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parinaud%27s_syndrome" title="Parinaud's syndrome">Parinaud's syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nystagmus" title="Nystagmus">Nystagmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Childhood_blindness" title="Childhood blindness">Childhood blindness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Infections" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Infections</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachoma" title="Trachoma">Trachoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onchocerciasis" title="Onchocerciasis">Onchocerciasis</a></li></ul> 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