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class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目錄</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移去側欄</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">收埋</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">文頭</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-本質" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#本質"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>本質</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-本質-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去本質細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-本質-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-相容性、可靠性同完備性" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#相容性、可靠性同完備性"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>相容性、可靠性同完備性</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-相容性、可靠性同完備性-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-對立嘅邏輯概念" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#對立嘅邏輯概念"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>對立嘅邏輯概念</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-對立嘅邏輯概念-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-演繹同歸納" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#演繹同歸納"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>演繹同歸納</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-演繹同歸納-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-定義" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#定義"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>定義</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-定義-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>切換去定義細章節</span> </button> <ul id="toc-定義-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-形式邏輯" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#形式邏輯"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>形式邏輯</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-形式邏輯-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-非形式邏輯" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#非形式邏輯"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>非形式邏輯</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-非形式邏輯-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-發展史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#發展史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>發展史</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-發展史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-邏輯架構" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#邏輯架構"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>邏輯架構</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-邏輯架構-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-註" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#註"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>註</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-註-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參考" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參考"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>參考</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參考-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-睇埋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#睇埋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>睇埋</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-睇埋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-出面網頁" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#出面網頁"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>出面網頁</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-出面網頁-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目錄" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="開/收內容一覽" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">開/收內容一覽</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">邏輯</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="去睇另一種語文嘅文章。有164種語言版本。" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-164" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">164種語言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 南非荷蘭文" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 德文（瑞士）" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="德文（瑞士）" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B5%E1%8A%90_%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%9D%E1%8A%AD%E1%8A%95%E1%8B%AE" title="ስነ አምክንዮ – 阿姆哈拉文" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ስነ አምክንዮ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="阿姆哈拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lochica" title="Lochica – 阿拉貢文" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Lochica" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉貢文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="तर्कशास्त्र – 昂加文" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="तर्कशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="昂加文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 阿拉伯文" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ – 阿薩姆文" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="তৰ্কশাস্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿薩姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3xica" title="Lóxica – 阿斯圖里亞文" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Lóxica" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯圖里亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99ntiq" title="Məntiq – 亞塞拜然文" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Məntiq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="亞塞拜然文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%DB%8C%D9%82" title="منطیق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="منطیق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 巴什客爾文" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什客爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 巴伐利亞文" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="巴伐利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luog%C4%97ka" title="Luogėka – 薩莫吉希亞文" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Luogėka" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="薩莫吉希亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohika" title="Lohika – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Lohika" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логіка – 白俄羅斯文" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Логіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄羅斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%91%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лёгіка – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Лёгіка" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mant%C3%A8k" title="Mantèk – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Mantèk" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 保加利亞文" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8" title="যুক্তিবিজ্ঞান – 孟加拉文" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="যুক্তিবিজ্ঞান" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poelloniezh" title="Poelloniezh – 布列塔尼文" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Poelloniezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="布列塔尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 波士尼亞文" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波士尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Ушар ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Ушар ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2gica" title="Lògica – 加泰羅尼亞文" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Lògica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰羅尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cbk-zam mw-list-item"><a href="https://cbk-zam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – Chavacano" lang="cbk" hreflang="cbk" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Chavacano de Zamboanga" data-language-local-name="Chavacano" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Chavacano de Zamboanga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 車臣文" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="車臣文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%86%DA%98%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="لۆژیک – 索拉尼庫爾德文" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="لۆژیک" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="索拉尼庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 科西嘉文" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="科西嘉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mant%C4%B1q" title="Mantıq – 克里米亞半島的土耳其文；克里米亞半島的塔塔爾文" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Mantıq" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="克里米亞半島的土耳其文；克里米亞半島的塔塔爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 捷克文" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 楚瓦什文" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhesymeg" title="Rhesymeg – 威爾斯文" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Rhesymeg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威爾斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 丹麥文" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麥文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="好文"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 德文" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9B%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Λογική – 希臘文" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Λογική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希臘文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="正文"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic – 英文" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Logic" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logiko" title="Logiko – 世界文" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Logiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3gica" title="Lógica – 西班牙文" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Lógica" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loogika" title="Loogika – 愛沙尼亞文" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Loogika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="愛沙尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 巴斯克文" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3gica" title="Lógica – 埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Lógica" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="埃斯特雷馬杜拉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 波斯文" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logiikka" title="Logiikka – 芬蘭文" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Logiikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loogiga" title="Loogiga – 佛羅文" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Loogiga" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="佛羅文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakasama" title="Vakasama – 斐濟文" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Vakasama" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="斐濟文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logique" title="Logique – 法文" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Logique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loogik" title="Loogik – 北弗里西亞文" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Loogik" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="北弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 西弗里西亞文" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="西弗里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loighic" title="Loighic – 愛爾蘭文" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Loighic" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="愛爾蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%AD%B8" title="邏輯學 – 贛語" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="邏輯學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="贛語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojik" title="Lojik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Lojik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3xica" title="Lóxica – 加里西亞文" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lóxica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加里西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuaarape" title="Kuaarape – 瓜拉尼文" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Kuaarape" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-haw mw-list-item"><a href="https://haw.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C5%ABpili" title="Kūpili – 夏威夷文" lang="haw" hreflang="haw" data-title="Kūpili" data-language-autonym="Hawaiʻi" data-language-local-name="夏威夷文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hawaiʻi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="לוגיקה – 希伯來文" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לוגיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="तर्कशास्त्र – 北印度文" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="तर्कशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="北印度文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic – 斐濟印地文" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Logic" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="斐濟印地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 克羅埃西亞文" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 匈牙利文" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տրամաբանություն – 亞美尼亞文" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Տրամաբանություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亞美尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8F%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Տրամաբանութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Տրամաբանութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 國際文" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="國際文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 伊班文" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="伊班文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 印尼文" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印尼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 國際文（E）" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="國際文（E）" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C7%B8z%C3%B9" title="Ǹzù – 伊布文" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ǹzù" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="伊布文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohika" title="Lohika – 伊洛闊文" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Lohika" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="伊洛闊文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logiko" title="Logiko – 伊多文" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Logiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%B6kfr%C3%A6%C3%B0i" title="Rökfræði – 冰島文" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Rökfræði" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰島文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 義大利文" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="義大利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="論理学 – 日文" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="論理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajik" title="Lajik – 牙買加克裏奧爾英文" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Lajik" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="牙買加克裏奧爾英文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/logji" title="logji – 邏輯文" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="logji" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="邏輯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 爪哇文" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ლოგიკა – 喬治亞文" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლოგიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="喬治亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tame%E1%BA%93la" title="Tameẓla – 卡比爾文" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tameẓla" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="卡比爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C9%94l%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Cɔlɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Cɔlɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ki mw-list-item"><a href="https://ki.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A8go_(logic)" title="Ũgo (logic) – 吉庫尤文" lang="ki" hreflang="ki" data-title="Ũgo (logic)" data-language-autonym="Gĩkũyũ" data-language-local-name="吉庫尤文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gĩkũyũ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 哈薩克文" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈薩克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="តក្កវិជ្ជា – 高棉文" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="តក្កវិជ្ជា" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="高棉文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ភាសាខ្មែរ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%85%BC%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="논리학 – 韓文" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="논리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mentiq" title="Mentiq – 庫爾德文" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Mentiq" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="庫爾德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojyk" title="Lojyk – 康瓦耳文" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Lojyk" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="康瓦耳文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 吉爾吉斯文" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="吉爾吉斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 拉丁文" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 盧森堡文" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="盧森堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lbe mw-list-item"><a href="https://lbe.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%8C" title="Мантикь – Lak" lang="lbe" hreflang="lbe" data-title="Мантикь" data-language-autonym="Лакку" data-language-local-name="Lak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лакку</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojica" title="Lojica – 新共同語言" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lojica" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="新共同語言" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logega" title="Logega – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Logega" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 立陶宛文" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C4%A3ika" title="Loģika – 拉脫維亞文" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Loģika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脫維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B4jika" title="Lôjika – 馬拉加什文" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Lôjika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="馬拉加什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 米南卡堡文" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="米南卡堡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 馬其頓文" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="馬其頓文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തർക്കശാസ്ത്രം – 馬來亞拉姆文" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തർക്കശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="馬來亞拉姆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Логик – 蒙古文" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Логик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="तर्कशास्त्र – 馬拉地文" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तर्कशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="馬拉地文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 馬來文" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="馬來文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3gica" title="Lógica – 米蘭德斯文" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Lógica" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="米蘭德斯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9A%E1%80%AF%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ယုတ္တိဗေဒ – 緬甸文" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ယုတ္တိဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="緬甸文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 馬贊德蘭文" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="馬贊德蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 低地德文" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95" title="तर्क – 尼瓦爾文" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="तर्क" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="尼瓦爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 荷蘭文" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logikk" title="Logikk – 耐諾斯克挪威文" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Logikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="耐諾斯克挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logikk" title="Logikk – 巴克摩挪威文" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Logikk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="巴克摩挪威文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logike" title="Logike – 諾維亞文" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Logike" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="諾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logica" title="Logica – 奧克西坦文" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Logica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奧克西坦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaaya(logic)" title="Yaaya(logic) – 奧羅莫文" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Yaaya(logic)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="奧羅莫文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%B0" title="ਤਰਕ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ – 旁遮普文" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਰਕ ਸ਼ਾਸਤਰ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pih mw-list-item"><a href="https://pih.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lojik" title="Lojik – Norfuk / Pitkern" lang="pih" hreflang="pih" data-title="Lojik" data-language-autonym="Norfuk / Pitkern" data-language-local-name="Norfuk / Pitkern" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norfuk / Pitkern</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 波蘭文" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2gica" title="Lògica – 皮埃蒙特文" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lògica" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="皮埃蒙特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%8F%DA%A9" title="تُک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تُک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%D9%87" title="سولپوهنه – 普什圖文" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سولپوهنه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什圖文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B3gica" title="Lógica – 葡萄牙文" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Lógica" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullwa" title="Sullwa – 蓋楚瓦文" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Sullwa" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="蓋楚瓦文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic%C4%83" title="Logică – 羅馬尼亞文" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Logică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="羅馬尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 俄文" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D2%91%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Лоґіка – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лоґіка" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 雅庫特文" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="雅庫特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%A9%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%A4" title="ᱡᱩᱠᱛᱤ – 散塔利文" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱩᱠᱛᱤ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="散塔利文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2gica" title="Lògica – 撒丁文" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Lògica" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="撒丁文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B2ggica" title="Lòggica – 西西里文" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lòggica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="西西里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic – 蘇格蘭文" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Logic" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="蘇格蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 信德文" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="信德文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞克羅埃西亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tam%E1%BA%93la" title="Tamẓla – 希爾哈文" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Tamẓla" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="希爾哈文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Logic" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 斯洛伐克文" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 斯洛維尼亞文" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛維尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logjika" title="Logjika – 阿爾巴尼亞文" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Logjika" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿爾巴尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логика – 塞爾維亞文" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Логика" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞爾維亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logika" title="Logika – 巽他文" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Logika" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="巽他文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 瑞典文" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantiki" title="Mantiki – 史瓦希里文" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mantiki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="史瓦希里文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%8F%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="ஏரணம் – 坦米爾文" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஏரணம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="坦米爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D2%9B" title="Мантиқ – 塔吉克文" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Мантиқ" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="塔吉克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="ตรรกศาสตร์ – 泰文" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ตรรกศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantyk" title="Mantyk – 土庫曼文" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Mantyk" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="土庫曼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohika" title="Lohika – 塔加路族文" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Lohika" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="塔加路族文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%D3%99nty%C7%A7" title="Mәntyǧ – 塔里什文" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Mәntyǧ" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="塔里什文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lajik" title="Lajik – 托比辛文" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Lajik" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="托比辛文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mant%C4%B1k" title="Mantık – 土耳其文" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mantık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B9%D0%BA" title="Мантыйк – 韃靼文" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Мантыйк" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="韃靼文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Билиглел – 土凡文" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Билиглел" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="土凡文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Логіка – 烏克蘭文" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Логіка" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="烏克蘭文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B7%D9%82" title="منطق – 烏都文" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="منطق" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="烏都文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantiq" title="Mantiq – 烏茲別克文" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Mantiq" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="烏茲別克文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logik" title="Logik – 維普森文" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Logik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="維普森文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic" title="Logic – 越南文" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Logic" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodjike" title="Lodjike – 瓦隆文" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Lodjike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="瓦隆文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lohika" title="Lohika – 瓦瑞文" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Lohika" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="邏輯 – 吳語" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="邏輯" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吳語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-logic" title="I-logic – 科薩文" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="I-logic" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="科薩文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="ლოგიკა – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ლოგიკა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A7" title="לאגיק – 意第緒文" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="לאגיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第緒文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%BB%8Cgb%E1%BB%8D%CC%81n" title="Ọgbọ́n – 約魯巴文" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ọgbọ́n" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="約魯巴文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B5%8E%E2%B5%A5%E2%B5%8D%E2%B4%B0" title="ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰ – 標準摩洛哥塔馬塞特文" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⵎⵥⵍⴰ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="標準摩洛哥塔馬塞特文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%BB%E8%BE%91" title="逻辑 – 中文" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="逻辑" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="中文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%90%86%E5%89%87" title="理則 – 文言文" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="理則" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="文言文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su-l%C3%AD" title="Su-lí – 閩南語" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Su-lí" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="閩南語" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q8078#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="改跨語言拎" class="wbc-editpage">改拎</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="空間名"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="外觀"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF"><span>閱</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit" title="改呢版嘅代碼[e]" accesskey="e"><span>改</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=history" title="呢一頁之前嘅修訂[h]" accesskey="h"><span>睇返紀錄</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="頁面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="架撐" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">架撐</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">架撐</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">移去側欄</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">收埋</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="多啲選項" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 動作 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF"><span>閱</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="yue" dir="ltr"><p><b>邏輯</b>，或者叫做<b>理則</b>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87" title="英文">英文</a>：<span lang="en"><b>logic</b></span>），源自<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E6%96%87" title="希臘文">希臘文</a> λόγος，係種推理嘅抽象模型；<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" title="希臘">希臘</a>字 λόγος最初嘅意思有詞語、思想、概念、論點、推理等等。 <a href="/wiki/1902%E5%B9%B4" title="1902年">1902年</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%9A%B4%E5%BE%A9" title="嚴復">嚴復</a>譯《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A9%86%E5%8B%92%E5%90%8D%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="穆勒名學 (無呢版)">穆勒名學</a>》時，意譯佢做「名學」，但咁又搭唔上<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8D%E5%AE%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="名家 (無呢版)">名家</a>或者<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%8D%E6%95%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="名教 (無呢版)">名教</a>嘅名學個「名」字嘅本意。 </p><p>邏輯學研究「有效<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A8%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="推論">推論</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%89%E6%98%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="證明">證明</a>嘅原則、標準」<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%A0%B9%E6%93%9A" title="Wikipedia:根據">[未記出處或冇根據]</a></sup>。作為<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="形式科學">形式科學</a>，邏輯透過對<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A8%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="推論">推論</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="形式系統">形式系統</a>同自然語言入面嘅論證等等，研究同<a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BD%E9%A1%8C" title="命題">命題</a>同埋<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E8%AD%89" title="論證">論證</a>嘅結構。邏輯嘅研究包括核心議題好似<a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論">謬論</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%82%96%E8%AB%96" title="悖論">悖論</a>，又有用<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%96%E7%84%B6%E7%8E%87" class="mw-redirect" title="或然率">或然率</a>推論，又有<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="因果">因果</a>論證嘅分析。到而家<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="辯論理論" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英文" data-foreign-title="Argumentation theory"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%AF%E8%AB%96%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="辯論理論 (無呢版)">辯論理論</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英文</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentation_theory" class="extiw" title="en:Argumentation theory"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Argumentation theory</span></a></span>）</span></span>都會用到。<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>傳統研究上，通常當邏輯做<a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學">哲學</a>嘅分支。<a href="/wiki/19%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="19世紀">19世紀</a>中期開始，大家開始喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="數學">數學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="電腦科學">電腦科學</a>方面研究邏輯。作為<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="形式科學">形式科學</a>，通過對推論嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="形式系統">形式系統</a>同自然語言論證呢兩樣嘢嘅研究，邏輯研究、分類語句同論證嘅結構。所以邏輯嘅研究範圍可以好廣，由佢嘅核心主題例如對<a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論">謬論</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%82%96%E8%AB%96" title="悖論">悖論</a>嘅研究，到專門嘅推理分析例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%88%96%E7%84%B6%E7%8E%87" class="mw-redirect" title="或然率">或然率</a>正確嘅推理同埋涉及<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="因果關係">因果關係</a>嘅論證。 </p><p>另外，邏輯、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="文法">文法</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%AE%E8%BE%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="修辭">修辭</a>呢三樣嘢被稱為<b>古典三學科</b>。由十九世紀中，大家開始當形式邏輯（又叫<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="符號邏輯">符號邏輯</a>）做<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E5%9F%BA%E7%A4%8E" title="數學基礎">數學基礎</a>研究。1903年，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%87%B7%E6%B5%B7%E5%BE%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="懷海德 (無呢版)">懷海德</a>（Whitehead）同<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E7%B4%A0" class="mw-redirect" title="羅素">羅素</a>（Bertrand Russell）出版《Principia Mathematica》，試圖用形式邏輯造起成部數學。<sup id="cite_ref-Principia_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>不過，除咗一啲基本嘢，佢哋呢套嘅地位畀<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%90%88%E8%AB%96" title="集合論">集合論</a>取代咗，一般已經唔用。當形式邏輯研究擴張，唔再侷限喺基礎嘅議題，之後嘅各個數學領域被統稱為<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="數理邏輯">數理邏輯</a>。發展到而家，形式邏輯係<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="電腦科學">電腦科學</a>嘅基礎。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="本質"><span id=".E6.9C.AC.E8.B3.AA"></span>本質</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=1" title="編輯小節: 本質"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>形式係邏輯嘅核心，但係喺「形式邏輯」入面對「形式」嘅使用成日都唔太明確，所以令到佢嘅描述變得好難明。符號邏輯只係形式邏輯嘅其中一種，佢同形式邏輯嘅另一種類型——淨係處理<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%9A%E8%A8%80%E5%91%BD%E9%A1%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="定言命題 (無呢版)">定言命題</a>(又叫做類稱命題、範疇命題等等)嘅<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%89%E6%AE%B5%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="三段論 (無呢版)">三段論</a>唔同。 </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非形式邏輯">非形式邏輯</a></b>係研究<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="自然語言">自然語言</a><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E8%AB%96%E8%AD%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="邏輯論證 (無呢版)">論證</a>嘅一門學科。對於<a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論">謬論</a>嘅研究係非形式邏輯入面非常重要嘅一個部分。<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96" title="柏拉圖">柏拉圖</a>嘅作品<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>就係非形式邏輯嘅一個重要例子。</li></ul> <ul><li><b>形式邏輯</b>係以純形式內容研究<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A8%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="推論">推論</a>嘅一門學科，呢種內容係相當明確嘅。(一個推論有<b>純形式內容</b>，若果佢可以被表示成一個完全抽象嘅規則，即係不同任何特定事物或者性質有關規則嘅一種特定嘅應用。形式邏輯嘅規則由<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="亞里斯多德">亞里斯多德</a>最先寫成。<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>喺好多邏輯嘅定義當中，邏輯推論同帶有純形式內容嘅推論都係講緊同一種概念。但係咁不代表非形式邏輯嘅概念係空洞嘅，因為冇任何一種形式語言可以捕捉到自然語言語義之間所有嘅微細差別。）</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%A6%E8%99%9F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="符號邏輯">符號邏輯</a></b>係捕獲咗邏輯推論嘅形式特徵，並且將佢抽象化做符號嘅研究。<sup id="cite_ref-Principia_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Principia-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>符號邏輯通常被分為兩個分支：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%9E%E5%8F%A5%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="語句邏輯 (無呢版)">語句邏輯</a>同埋<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AC%82%E8%A9%9E%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="謂詞邏輯 (無呢版)">謂詞邏輯</a>。</li></ul> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="數理邏輯">數理邏輯</a></b>係將符號邏輯放到其他領域入面嘅延伸，特別係喺<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="模型論 (無呢版)">模型論</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AD%89%E6%98%8E%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="證明論 (無呢版)">證明論</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%90%88%E8%AB%96" title="集合論">集合論</a>同<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%81%9E%E6%AD%B8%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="遞歸論 (無呢版)">遞歸論</a>當中嘅研究。</li></ul> <p>「形式邏輯」通常被人當做係符號邏輯嘅同義詞，而非形式邏輯就被理解成唔包含符號抽象化嘅任何一種邏輯推論；呢個是由「<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="形式語言">形式語言</a>」同「<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="形式理論 (無呢版)">形式理論</a>」之中類推得出黎嘅用法。但係廣義黎講，形式邏輯有好耐歷史，可以追溯到兩千年之前，而符號邏輯相對比較新，淨係得一個世紀左右嘅歷史。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="相容性、可靠性同完備性"><span id=".E7.9B.B8.E5.AE.B9.E6.80.A7.E3.80.81.E5.8F.AF.E9.9D.A0.E6.80.A7.E5.90.8C.E5.AE.8C.E5.82.99.E6.80.A7"></span>相容性、可靠性同完備性</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=2" title="編輯小節: 相容性、可靠性同完備性"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="形式系統">邏輯系統</a>可以擁有嘅有效性質有： </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%9B%B8%E5%AE%B9%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="相容性 (無呢版)">相容性</a></b>，指系統入面任何定理都不會同其他定理互相矛盾。</li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E9%9D%A0%E6%80%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="可靠性">可靠性</a></b>，指系統嘅證明規則永遠不會允許一個有正確前提嘅錯誤推論。若果一個系統可靠，而且佢嘅公理都正確，咁佢嘅定理亦都可以保證會係正確嘅。</li></ul></dd></dl> <dl><dd><ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8C%E5%82%99%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="完備性 (無呢版)">完備性</a></b>，指系統入面唔存在一個冇辦法喺系統之中被證明嘅正確命題。</li></ul></dd></dl> <p>絕對唔存在一個同時滿足上面三個性質嘅系統。其中，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BA%AB%E7%88%BE%E7%89%B9%C2%B7%E5%93%A5%E5%BE%B7%E7%88%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="庫爾特·哥德爾 (無呢版)">庫爾特·哥德爾</a>證明咗冇一個有用嘅算術系統可以同時滿足相容性和完備性；詳見<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%93%A5%E5%BE%B7%E7%88%BE%E4%B8%8D%E5%AE%8C%E5%82%99%E5%AE%9A%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="哥德爾不完備定理 (無呢版)">哥德爾不完備定理</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-Hamilton_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hamilton-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="對立嘅邏輯概念"><span id=".E5.B0.8D.E7.AB.8B.E5.98.85.E9.82.8F.E8.BC.AF.E6.A6.82.E5.BF.B5"></span>對立嘅邏輯概念</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=3" title="編輯小節: 對立嘅邏輯概念"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>邏輯產生於對<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%BE%AF%E8%AB%96%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="辯論理論 (無呢版)">辯論</a>正確性嘅關注。邏輯作為辯論嘅研究入面嘅概念喺在歷史上係好基本嘅課題，而且呢樣嘢亦都係唔同邏輯傳統嘅創立者例如<a href="/wiki/%E6%9F%8F%E6%8B%89%E5%9C%96" title="柏拉圖">柏拉圖</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" title="亞里士多德">亞里士多德</a>設想邏輯嘅方法。現代嘅邏輯學家經常會希望確保對邏輯嘅研究侷限喺由適度一般化咗嘅推論入面所產生出黎嘅論證；所以例如《<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%AF%E5%9D%A6%E7%A6%8F%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E7%99%BE%E7%A7%91&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="斯坦福哲學百科 (無呢版)">斯坦福哲學百科</a>》入面會叫邏輯做「無論如何，都無辦法涵蓋住整個有效嘅推理，係理性理論嘅工作。更加明確咁講，邏輯處理一種推論，佢嘅有效性可以追溯至包含住推論表述嘅形式特徵，佢可以係語言嘅，心理嘅，或其他嘅表述。」(Hofweber 2004). </p><p>相對地，<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E5%8A%AA%E7%88%BE%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" title="伊曼努爾·康德">伊曼努爾·康德</a>引入咗另外一種概念黎到解釋咩係邏輯。佢主張邏輯應該被設想做判斷嘅科學，這種諗法被<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%88%88%E7%89%B9%E6%B4%9B%E5%B8%83%C2%B7%E5%BC%97%E9%9B%B7%E6%A0%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="戈特洛布·弗雷格 (無呢版)">戈特洛布·弗雷格</a>接納，寫入佢嘅邏輯同哲學著作之中。其中，思維（德語：<i>Gedanke</i>）呢個詞取代咗康德嘅判斷（德語： <i>Urteil</i>）。喺此種觀點之下，有效嘅邏輯推論係遵循住判斷或者思維嘅結構特徵。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="演繹同歸納"><span id=".E6.BC.94.E7.B9.B9.E5.90.8C.E6.AD.B8.E7.B4.8D"></span>演繹同歸納</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=4" title="編輯小節: 演繹同歸納"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="演繹推理">演繹推理</a>關注由特定嘅前提下可以得出啲咩。而<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B8%E7%B4%8D%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="歸納推理">歸納推理</a>（從觀察之中導出可靠廣義化嘅過程）有時亦都包含咗對邏輯嘅研究之中。相對應地，必須要區分出演繹有效性同<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A2%BA%E8%AA%8D%E6%80%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="確認性 (無呢版)">歸納有效性</a>。一個推論係演繹有效嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%A5%E4%B8%94%E5%94%AF%E8%8B%A5" title="若且唯若">若且唯若</a>唔可能存在所有前提都真但係結論係假嘅狀況。演繹有效性嘅概念可以用<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="語義學">語義學</a>當中已經明確理解嘅概念喺形式邏輯嘅系統入面被嚴格咁陳述。另一方面，歸納有效性要求必須定義對某一觀察集合嘅「可靠廣義化」。呢個定義可以用各種唔同嘅方式黎到完成，有啲方式會比其他方式更少形式化；有啲定義亦都會用到機率嘅<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="數學模型">數學模型</a>。大部份對邏輯嘅探討都淨係會處理演繹邏輯。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="定義"><span id=".E5.AE.9A.E7.BE.A9"></span>定義</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=5" title="編輯小節: 定義"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>「邏輯」呢個字源自希臘文「logos」，佢有好多唔同嘅翻譯，好似係<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AB%96%E8%BF%B0&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="論述 (無呢版)">論述</a>、或者<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言">語言</a>咁。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPépin2004LogosOnline_Etymology_Staff_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPépin2004LogosOnline_Etymology_Staff-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 傳統上，邏輯被定義為研究<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%80%9D%E7%B6%AD%E6%B3%95%E5%89%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="思維法則 (無呢版)">思維法則</a>或<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AD%A3%E7%A2%BA%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="正確推理 (無呢版)">正確推理</a>嘅學科，<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019lead_section,_§Nature_and_varieties_of_logic_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019lead_section,_§Nature_and_varieties_of_logic-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 通常被理解為<a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A8%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="推論">推論</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E8%AD%89" title="論證">論證</a>。推理係得出推論嘅活動。論證係推論嘅外在表達。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019§Nature_and_varieties_of_logicHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001220_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019§Nature_and_varieties_of_logicHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001220-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 一個論證由一組前提同埋一個結論組成。邏輯關注嘅係論證係咪正確，即係佢哋嘅前提係咪支持結論。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613Audi1999bPhilosophy_of_logicMcKeon_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613Audi1999bPhilosophy_of_logicMcKeon-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 呢啲一般嘅描述適用於最廣義嘅邏輯，即係<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="形式邏輯">形式邏輯</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非形式邏輯">非形式邏輯</a>，因為佢哋都關注評估論證嘅正確性。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–95Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–95Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 形式邏輯係傳統上佔主導地位嘅領域，有啲邏輯學家將邏輯局限喺形式邏輯。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicBarnes2007274Planty-Bonjour2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0EpFBgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]Rini2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvard024vjFgCpgPA26_26]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicBarnes2007274Planty-Bonjour2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0EpFBgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]Rini2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvard024vjFgCpgPA26_26]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="形式邏輯"><span id=".E5.BD.A2.E5.BC.8F.E9.82.8F.E8.BC.AF"></span>形式邏輯</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=6" title="編輯小節: 形式邏輯"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">想知多啲：<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="形式系統">形式系統</a></div> <p>形式邏輯又叫符號邏輯，喺<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E7%90%86%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="數理邏輯">數理邏輯</a>中廣泛使用。佢用<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E7%B3%BB%E7%B5%B1" title="形式系統">形式</a>嘅方法嚟研究推理：將具體表達替換成抽象符號，以研究論證嘅<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="邏輯形式 (無呢版)">邏輯形式</a>，而唔理會佢哋具體內容。喺呢個意義上，佢係中立嘅，因為佢只關注論證嘅抽象結構，而唔理會佢哋嘅具體內容。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacFarlane2017Corkum2015753–767BlairJohnson200093–95Magnus200512-41.6_Formal_languages_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacFarlane2017Corkum2015753–767BlairJohnson200093–95Magnus200512-41.6_Formal_languages-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>形式邏輯關注嘅係演繹<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%89%E6%95%88%E6%80%A7%EF%BC%88%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="有效性（邏輯） (無呢版)">有效</a>嘅論證，即係前提嘅真確性保證咗結論嘅真確性。呢個意味住前提為真而結論為假係不可能嘅。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKeonCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKeonCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 對於有效嘅論證，前提同結論嘅邏輯結構遵循一種叫做<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86%E8%A6%8F%E5%89%87&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="推理規則 (無呢版)">推理規則</a>嘅模式。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 例如，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%82%AF%E5%AE%9A%E5%89%8D%E4%BB%B6%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="肯定前件式 (無呢版)">肯定前件式</a>係一條推理規則，根據呢條規則，所有形如「（1）p，（2）如果 p 則 q，（3）因此 q」嘅論證都係有效嘅，唔理 p 同 q 代表咩。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagnus2005Proofs,_p._102_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnus2005Proofs,_p._102-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 喺呢個意義上，形式邏輯可以被定義為研究有效推論嘅科學。另一個定義將邏輯視為研究<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="邏輯真理">邏輯真理</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613–16Makridis20221–2RuncoPritzker1999155_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613–16Makridis20221–2RuncoPritzker1999155-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 如果一個命題嘅真確性只依賴於佢使用嘅邏輯詞彙，咁呢個命題就係邏輯真理。呢個意味住佢喺所有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%AF%E8%83%BD%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="可能世界 (無呢版)">可能世界</a>同所有非邏輯詞嘅<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B%EF%BC%88%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="解釋（邏輯） (無呢版)">解釋</a>下都係真嘅，好似「要麼落緊雨，要麼冇落雨」呢個說法咁。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGómez-Torrente2019Magnus20051.5_Other_logical_notions,_p._10_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGómez-Torrente2019Magnus20051.5_Other_logical_notions,_p._10-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 呢兩個形式邏輯嘅定義唔係完全一樣，但佢哋係密切相關嘅。例如，如果由 p 到 q 嘅推論係演繹有效嘅，咁「如果 p 則 q」呢個說法就係一個邏輯真理。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200616_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200616-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First-order_logic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="將英文句子翻譯成一階邏輯嘅可視化" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First-order_logic.png/350px-First-order_logic.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First-order_logic.png/525px-First-order_logic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/First-order_logic.png/700px-First-order_logic.png 2x" data-file-width="2094" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption>形式邏輯需要將自然語言嘅論證翻譯成形式語言，例如一階邏輯，以評估佢哋係咪有效。喺呢個例子中，字母「c」代表 Carmen，而字母「M」同「T」分別代表「Mexican」同「teacher」。符號「∧」表示「同」嘅意思。</figcaption></figure> <p>形式邏輯使用<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="形式語言">形式語言</a>嚟表達同分析論證。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005logic,_informalCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–268_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005logic,_informalCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–268-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 佢哋通常有非常有限嘅詞彙同精確嘅<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="語法">語法規則</a>。呢啲規則規定咗點樣將佢哋嘅符號組合起嚟構造句子，即所謂嘅<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%89%AF%E6%A7%8B%E5%85%AC%E5%BC%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="良構公式 (無呢版)">良構公式</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systemsSimpson200814_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systemsSimpson200814-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 形式邏輯嘅呢種簡單同精確性令佢能夠制定精確嘅推理規則。呢啲規則決定咗一個特定嘅論證係咪有效。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systems_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systems-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 因為依賴形式語言，自然語言嘅論證唔可以直接研究。相反，佢哋需要先<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E7%BF%BB%E8%AD%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="邏輯翻譯 (無呢版)">翻譯成形式語言</a>，然後先可以評估佢哋嘅有效性。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200622-3Magnus20058–91.4_Deductive_validityJohnson1999267_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200622-3Magnus20058–91.4_Deductive_validityJohnson1999267-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>「邏輯」呢個詞亦可以用喺稍微唔同嘅意義上作為可數名詞。喺呢個意義上，「一個邏輯」係指一個邏輯形式系統。唔同嘅邏輯喺佢哋接受為有效嘅推理規則同用嚟表達佢哋嘅形式語言方面有分別。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200616–17Jacquette2006Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today,_pp._1–12_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200616–17Jacquette2006Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today,_pp._1–12-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 從 19 世紀末開始，好多新嘅形式系統被提出。對於咩嘢令一個形式系統成為一個邏輯，有唔同嘅意見。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsJacquette20061–12Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsJacquette20061–12Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 例如，有人建議只有<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%8C%E5%82%99%E6%80%A7%EF%BC%88%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%EF%BC%89&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="完備性（邏輯） (無呢版)">邏輯完備</a>嘅系統，好似<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%80%E9%9A%8E%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="一階邏輯 (無呢版)">一階邏輯</a>，先算得上係邏輯。基於呢啲原因，有啲理論家否認<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%AB%98%E9%9A%8E%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="高階邏輯 (無呢版)">高階邏輯</a>喺嚴格意義上係邏輯。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19785–7,_9Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200631-2Haack1996229–30_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19785–7,_9Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200631-2Haack1996229–30-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="非形式邏輯"><span id=".E9.9D.9E.E5.BD.A2.E5.BC.8F.E9.82.8F.E8.BC.AF"></span>非形式邏輯</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=7" title="編輯小節: 非形式邏輯"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文：<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非形式邏輯">非形式邏輯</a></div> <p>當廣義理解嘅時候，邏輯包括形式邏輯同非形式邏輯。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsGroarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logic_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsGroarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logic-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 非形式邏輯使用非形式嘅標準同準則嚟分析同評估論證嘅正確性。佢主要關注日常嘅論述。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014228–9_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014228–9-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 佢嘅發展係由於將形式邏輯嘅見解應用到自然語言論證時遇到嘅困難而促成嘅。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroarke2021lead_section;_1._HistoryAudi1999aInformal_logicJohnson1999265–274_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroarke2021lead_section;_1._HistoryAudi1999aInformal_logicJohnson1999265–274-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 喺呢方面，佢考慮咗單憑形式邏輯無法解決嘅問題。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999267_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999267-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 兩者都提供咗評估論證正確性同將佢哋同謬誤區分開嚟嘅標準。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–97Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–97Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>好多人對非形式邏輯嘅特徵提出咗建議，但係對佢嘅精確定義冇一個普遍嘅共識。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999265–270van_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans1–45Informal_Logic_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999265–270van_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans1–45Informal_Logic-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 最直接嘅方法係將「形式」同「非形式」呢啲詞語應用到表達論證嘅語言上面。喺呢個觀點下，非形式邏輯研究嘅係用非形式或自然語言表達嘅論證。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroarke20211.1_Formal_and_Informal_LogicAudi1999aInformal_logicHonderich2005logic,_informal_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroarke20211.1_Formal_and_Informal_LogicAudi1999aInformal_logicHonderich2005logic,_informal-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 形式邏輯只能夠間接地研究佢哋，要先將佢哋翻譯成形式語言，而非形式邏輯就可以直接研究佢哋原本嘅形式。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–107Groarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logicvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin169_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–107Groarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logicvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin169-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 喺呢個觀點下，「雀仔會飛。Tweety 係隻雀仔。所以，Tweety 會飛。」呢個論證屬於自然語言，由非形式邏輯研究。但係佢嘅形式翻譯「（1）<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \forall x(Bird(x)\to Flies(x))}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi mathvariant="normal">∀</mi> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>B</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">→</mo> <mi>F</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>x</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \forall x(Bird(x)\to Flies(x))}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/47470c39cb95609466e0ced564f7554e6aed5c2a" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:24.565ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \forall x(Bird(x)\to Flies(x))}"></span>；（2）<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Bird(Tweety)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>B</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>r</mi> <mi>d</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Bird(Tweety)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/d7410bba34fafd2dd9cf92e72eb6bf6864d31f8c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.103ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Bird(Tweety)}"></span>；（3）<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Flies(Tweety)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>F</mi> <mi>l</mi> <mi>i</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>s</mi> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>T</mi> <mi>w</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>e</mi> <mi>t</mi> <mi>y</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Flies(Tweety)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/61b341702eeb3e76d6d1ddedf05c4ed81c6b0993" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.682ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Flies(Tweety)}"></span>」就由形式邏輯研究。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOaksfordChater200747_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOaksfordChater200747-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 研究自然語言嘅論證有好多困難。例如，自然語言嘅表達經常係含糊、模糊同依賴語境嘅。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicWalton19872–3,_6–81._A_new_model_of_argumentEngel198259–922._The_medium_of_language_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicWalton19872–3,_6–81._A_new_model_of_argumentEngel198259–922._The_medium_of_language-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 另一個方法係將非形式邏輯廣義地定義為對論證嘅標準、準則同程序嘅規範性研究。喺呢個意義上，佢包括咗關於<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E6%80%A7%E6%80%9D%E7%B6%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="批判性思維">批判性思維</a>同論證心理學嘅問題。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson1987147–51_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson1987147–51-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>另一個特徵係將非形式邏輯識別為研究非演繹論證。喺呢個方面，佢同形式邏輯研究嘅演繹推理形成對比。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalikowskiMills202298Weddle2011383–836._Informal_logic_and_the_eductive-inductive_distinctionBlair201147_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalikowskiMills202298Weddle2011383–836._Informal_logic_and_the_eductive-inductive_distinctionBlair201147-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 非演繹論證令佢哋嘅結論成為可能，但唔能確保佢係真嘅。一個例子係<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B8%E7%B4%8D%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="歸納推理">歸納推理</a>嘅論證，從經驗觀察「我到而家見到嘅烏鴉都係黑色嘅」得出結論「所有烏鴉都係黑色嘅」。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVickers2022Nunes20112066–9Logical_Reasoning_and_Learning_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVickers2022Nunes20112066–9Logical_Reasoning_and_Learning-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>另一個方法係將非形式邏輯定義為研究<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AC%AC%E8%AA%A4&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="非形式謬誤 (無呢版)">非形式謬誤</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014181Johnson1999267BlairJohnson1987147–51_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014181Johnson1999267BlairJohnson1987147–51-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 非形式謬誤係喺論證嘅內容同<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E5%A2%83" title="語境">語境</a>中存在錯誤嘅不正確論證。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVleet2010ix–xIntroductionDowdenStump_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVleet2010ix–xIntroductionDowdenStump-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 例如，<a href="/wiki/%E5%81%87%E4%BA%8C%E5%88%86%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="假二分法">假二分法</a>涉及咗通過排除可行選項而產生嘅內容錯誤。呢個情況出現喺「你要麼同我哋一齊，要麼反對我哋；你唔係同我哋一齊；所以，你反對我哋」呢個謬誤入面。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaltbyDayMacaskill2007564Dowden_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaltbyDayMacaskill2007564Dowden-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 有啲理論家指出形式邏輯研究論證嘅一般形式，而非形式邏輯研究論證嘅特定實例。另一個方法係認為形式邏輯只考慮邏輯常數對正確推論嘅作用，而非形式邏輯亦考慮實質<a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="概念">概念</a>嘅意義。仲有啲方法集中討論有冇使用形式工具嚟討論邏輯話題，同埋<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%8D%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="認識論">認識論</a>喺評估論證中嘅角色。<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–270_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–270-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="發展史"><span id=".E7.99.BC.E5.B1.95.E5.8F.B2"></span>發展史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=8" title="編輯小節: 發展史"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div role="note" class="hatnote">内文：<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%8F%B2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="邏輯史 (無呢版)">邏輯史</a></div> <p>雖然好多文化都採用推理嘅複雜系統，但係作為將推理方法明確分析嘅邏輯學最初就淨係喺三個地方得到持續發展：<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D6%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="前6世紀">前6世紀</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6" title="印度">印度</a>，<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D5%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="前5世紀">前5世紀</a>嘅<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B" title="中國">中國</a>同埋<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D4%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="前4世紀">前4世紀</a>至到<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D1%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="前1世紀">前1世紀</a>之間嘅<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" title="希臘">希臘</a>。 </p><p>現代邏輯嘅形式複雜處理明顥流傳自希臘嘅傳統，但係有人提出<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B8%83%E7%88%BE%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="布爾邏輯 (無呢版)">布爾邏輯</a>嘅先驅可能識印度邏輯（Ganeri 2001）。希腊傳統本身黎自<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="亞里士多德邏輯 (無呢版)">亞里士多德邏輯</a>嘅傳播、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E8%98%AD%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="伊斯蘭哲學家 (無呢版)">伊斯蘭哲學家</a>同<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%AD%E4%B8%96%E7%BA%AA%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="中世纪邏輯學家 (無呢版)">中世纪邏輯學家</a>對佢嘅評論。歐洲以外嘅傳統冇存活到現代時期：喺中國，對邏輯嘅學術研究傳統喺<a href="/wiki/%E9%9F%93%E9%9D%9E" title="韓非">韓非</a>嘅法家哲學後被<a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%A6%E6%9C%9D" title="秦朝">秦朝</a>壓制。喺伊斯蘭世界，<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%98%BF%E4%BF%AE%E9%98%BF%E9%87%8C%E5%AD%B8%E6%B4%BE&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="阿修阿里學派 (無呢版)">阿修阿里學派</a>嘅崛起壓制邏輯嘅原始工作。 </p><p>但係喺印度，經院學派<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AD%A3%E7%90%86%E7%B6%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="正理經 (無呢版)">正理派</a>嘅創新持續到<a href="/wiki/18%E4%B8%96%E7%B4%80" title="18世紀">18世紀</a>早期。佢冇存活到<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="殖民地時期 (無呢版)">殖民地時期</a>。喺20世紀，西方哲學家例如Stanislaw Schayer同Klaus Glashoff探究咗<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8D%B0%E5%BA%A6%E5%82%B3%E7%B5%B1%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%AD%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="印度傳統邏輯學 (無呢版)">印度傳統邏輯學</a>嘅一部分。 </p><p>中世紀時期，喺亞里士多德嘅想法顯示同信仰大量兼容之後，佢嘅邏輯被人更加強調。喺中世紀嘅後期，邏輯變咗哲學家嘅一個主要焦點，佢地想從事哲學論證嘅重要邏輯分析。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="邏輯架構"><span id=".E9.82.8F.E8.BC.AF.E6.9E.B6.E6.A7.8B"></span>邏輯架構</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=9" title="編輯小節: 邏輯架構"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="註"><span id=".E8.A8.BB"></span>註</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=10" title="編輯小節: 註"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r2020813">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> J. Robert Cox and Charles Arthur Willard, eds. <i>Advances in Argumentation Theory and Research</i>, Southern Illinois University Press, 1983 <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0809310503" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8093-1050-3</a>, ISBN-13 978-0809310500 </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Principia-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Principia_2-0">2.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Principia_2-1">2.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"> Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell, <i>Principia Mathematical to *56</i>, Cambridge University Press, 1967, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0521626064" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-62606-4</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Plato, <i>The Portable Plato</i>, edited by Scott Buchanan, Penguin, 1976, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0140150404" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-14-015040-4</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Aristotle, <i>The Basic Works</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Mckeon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Mckeon (無呢版)">Richard Mckeon</a>, editor, Modern Library, 2001, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0375757996" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-375-75799-6</a>, see especially, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Posterior_Analytics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Posterior Analytics (無呢版)">Posterior Analytics</a></i>. </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hamilton-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Hamilton_5-0">5.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Hamilton_5-1">5.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">For a more modern treatment, see A. G. Hamilton, <i>Logic for Mathematicians</i>, Cambridge, 1980, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0521292913" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-521-29291-3</a> </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPépin2004LogosOnline_Etymology_Staff-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPépin2004LogosOnline_Etymology_Staff_6-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPépin2004">Pépin 2004</a>, Logos<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFPépin2004 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFOnline_Etymology_Staff">Online Etymology Staff</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFOnline_Etymology_Staff (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019lead_section,_§Nature_and_varieties_of_logic-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019lead_section,_§Nature_and_varieties_of_logic_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikka2019">Hintikka 2019</a>, lead section, §Nature and varieties of logic.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFHintikka2019 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019§Nature_and_varieties_of_logicHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001220-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikka2019§Nature_and_varieties_of_logicHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001220_8-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikka2019">Hintikka 2019</a>, §Nature and varieties of logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikka2019 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFHaack1978">Haack 1978</a>, pp. 1–10, Philosophy of logics<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1978 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001">Schlesinger, Keren-Portnoy & Parush 2001</a>, p. 220<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFSchlesingerKeren-PortnoyParush2001 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613Audi1999bPhilosophy_of_logicMcKeon-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613Audi1999bPhilosophy_of_logicMcKeon_9-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, p. 13<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFAudi1999b">Audi 1999b</a>, Philosophy of logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFAudi1999b (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFMcKeon">McKeon</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMcKeon (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–95Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–95Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson2000">Blair & Johnson 2000</a>, pp. 93–95<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson2000 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicBarnes2007274Planty-Bonjour2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0EpFBgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]Rini2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvard024vjFgCpgPA26_26]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicBarnes2007274Planty-Bonjour2012[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid0EpFBgAAQBAJpgPA62_62]Rini2010[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidvard024vjFgCpgPA26_26]_11-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFBarnes2007">Barnes 2007</a>, p. 274<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBarnes2007 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFPlanty-Bonjour2012">Planty-Bonjour 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0EpFBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA62">62</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFPlanty-Bonjour2012 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFRini2010">Rini 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vard024vjFgC&pg=PA26">26</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFRini2010 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacFarlane2017Corkum2015753–767BlairJohnson200093–95Magnus200512-41.6_Formal_languages-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMacFarlane2017Corkum2015753–767BlairJohnson200093–95Magnus200512-41.6_Formal_languages_12-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacFarlane2017">MacFarlane 2017</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMacFarlane2017 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFCorkum2015">Corkum 2015</a>, pp. 753–767<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCorkum2015 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson2000">Blair & Johnson 2000</a>, pp. 93–95<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson2000 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFMagnus2005">Magnus 2005</a>, pp. 12-4, 1.6 Formal languages<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMagnus2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcKeonCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcKeonCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_13-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcKeon">McKeon</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMcKeon (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613_14-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, p. 13.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagnus2005Proofs,_p._102-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagnus2005Proofs,_p._102_15-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMagnus2005">Magnus 2005</a>, Proofs, p. 102.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFMagnus2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613–16Makridis20221–2RuncoPritzker1999155-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200613–16Makridis20221–2RuncoPritzker1999155_16-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, pp. 13–16<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFMakridis2022">Makridis 2022</a>, pp. 1–2<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMakridis2022 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFRuncoPritzker1999">Runco & Pritzker 1999</a>, p. 155<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFRuncoPritzker1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGómez-Torrente2019Magnus20051.5_Other_logical_notions,_p._10-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGómez-Torrente2019Magnus20051.5_Other_logical_notions,_p._10_17-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGómez-Torrente2019">Gómez-Torrente 2019</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGómez-Torrente2019 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFMagnus2005">Magnus 2005</a>, 1.5 Other logical notions, p. 10<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMagnus2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200616-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200616_18-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, p. 16.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005logic,_informalCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–268-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHonderich2005logic,_informalCraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–268_19-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHonderich2005">Honderich 2005</a>, logic, informal<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHonderich2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, pp. 265–268<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systemsSimpson200814-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systemsSimpson200814_20-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal languages and systems<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFSimpson2008">Simpson 2008</a>, p. 14<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFSimpson2008 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systems-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_languages_and_systems_21-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal languages and systems.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200622-3Magnus20058–91.4_Deductive_validityJohnson1999267-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHintikkaSandu200622-3Magnus20058–91.4_Deductive_validityJohnson1999267_22-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, pp. 22-3<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFMagnus2005">Magnus 2005</a>, pp. 8–9, 1.4 Deductive validity<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMagnus2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, p. 267<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200616–17Jacquette2006Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today,_pp._1–12-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200616–17Jacquette2006Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today,_pp._1–12_23-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaack1978">Haack 1978</a>, pp. 1–2, 4, Philosophy of logics<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1978 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, pp. 16–17<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJacquette2006">Jacquette 2006</a>, Introduction: Philosophy of logic today, pp. 1–12<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJacquette2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsJacquette20061–12Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–2,_4Philosophy_of_logicsJacquette20061–12Introduction:_Philosophy_of_logic_today_24-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaack1978">Haack 1978</a>, pp. 1–2, 4, Philosophy of logics<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1978 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJacquette2006">Jacquette 2006</a>, pp. 1–12, Introduction: Philosophy of logic today<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJacquette2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19785–7,_9Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200631-2Haack1996229–30-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19785–7,_9Philosophy_of_logicsHintikkaSandu200631-2Haack1996229–30_25-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaack1978">Haack 1978</a>, pp. 5–7, 9, Philosophy of logics<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1978 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006">Hintikka & Sandu 2006</a>, pp. 31-2<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHintikkaSandu2006 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFHaack1996">Haack 1996</a>, pp. 229–30<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsGroarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logic-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHaack19781–10Philosophy_of_logicsGroarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logic_26-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHaack1978">Haack 1978</a>, pp. 1–10, Philosophy of logics<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHaack1978 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFGroarke2021">Groarke 2021</a>, lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGroarke2021 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014228–9-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014228–9_27-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2014">Johnson 2014</a>, pp. 228–9.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2014 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroarke2021lead_section;_1._HistoryAudi1999aInformal_logicJohnson1999265–274-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroarke2021lead_section;_1._HistoryAudi1999aInformal_logicJohnson1999265–274_28-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGroarke2021">Groarke 2021</a>, lead section; 1. History<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGroarke2021 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFAudi1999a">Audi 1999a</a>, Informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFAudi1999a (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, pp. 265–274<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999267-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999267_29-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, p. 267<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–97Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–97Craig1996Formal_and_informal_logic_30-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson2000">Blair & Johnson 2000</a>, pp. 93–97<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson2000 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999265–270van_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans1–45Informal_Logic-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson1999265–270van_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans1–45Informal_Logic_31-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, pp. 265–270<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans">van Eemeren et al. </a>, pp. 1–45, Informal Logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFvan_EemerenGarssenKrabbeSnoeck_Henkemans (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGroarke20211.1_Formal_and_Informal_LogicAudi1999aInformal_logicHonderich2005logic,_informal-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGroarke20211.1_Formal_and_Informal_LogicAudi1999aInformal_logicHonderich2005logic,_informal_32-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGroarke2021">Groarke 2021</a>, 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGroarke2021 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFAudi1999a">Audi 1999a</a>, Informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFAudi1999a (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFHonderich2005">Honderich 2005</a>, logic, informal<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFHonderich2005 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–107Groarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logicvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin169-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson200093–107Groarke2021lead_section;_1.1_Formal_and_Informal_Logicvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin169_33-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson2000">Blair & Johnson 2000</a>, pp. 93–107<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson2000 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFGroarke2021">Groarke 2021</a>, lead section; 1.1 Formal and Informal Logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFGroarke2021 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin">van Eemeren et al. </a>, p. 169<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFvan_EemerenGrootendorstJohnsonPlantin (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEOaksfordChater200747-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEOaksfordChater200747_34-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOaksfordChater2007">Oaksford & Chater 2007</a>, p. 47.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFOaksfordChater2007 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicWalton19872–3,_6–81._A_new_model_of_argumentEngel198259–922._The_medium_of_language-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicWalton19872–3,_6–81._A_new_model_of_argumentEngel198259–922._The_medium_of_language_35-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFWalton1987">Walton 1987</a>, pp. 2–3, 6–8, 1. A new model of argument<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFWalton1987 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFEngel1982">Engel 1982</a>, pp. 59–92, 2. The medium of language<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFEngel1982 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson1987147–51-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlairJohnson1987147–51_36-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson1987">Blair & Johnson 1987</a>, pp. 147–51.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harv error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson1987 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFalikowskiMills202298Weddle2011383–836._Informal_logic_and_the_eductive-inductive_distinctionBlair201147-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFalikowskiMills202298Weddle2011383–836._Informal_logic_and_the_eductive-inductive_distinctionBlair201147_37-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFalikowskiMills2022">Falikowski & Mills 2022</a>, p. 98<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFFalikowskiMills2022 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFWeddle2011">Weddle 2011</a>, pp. 383–8, 36. Informal logic and the eductive-inductive distinction<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFWeddle2011 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFBlair2011">Blair 2011</a>, p. 47<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlair2011 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVickers2022Nunes20112066–9Logical_Reasoning_and_Learning-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVickers2022Nunes20112066–9Logical_Reasoning_and_Learning_38-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVickers2022">Vickers 2022</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFVickers2022 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFNunes2011">Nunes 2011</a>, pp. 2066–9, Logical Reasoning and Learning<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFNunes2011 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014181Johnson1999267BlairJohnson1987147–51-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnson2014181Johnson1999267BlairJohnson1987147–51_39-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnson2014">Johnson 2014</a>, p. 181<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson2014 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, p. 267<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFBlairJohnson1987">Blair & Johnson 1987</a>, pp. 147–51<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBlairJohnson1987 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVleet2010ix–xIntroductionDowdenStump-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVleet2010ix–xIntroductionDowdenStump_40-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVleet2010">Vleet 2010</a>, pp. ix–x, Introduction<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFVleet2010 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFDowden">Dowden</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFDowden (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFStump">Stump</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFStump (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaltbyDayMacaskill2007564Dowden-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaltbyDayMacaskill2007564Dowden_41-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaltbyDayMacaskill2007">Maltby, Day & Macaskill 2007</a>, p. 564<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFMaltbyDayMacaskill2007 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFDowden">Dowden</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFDowden (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–270-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECraig1996Formal_and_informal_logicJohnson1999265–270_42-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCraig1996">Craig 1996</a>, Formal and informal logic<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFCraig1996 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>; <a href="#CITEREFJohnson1999">Johnson 1999</a>, pp. 265–270<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfnm error: no target: CITEREFJohnson1999 (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors (無呢版)">help</a>)</span>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參考"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E8.80.83"></span>參考</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=11" title="編輯小節: 參考"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>G. Birkhoff and J. von Neumann, 1936. 'The Logic of Quantum Mechanics'. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Annals_of_Mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Annals of Mathematics (無呢版)">Annals of Mathematics</a></i>, 37:823-843.</li> <li>D. Finkelstein, 1969. 'Matter, Space and Logic'. In R. S. Cohen and M. W. Wartofsky, (eds.), <i>Proceedings of the Boston Colloquium for the Philosophy of Science</i>, Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol 13. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/9027703779" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-277-0377-9</a>.</li> <li>D. M. Gabbay and F. Guenthner (eds.) 2001-2005. <i>Handbook of philosophical logic</i> (2nd ed.). 13 volumes. Dordrecht, Kluwer.</li> <li>D. Hilbert and W. Ackermann, 1928. <i>Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik</i> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Principles_of_Theoretical_Logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principles of Theoretical Logic (無呢版)">Principles of Theoretical Logic</a>). Springer-Verlag, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0821820249" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8218-2024-9</a>.</li> <li>W. Hodges, 2001. <i>Logic. An introduction to elementary logic</i>. Penguin Books.</li> <li>T. Hofweber, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ontology/">Logic and Ontology</a>. In the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (無呢版)">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li> <li>R. I. G. Hughes (editor), 1993. <i>A Philosophical Companion to First-Order Logic</i>. Hackett.</li> <li>W. Kneale and M. Kneale, 1962/1988. <i>The Development of Logic</i>. Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%9B%B8%E6%9C%AC%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90/0198247737" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-824773-7</a>.</li> <li>G. Priest, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dialetheism/">Dialetheism</a>. In the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (無呢版)">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</li> <li>H. Putnam, 1969. <i>Is Logic Empirical?</i>. Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol V.</li> <li>B. Smith, 1989. 'Logic and the Sachverhalt', <i>The Monist</i>, 72(1):52-69.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="睇埋"><span id=".E7.9D.87.E5.9F.8B"></span>睇埋</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=12" title="編輯小節: 睇埋"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E8%AA%B2%E9%A1%8C%E4%B8%80%E8%A6%BD" title="邏輯課題一覽">邏輯課題一覽</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%95%B0%E8%B3%AA%E5%AD%97%E6%82%96%E8%AB%96" class="mw-redirect" title="異質字悖論">異質字悖論</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="出面網頁"><span id=".E5.87.BA.E9.9D.A2.E7.B6.B2.E9.A0.81"></span>出面網頁</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&section=13" title="編輯小節: 出面網頁"><span>編輯</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>陳力恒主編：〈<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thinkerspace.com/node/499">基本語言與邏輯詞匯英中對照表</a>〉</li></ul> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Philosophy_navigation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template:Philosophy navigation (無呢版)">Template:Philosophy navigation</a> </p> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="邏輯" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="Template:邏輯"><abbr title="去睇呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">睇</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:邏輯 (無呢版)"><abbr title="傾呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">傾</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit"><abbr title="編輯呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">改</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="邏輯" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">邏輯</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b>子領域</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="邏輯哲學">邏輯哲學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E4%BB%A3%E6%95%B8" title="邏輯代數">邏輯代數</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="數學邏輯">數學邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E7%AE%97%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="運算邏輯">運算邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="邏輯語義學">邏輯語義學</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A5%E6%B3%95_(%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF)" title="句法 (邏輯)">句法學</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" class="extiw" title="en:Formal semantics (natural language)">形式語義分析</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b>理論框架</b><br /> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="古典邏輯">古典邏輯</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%8F%A4%E5%85%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非古典邏輯">非古典邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="非形式邏輯">非形式邏輯</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E6%80%9D%E8%80%83" title="批判思考">批判思考</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="哲學邏輯">哲學邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%BE%A8%E8%AD%89%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="辨證理論">辨證理論</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalogic" class="extiw" title="en:Metalogic">元邏輯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E5%90%88%E8%AB%96" title="集合論">集合論</a></li></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b>重要概念</b><br /> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E7%BE%A9" title="定義">定義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%8D" title="名">名</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%91%BD%E9%A1%8C" title="命題">命題</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%B3%E8%BF%B0%E5%BC%8F_(%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF)" title="陳述式 (邏輯)">陳述式</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F" title="真">真</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E7%9C%9F%E7%90%86" title="邏輯真理">邏輯真理</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E4%BB%B6" title="前件">前件</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E8%AB%96" title="結論">結論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E9%80%A3%E6%8E%A5%E8%A9%9E" title="邏輯連接詞">邏輯連接詞</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="推理">推理</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AF%E5%9B%A0%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="溯因推理">溯因</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="演繹推理">演繹</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B8%E7%B4%8D" title="歸納">歸納</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E6%96%A5" title="互斥">互斥</a></li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AD%89%E6%98%8E" title="形式證明">證明</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E8%A8%80%E4%B8%89%E6%AE%B5%E8%AB%96" title="定言三段論">定言三段論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E6%95%88%E5%BA%A6" title="邏輯效度">效度</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%9B%E7%9B%BE" title="矛盾">矛盾</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%82%96%E8%AB%96" title="悖論">悖論</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E5%BE%8B%E8%83%8C%E5%8F%8D" title="二律背反">二律背反</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%85%E5%88%86%E5%BF%85%E8%A6%81%E6%A2%9D%E4%BB%B6" title="充分必要條件">充分必要條件</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%A5%E4%B8%94%E5%94%AF%E8%8B%A5" title="若且唯若">if and only if</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E4%B8%80%E8%87%B4%E6%80%A7" title="邏輯一致性">一致性</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論">謬論</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%A2%E5%BC%8F%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="形式謬論">形式謬論</a>）</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%83%E8%80%83" title="參考">參考</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E7%8E%87" title="概率">概率</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%9E%E7%A7%BB%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="遞移關係">遞移關係</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%94%94%E9%81%9E%E7%A7%BB%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" class="mw-redirect" title="唔遞移關係">唔遞移關係</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="因果關係">因果關係</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90-%E7%B6%9C%E5%90%88%E5%8D%80%E5%88%A5" title="分析-綜合區別">分析-綜合區別</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_logic_symbols" class="extiw" title="en:List of logic symbols">邏輯符號一覽</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>拉雜相關</b><br /> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E7%BE%A9%E5%AD%B8" title="語義學">語義學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="知識論">知識論</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="科學">科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8" title="數學">數學</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%B8%E5%AD%B8%E8%AD%89%E6%98%8E" title="數學證明">數學證明</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E9%9B%BB%E8%85%A6%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8" title="理論電腦科學">理論電腦科學</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%AE%97%E6%B3%95" title="演算法">演算法</a></li></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="哲學邏輯" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="Template:哲學邏輯"><abbr title="去睇呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">睇</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:哲學邏輯 (無呢版)"><abbr title="傾呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">傾</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF&action=edit"><abbr title="編輯呢個模" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;-moz-box-shadow:none;-webkit-box-shadow:none;box-shadow:none; padding:0;">改</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="哲學邏輯" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF" title="哲學邏輯">哲學邏輯</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="可以睇埋批判思考同懷疑論">可以睇埋<a href="/wiki/%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4%E6%80%9D%E8%80%83" title="批判思考">批判思考</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%87%B7%E7%96%91%E8%AB%96" title="懷疑論">懷疑論</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%88%86%E6%9E%90" title="哲學分析">哲學分析</a></b><br /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%9A%E7%BE%A9" title="定義">定義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%A7%E7%BE%A9" title="歧義">歧義</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%AB%E7%B3%8A" title="含糊">含糊</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E4%BF%A1%E5%8A%9B" title="公信力">公信力</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%95%A6%E6%9B%B4" title="啦更">啦更</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%82-%E6%87%89%E8%A9%B2%E5%95%8F%E9%A1%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="係-應該問題">係-應該問題</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7" title="理性">理性</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">邏輯</a></b><br /> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%82%8F%E8%BC%AF%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="邏輯推理">邏輯推理</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E6%BC%94%E7%B9%B9%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="演繹推理">演繹推理</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B8%E7%B4%8D" title="歸納">歸納</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E6%BA%AF%E5%9B%A0%E6%8E%A8%E7%90%86" title="溯因推理">溯因推理</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%9B%E7%9B%BE" title="矛盾">矛盾</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%82%96%E8%AB%96" title="悖論">悖論</a>）</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E8%AD%89" title="論證">論證</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E4%BB%B6" title="前件">前件</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%90%E8%AB%96" title="結論">結論</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%89%E6%93%9A" title="證據">證據</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E8%AC%AC%E8%AB%96" title="謬論">謬論</a>）</li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82" title="因果關係">因果關係</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%B5%B1%E8%A8%88%E7%9B%B8%E9%97%9C" title="統計相關">統計相關</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E9%97%9C%E5%94%94%E8%98%8A%E5%90%AB%E5%9B%A0%E6%9E%9C" title="相關唔蘊含因果">相關唔蘊含因果</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"><b><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98%E8%AB%96" title="知識論">知識論</a></b><br /> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E8%AD%98" title="知識">知識</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BF%A1%E5%BF%B5" title="信念">信念</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9C%9F%E7%A2%BA" class="mw-redirect" title="真確">真確</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E7%90%86%E6%93%9A" title="理據">理據</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A6%82%E5%BF%B5" title="概念">概念</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E8%AD%98" title="常識">常識</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8B%E5%AF%A6" title="事實">事實</a>同<a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E8%A6%8B" title="意見">意見</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B" title="解釋">解釋</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A7%A3%E9%87%8B%E5%8A%9B" title="解釋力">解釋力</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%A7%E5%9D%8E%E5%89%83%E5%88%80" title="奧坎剃刀">奧坎剃刀</a><span style="white-space:nowrap; font-weight:bold;"> ·</span> <a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%AF%E5%90%A6%E8%AD%89%E5%BA%A6" title="可否證度">可否證度</a>）</li></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b>拉雜相關</b><br /> <a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學">哲學</a>（<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%96%B9%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="西方哲學">西方哲學</a>）<span style="white-space:nowrap; 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