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id="toc-410_km_discontinuity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-670_km_discontinuity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#670_km_discontinuity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>670 km discontinuity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-670_km_discontinuity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_discontinuities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_discontinuities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Other discontinuities</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_discontinuities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Temperature_and_pressure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Temperature_and_pressure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Temperature and pressure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Temperature_and_pressure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mineral_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mineral_composition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Mineral composition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mineral_composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_composition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Upper mantle</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oberer_Erdmantel" title="Oberer Erdmantel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Oberer Erdmantel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manto_superior_(Tierra)" title="Manto superior (Tierra) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Manto superior (Tierra)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B4%D8%AA%D9%87" title="روگوشته – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="روگوشته" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manteau_sup%C3%A9rieur" title="Manteau supérieur – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Manteau supérieur" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovenmantel" title="Bovenmantel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Bovenmantel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_mantle" title="Upper mantle – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Upper mantle" 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from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle_(Earth)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper mantle (Earth)">Upper mantle (Earth)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Very thick layer of rock inside Earth</div> <p>The <b>upper mantle</b> of <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> is a very thick layer of rock inside the planet, which begins just beneath the <a href="/wiki/Crust_(geology)" title="Crust (geology)">crust</a> (at about 10 km (6.2 mi) under the oceans and about 35 km (22 mi) under the continents) and ends at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower mantle (Earth)">lower mantle</a> at 670 km (420 mi). Temperatures range from approximately 500 K (227 °C; 440 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F) at the boundary with the lower mantle. Upper mantle material that has come up onto the surface comprises about 55% <a href="/wiki/Olivine" title="Olivine">olivine</a>, 35% <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">pyroxene</a>, and 5 to 10% of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum oxide">aluminum oxide</a> minerals such as <a href="/wiki/Plagioclase" title="Plagioclase">plagioclase</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spinel" title="Spinel">spinel</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">garnet</a>, depending upon depth. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Seismic_structure">Seismic structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Seismic structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earth-G-force.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earth-G-force.png/300px-Earth-G-force.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Earth-G-force.png/450px-Earth-G-force.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Earth-G-force.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>1 = continental crust, 2 = oceanic crust, 3 = upper mantle, 4 = lower mantle, 5+6 = core, A = crust-mantle boundary (Mohorovičić discontinuity)</figcaption></figure> <p>The density profile through Earth is determined by the velocity of seismic waves. Density increases progressively in each layer, largely due to compression of the rock at increased depths. Abrupt changes in density occur where the material composition changes.<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The upper mantle begins just beneath the crust and ends at the top of the lower mantle. The upper mantle causes the tectonic plates to move. </p><p>Crust and <a href="/wiki/Mantle_(geology)" title="Mantle (geology)">mantle</a> are distinguished by composition, while the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">lithosphere</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asthenosphere" title="Asthenosphere">asthenosphere</a> are defined by a change in mechanical properties.<sup id="cite_ref-Astrobiology_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The top of the mantle is defined by a sudden increase in the speed of seismic waves, which <a href="/wiki/Andrija_Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Andrija Mohorovičić">Andrija Mohorovičić</a> first noted in 1909; this boundary is now referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Mohorovičić discontinuity</a> or "Moho."<sup id="cite_ref-today's_mantle2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-today's_mantle2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Moho defines the base of the crust and varies from 10 km (6.2 mi) to 70 km (43 mi) below the surface of the Earth. <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">Oceanic crust</a> is thinner than <a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a> and is generally less than 10 km (6.2 mi) thick. Continental crust is about 35 km (22 mi) thick, but the large crustal root under the <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Plateau" title="Tibetan Plateau">Tibetan Plateau</a> is approximately 70 km (43 mi) thick.<sup id="cite_ref-moho2_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moho2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The thickness of the upper mantle is about 640 km (400 mi). The entire mantle is about 2,900 km (1,800 mi) thick, which means the upper mantle is only about 20% of the total mantle thickness.<sup id="cite_ref-moho2_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-moho2-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Earthquake_wave_paths.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Earthquake_wave_paths.png/250px-Earthquake_wave_paths.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Earthquake_wave_paths.png 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>Cross-section of the Earth, showing the paths of earthquake waves. The paths curve because the different rock types found at different depths change the waves' speed. S waves do not travel through the core</figcaption></figure> <p>The boundary between the upper and lower mantle is a 670 km (420 mi) discontinuity.<sup id="cite_ref-Astrobiology_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Astrobiology-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Earthquakes at shallow depths result from <a href="/wiki/Strike-slip_faulting" class="mw-redirect" title="Strike-slip faulting">strike-slip faulting</a>; however, below about 50 km (31 mi), the hot, high-pressure conditions inhibit further seismicity. The mantle is viscous and incapable of <a href="/wiki/Faulting" class="mw-redirect" title="Faulting">faulting</a>. However, in <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zones">subduction zones</a>, earthquakes are observed down to 670 km (420 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lehmann_discontinuity">Lehmann discontinuity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Lehmann discontinuity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Lehmann discontinuity is an abrupt increase of <a href="/wiki/P-wave" class="mw-redirect" title="P-wave"><i>P</i>-wave</a> and <a href="/wiki/S-wave" class="mw-redirect" title="S-wave"><i>S</i>-wave</a> velocities at a depth of 220 km (140 mi)<sup id="cite_ref-Lowrie_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lowrie-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Note that this is a different "Lehmann discontinuity" than the one between the Earth's inner and outer cores labeled in the image on the right.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transition_zone">Transition zone</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Transition zone"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">transition zone</a> is located between the upper mantle and the <a href="/wiki/Lower_mantle_(Earth)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lower mantle (Earth)">lower mantle</a> between a depth of 410 km (250 mi) and 670 km (420 mi). </p><p>This is thought to occur as a result of the rearrangement of grains in olivine to form a denser crystal structure as a result of the increase in pressure with increasing depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Below a depth of 670 km (420 mi), due to pressure changes, ringwoodite minerals change into two new denser phases, bridgmanite and periclase. This can be seen using <a href="/wiki/Body_wave_(seismology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Body wave (seismology)">body waves</a> from <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a>, which are converted, reflected, or refracted at the boundary, and predicted from <a href="/wiki/Mineral_physics" title="Mineral physics">mineral physics</a>, as the phase changes are temperature and density-dependent and hence depth-dependent.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="410_km_discontinuity">410 km discontinuity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: 410 km discontinuity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A single peak is seen in all seismological data at 410 km (250 mi), which is predicted by the single transition from α- to β- Mg<sub>2</sub>SiO<sub>4</sub> (olivine to <a href="/wiki/Wadsleyite" title="Wadsleyite">wadsleyite</a>). From the <a href="/wiki/Clausius%E2%80%93Clapeyron_relation" title="Clausius–Clapeyron relation">Clapeyron slope</a> this discontinuity is expected to be shallower in cold regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zone">subducting</a> slabs, and deeper in warmer regions, such as <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">mantle plumes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="670_km_discontinuity">670 km discontinuity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: 670 km discontinuity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>This is the most complex discontinuity and marks the boundary between the upper and lower mantle. It appears in PP precursors (a wave that reflects off the discontinuity once) only in certain regions but is always apparent in SS precursors.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is seen as single and double reflections in receiver functions for P to S conversions over a broad range of depths (640–720 km, or 397–447 mi). The Clapeyron slope predicts a deeper discontinuity in colder regions and a shallower discontinuity in hotter regions.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This discontinuity is generally linked to the transition from <a href="/wiki/Ringwoodite" title="Ringwoodite">ringwoodite</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bridgmanite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgmanite">bridgmanite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Periclase" title="Periclase">periclase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is thermodynamically an endothermic reaction and creates a viscosity jump. Both characteristics cause this phase transition to play an important role in geodynamical models.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_discontinuities">Other discontinuities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other discontinuities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There is another major phase transition predicted at 520 km (320 mi) for the transition of olivine (β to γ) and <a href="/wiki/Garnet" title="Garnet">garnet</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Pyrolite" title="Pyrolite">pyrolite</a> mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This one has only sporadically been observed in seismological data.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other non-global phase transitions have been suggested at a range of depths.<sup id="cite_ref-Fowler_6-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Temperature_and_pressure">Temperature and pressure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Temperature and pressure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Temperatures range from approximately 500 K (227 °C; 440 °F) at the upper boundary with the crust to approximately 4,200 K (3,930 °C; 7,100 °F) at the core-mantle boundary.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The highest temperature of the upper mantle is 1,200 K (930 °C; 1,700 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-diff_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diff-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the high temperature far exceeds the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting points</a> of the mantle rocks at the surface, the mantle is almost exclusively solid.<sup id="cite_ref-louie2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louie2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The enormous <a href="/wiki/Lithostatic_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Lithostatic pressure">lithostatic pressure</a> exerted on the mantle prevents <a href="/wiki/Melting" title="Melting">melting</a> because the temperature at which melting begins (the <a href="/wiki/Solidus_(chemistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Solidus (chemistry)">solidus</a>) increases with pressure.<sup id="cite_ref-turcotte2_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-turcotte2-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pressure increases as depth increases since the material beneath has to support the weight of all the material above it. The entire mantle is thought to deform like a fluid on long timescales, with permanent plastic deformation. </p><p>The highest pressure of the upper mantle is 24.0 GPa (237,000 atm)<sup id="cite_ref-diff_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-diff-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> compared to the bottom of the mantle, which is 136 GPa (1,340,000 atm).<sup id="cite_ref-:03_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-burns_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-burns-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Estimates for the viscosity of the upper mantle range between 10<sup>19</sup> and 10<sup>24</sup> <a href="/wiki/Pascal_second" class="mw-redirect" title="Pascal second">Pa·s</a>, depending on depth,<sup id="cite_ref-jena_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jena-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> temperature, composition, state of stress, and numerous other factors. The upper mantle can only flow very slowly. However, when large forces are applied to the uppermost mantle, it can become weaker, and this effect is thought to be important in allowing the formation of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_plate" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic plate">tectonic plate</a> boundaries. </p><p>Although there is a tendency to larger viscosity at greater depth, this relation is far from linear and shows layers with dramatically decreased viscosity, in particular in the upper mantle and at the boundary with the core.<sup id="cite_ref-jena_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jena-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Movement">Movement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Because of the temperature difference between the Earth's surface and outer core and the ability of the crystalline rocks at high pressure and temperature to undergo slow, creeping, viscous-like deformation over millions of years, there is a <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective</a> material circulation in the mantle.<sup id="cite_ref-today's_mantle2_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-today's_mantle2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hot material <a href="/wiki/Mantle_plume" title="Mantle plume">upwells</a>, while cooler (and heavier) material sinks downward. Downward motion of material occurs at <a href="/wiki/Convergent_plate_boundary" class="mw-redirect" title="Convergent plate boundary">convergent plate boundaries</a> called <a href="/wiki/Subduction_zones" class="mw-redirect" title="Subduction zones">subduction zones</a>. Locations on the surface that lie over plumes are predicted to have <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_topography" title="Dynamic topography">high elevation</a> (because of the buoyancy of the hotter, less-dense plume beneath) and to exhibit <a href="/wiki/Hotspot_(geology)" title="Hotspot (geology)">hot spot</a> <a href="/wiki/Volcanism" title="Volcanism">volcanism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mineral_composition">Mineral composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mineral composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The seismic data is not sufficient to determine the composition of the mantle. Observations of rocks exposed on the surface and other evidence reveal that the upper mantle is <a href="/wiki/Mafic" title="Mafic">mafic</a> minerals olivine and pyroxene, and it has a density of about 3.33 g/cm<sup>3</sup> (0.120 lb/cu in)<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Upper mantle material that has come up onto the surface comprises about 55% olivine and 35% pyroxene, and 5 to 10% of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">calcium oxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aluminum_oxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Aluminum oxide">aluminum oxide</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The upper mantle is dominantly <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a>, composed primarily of variable proportions of the minerals olivine, <a href="/wiki/Pyroxene" title="Pyroxene">clinopyroxene</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orthopyroxene" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthopyroxene">orthopyroxene</a>, and an aluminous phase.<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The aluminous phase is plagioclase in the uppermost mantle, then spinel, and then garnet below about 100 kilometres (62 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gradually through the upper mantle, pyroxenes become less stable and transform into <a href="/wiki/Majorite" title="Majorite">majoritic garnet</a>. </p><p>Experiments on olivines and pyroxenes show that these minerals change the structure as pressure increases at greater depth, which explains why the density curves are not perfectly smooth. When there is a conversion to a more dense mineral structure, the seismic velocity rises abruptly and creates a discontinuity.<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the top of the transition zone, olivine undergoes isochemical phase transitions to <a href="/wiki/Wadsleyite" title="Wadsleyite">wadsleyite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ringwoodite" title="Ringwoodite">ringwoodite</a>. Unlike nominally anhydrous olivine, these high-pressure olivine polymorphs have a large capacity to store water in their crystal structure. This has led to the hypothesis that the transition zone may host a large quantity of water.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Earth's interior, olivine occurs in the upper mantle at depths less than 410 kilometres (250 mi), and ringwoodite is inferred within the <a href="/wiki/Transition_zone_(Earth)" title="Transition zone (Earth)">transition zone</a> from about 520 to 670 kilometres (320 to 420 mi) depth. <a href="/wiki/Seismic" class="mw-redirect" title="Seismic">Seismic</a> activity discontinuities at about 410 kilometres (250 mi), 520 kilometres (320 mi), and 670 kilometres (420 mi) depth have been attributed to <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase changes</a> involving olivine and its <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">polymorphs</a>. </p><p>At the base of the transition zone, <a href="/wiki/Ringwoodite" title="Ringwoodite">ringwoodite</a> decomposes into <a href="/wiki/Bridgmanite" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridgmanite">bridgmanite</a> (formerly called magnesium silicate perovskite), and <a href="/wiki/Ferropericlase" title="Ferropericlase">ferropericlase</a>. Garnet also becomes unstable at or slightly below the base of the transition zone. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlites</a> explode from the earth's interior and sometimes carry rock fragments. Some of these <a href="/wiki/Xenolith" title="Xenolith">xenolithic</a> fragments are diamonds that can only come from the higher pressures below the crust. The rocks that come with this are <a href="/wiki/Ultramafic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultramafic">ultramafic</a> nodules and peridotite.<sup id="cite_ref-habit_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habit-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemical_composition">Chemical composition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Chemical composition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The composition seems to be very similar to the crust. One difference is that rocks and minerals of the mantle tend to have more magnesium and less silicon and aluminum than the crust. The first four most abundant elements in the upper mantle are oxygen, magnesium, silicon, and iron. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Composition of the Earth's upper mantle (depleted <a href="/wiki/MORB" class="mw-redirect" title="MORB">MORB</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Anderson2007_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anderson2007-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Compound </th> <th>Mass percent </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">SiO<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>44.71 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_oxide" title="Magnesium oxide">MgO</a> </td> <td>38.73 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_oxide" title="Iron(II) oxide">FeO</a> </td> <td>8.18 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_oxide" title="Aluminium oxide">Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>3.98 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium_oxide" title="Calcium oxide">CaO</a> </td> <td>3.17 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_oxide" title="Chromium(III) oxide">Cr<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>0.57 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel(II)_oxide" title="Nickel(II) oxide">NiO</a> </td> <td>0.24 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Manganese(II)_oxide" title="Manganese(II) oxide">MnO</a> </td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_oxide" title="Sodium oxide">Na<sub>2</sub>O</a> </td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Titanium_dioxide" title="Titanium dioxide">TiO<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>0.13 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_pentoxide" title="Phosphorus pentoxide">P<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub></a> </td> <td>0.019 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Potassium_oxide" title="Potassium oxide">K<sub>2</sub>O</a> </td> <td>0.006 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploration">Exploration</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Exploration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chikyu_(drilling_ship)_Model.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg/220px-Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg/330px-Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg/440px-Chikyu_%28drilling_ship%29_Model.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Chikyu drilling ship</figcaption></figure> <p>Exploration of the mantle is generally conducted at the seabed rather than on land because of the oceanic crust's relative thinness as compared to the significantly thicker continental crust. </p><p>The first attempt at mantle exploration, known as <a href="/wiki/Project_Mohole" title="Project Mohole">Project Mohole</a>, was abandoned in 1966 after repeated failures and cost overruns. The deepest penetration was approximately 180 m (590 ft). In 2005 an oceanic borehole reached 1,416 metres (4,646 ft) below the seafloor from the ocean drilling vessel <i><a href="/wiki/JOIDES_Resolution" title="JOIDES Resolution">JOIDES Resolution</a></i>. </p><p>On 5 March 2007, a team of scientists on board the <a href="/wiki/RRS_James_Cook" title="RRS James Cook">RRS <i>James Cook</i></a> embarked on a voyage to an area of the Atlantic seafloor where the mantle lies exposed without any crust covering, midway between the <a href="/wiki/Cape_Verde_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Cape Verde Islands">Cape Verde Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caribbean_Sea" title="Caribbean Sea">Caribbean Sea</a>. The exposed site lies approximately 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) beneath the ocean surface and covers thousands of square kilometers.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-chikyu_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-chikyu-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Chikyu Hakken mission attempted to use the Japanese vessel <i><a href="/wiki/Chiky%C5%AB" title="Chikyū">Chikyū</a></i> to drill up to 7,000 m (23,000 ft) below the seabed. On 27 April 2012, <i>Chikyū</i> drilled to a depth of 7,740 metres (25,390 ft) below sea level, setting a new world record for deep-sea drilling. This record has since been surpassed by the ill-fated <i><a href="/wiki/Deepwater_Horizon" title="Deepwater Horizon">Deepwater Horizon</a></i> mobile offshore drilling unit, operating on the Tiber prospect in the Mississippi Canyon Field, United States Gulf of Mexico, when it achieved a world record for total length for a vertical drilling string of 10,062 m (33,011 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The previous record was held by the U.S. vessel <i><a href="/wiki/Glomar_Challenger" title="Glomar Challenger">Glomar Challenger</a></i>, which in 1978 drilled to 7,049.5 meters (23,130 feet) below sea level in the <a href="/wiki/Mariana_Trench" title="Mariana Trench">Mariana Trench</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 6 September 2012, Scientific deep-sea drilling vessel <i>Chikyū</i> set a new world record by drilling down and obtaining rock samples from deeper than 2,111 metres (6,926 ft) below the seafloor off the Shimokita Peninsula of Japan in the northwest Pacific Ocean. </p><p>A novel method of exploring the uppermost few hundred kilometers of the Earth was proposed in 2005, consisting of a small, dense, heat-generating probe that melts its way down through the crust and mantle while its position and progress are tracked by acoustic signals generated in the rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The probe consists of an outer sphere of <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> about 1 metre (3 ft 3 in) in diameter with a <a href="/wiki/Cobalt-60" title="Cobalt-60">cobalt-60</a> interior acting as a radioactive heat source. This should take half a year to reach the oceanic <a href="/wiki/Mohorovi%C4%8Di%C4%87_discontinuity" title="Mohorovičić discontinuity">Moho</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Exploration can also be aided through computer simulations of the evolution of the mantle. In 2009, a <a href="/wiki/Supercomputer" title="Supercomputer">supercomputer</a> application provided new insight into the distribution of mineral deposits, especially isotopes of iron, from when the mantle developed 4.5 billion years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-davis_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davis-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023 JOIDES Resolution recovered cores of what appeared to be rock from the upper mantle after drilling only a few hundred meters into the <a href="/wiki/Atlantis_Massif" title="Atlantis Massif">Atlantis Massif</a>. The borehole reached a maximum depth of 1,268 meters and recovered 886 meters of rock samples consisting of primarily <a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">peridotite</a>. There is debate over the extent to which the samples represent the upper mantle with some arguing the effects of seawater on the samples situates them as examples of deep lower crust. However, the samples offer a much closer analogue to mantle rock than magmatic <a href="/wiki/Xenolith" title="Xenolith">xenoliths</a> as the sampled rock never melted into magma or recrystallized.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Upper_mantle&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-habit-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-habit_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLangmuirBroecker2012" class="citation book cs1">Langmuir, Charles H.; Broecker, Wally (2012-07-22). <i>How to Build a Habitable Planet: The Story of Earth from the Big Bang to Humankind</i>. Princeton University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">179–</span>183. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691140063" title="Special:BookSources/9780691140063"><bdi>9780691140063</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Build+a+Habitable+Planet%3A+The+Story+of+Earth+from+the+Big+Bang+to+Humankind&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2012-07-22&rft.isbn=9780691140063&rft.aulast=Langmuir&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rft.au=Broecker%2C+Wally&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Astrobiology-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Astrobiology_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRotheryGilmourSephton2018" class="citation book cs1">Rothery, David A.; Gilmour, Iain; Sephton, Mark A. (March 2018). <i>An Introduction to Astrobiology</i>. Cambridge University Press. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108430838" title="Special:BookSources/9781108430838"><bdi>9781108430838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Astrobiology&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018-03&rft.isbn=9781108430838&rft.aulast=Rothery&rft.aufirst=David+A.&rft.au=Gilmour%2C+Iain&rft.au=Sephton%2C+Mark+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-today's_mantle2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-today's_mantle2_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-today's_mantle2_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlden2007" class="citation web cs1">Alden, Andrew (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://geology.about.com/library/weekly/aa031598.htm">"Today's Mantle: a guided tour"</a>. <a href="/wiki/About.com" class="mw-redirect" title="About.com">About.com</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Today%27s+Mantle%3A+a+guided+tour&rft.pub=About.com&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Alden&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgeology.about.com%2Flibrary%2Fweekly%2Faa031598.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-moho2-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-moho2_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-moho2_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://istrianet.org/istria/illustri/mohorovicic/">"Istria on the Internet – Prominent Istrians – Andrija Mohorovicic"</a>. 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2007-12-25</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Istria+on+the+Internet+%E2%80%93+Prominent+Istrians+%E2%80%93+Andrija+Mohorovicic&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fistrianet.org%2Fistria%2Fillustri%2Fmohorovicic%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lowrie-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lowrie_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Lowrie1997" class="citation book cs1">William Lowrie (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7vR2RJSIGVoC&pg=PA158"><i>Fundamentals of geophysics</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-46728-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-46728-4"><bdi>0-521-46728-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+geophysics&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-521-46728-4&rft.au=William+Lowrie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7vR2RJSIGVoC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fowler-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fowler_6-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowlerFowler2005" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, C. M. R.; Fowler, Connie May (2005). <i>The Solid Earth: An Introduction to Global Geophysics</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521893077" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521893077"><bdi>978-0521893077</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Solid+Earth%3A+An+Introduction+to+Global+Geophysics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0521893077&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=C.+M.+R.&rft.au=Fowler%2C+Connie+May&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFItoTakahashi1989" class="citation journal cs1">Ito, E; Takahashi, E (1989). 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(2007). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtheoryearth00ande"><i>New Theory of the Earth</i></a></span>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newtheoryearth00ande/page/n316">301</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521849593" title="Special:BookSources/9780521849593"><bdi>9780521849593</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Theory+of+the+Earth&rft.pages=301&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780521849593&rft.au=Anderson%2C+D.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewtheoryearth00ande&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThan2007" class="citation news cs1">Than, Ker (2007-03-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141212065652/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/17407745/">"Scientists to study gash on Atlantic seafloor"</a>. <i>NBC News</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-16</span></span>. <q>A team of scientists will embark on a voyage next week to study an "open wound" on the Atlantic seafloor where the Earth's deep interior lies exposed without any crust covering.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NBC+News&rft.atitle=Scientists+to+study+gash+on+Atlantic+seafloor&rft.date=2007-03-01&rft.aulast=Than&rft.aufirst=Ker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nbcnews.com%2Fid%2F17407745&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/03/070301103112.htm">"Earth's Crust Missing In Mid-Atlantic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Science_Daily" class="mw-redirect" title="Science Daily">Science Daily</a></i>. 2007-03-02<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-16</span></span>. <q>Cardiff University scientists will shortly set sail (March 5) to investigate a startling discovery in the depths of the Atlantic.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Daily&rft.atitle=Earth%27s+Crust+Missing+In+Mid-Atlantic&rft.date=2007-03-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedaily.com%2Freleases%2F2007%2F03%2F070301103112.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-chikyu-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-chikyu_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20051219103451/http://www.physorg.com/news9073.html">"Japan hopes to predict 'Big One' with journey to center of Earth"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/PhysOrg.com" class="mw-redirect" title="PhysOrg.com">PhysOrg.com</a></i>. 2005-12-15. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-03-16</span></span>. <q>An ambitious Japanese-led project to dig deeper into the Earth's surface than ever before will be a breakthrough in detecting earthquakes including Tokyo's dreaded "Big One," officials said Thursday.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PhysOrg.com&rft.atitle=Japan+hopes+to+predict+%27Big+One%27+with+journey+to+center+of+Earth&rft.date=2005-12-15&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physorg.com%2Fnews9073.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111017233505/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-9000/deepest-oil-well-/">"- - Explore Records - Guinness World Records"</a>. 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Associated Press. 28 April 2012. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kansascity.com/2012/04/28/3581148/japan-deep-sea-drilling-probe.html">the original</a> on 28 April 2012<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Kansas+City+Star&rft.atitle=Japan+deep-sea+drilling+probe+sets+world+record&rft.date=2012-04-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kansascity.com%2F2012%2F04%2F28%2F3581148%2Fjapan-deep-sea-drilling-probe.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUpper+mantle" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F., Poluektov P.P., Emets E.P. 2005. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10512-005-0246-y">Probing of the interior layers of the Earth with self-sinking capsules</a>. Atomic Energy, 99, 556–562</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ojovan M.I., Gibb F.G.F. "Exploring the Earth’s Crust and Mantle Using Self-Descending, Radiation-Heated, Probes and Acoustic Emission Monitoring". Chapter 7. In: <i>Nuclear Waste Research: Siting, Technology and Treatment</i>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60456-184-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60456-184-5">978-1-60456-184-5</a>, Editor: Arnold P. Lattefer, <a href="/wiki/Nova_Science_Publishers,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Nova Science Publishers, Inc.">Nova Science Publishers, Inc.</a> 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davis-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-davis_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">University of California – Davis (2009-06-15). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090615153118.htm">Super-computer Provides First Glimpse Of Earth's Early Magma Interior</a>. <a href="/wiki/ScienceDaily" title="ScienceDaily">ScienceDaily</a>. Retrieved on 2009-06-16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation report cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/content/article/long-last-ocean-drillers-exhume-bounty-rocks-earth-s-mantle">At long last, ocean drillers exhume a bounty of rocks from Earth's mantle</a> (Report). 2023-05-25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.adi9181">10.1126/science.adi9181</a>.</cite><span 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<li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">D’’ discontinuity (lower mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Core%E2%80%93mantle_boundary" title="Core–mantle boundary">Core–mantle boundary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_core#Discovery" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner core">Inner-core boundary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional discontinuities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_discontinuity" title="Conrad discontinuity">Conrad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Continental_crust" title="Continental crust">continental crust</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithosphere%E2%80%93asthenosphere_boundary" title="Lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary">Gutenberg (upper mantle)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehmann_discontinuity" title="Lehmann discontinuity">Lehmann (upper 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