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<div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Astronomy&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Astronomy">History of Astronomy</a>)</div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Lead_too_short plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-lead_too_short" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article. (August 2023)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of astronomy focuses on the contributions civilizations have made to further their understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> beyond earth's atmosphere.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a> is one of the oldest <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>, achieving a high level of success in the second half of the first millennium. Astronomy has origins in the <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mythological" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythological">mythological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cosmological" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmological">cosmological</a>, calendrical, and <a href="/wiki/Astrological" class="mw-redirect" title="Astrological">astrological</a> beliefs and practices of prehistory. Early astronomical records date back to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonians" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonians">Babylonians</a> around 1000 BCE. There is also astronomical evidence of interest from early Chinese, Central American and North European cultures.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_(84132277)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9667" data-file-height="7699"></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere" title="Northern Hemisphere">Northern Hemisphere</a> page from <a href="/wiki/Johann_Bayer" title="Johann Bayer">Johann Bayer</a>'s 1661 edition of <a href="/wiki/Uranometria" title="Uranometria">Uranometria</a> - the first <a href="/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlas</a> to have <a href="/wiki/Star_chart" title="Star chart">star charts</a> covering the entire <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial sphere</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_(84132460)_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/300px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/450px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/600px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="9993" data-file-height="7815"></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere" title="Southern Hemisphere">Southern Hemisphere</a></figcaption></figure> Astronomy was used by early <a href="/wiki/Cultures" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultures">cultures</a> for a variety of reasons. These include timekeeping, <a href="/wiki/Navigation" title="Navigation">navigation</a>, spiritual and religious practices, and agricultural planning. Ancient astronomers used their observations to chart the skies in an effort to learn about the workings of the universe. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Period, revolutionary ideas emerged about astronomy. One such idea was contributed in 1593 by Polish astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, who developed a heliocentric model that depicted the planets orbiting the sun. This was the start of the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a>. <a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The success of astronomy, compared to other sciences, was achieved because of several reasons. Astronomy was the first science to have a mathematical foundation and have sophisticated procedures such as using <a href="/wiki/Armillary_spheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Armillary spheres">armillary spheres</a> and quadrants. This provided a solid base for collecting and verifying data.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Throughout the years, astronomy has broadened into multiple subfields such as <a href="/wiki/Astrophysics" title="Astrophysics">astrophysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theoretical_astronomy" title="Theoretical astronomy">theoretical astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">astrobiology</a>. <a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Early_history">1 Early history</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="#Prehistoric_Europe">1.1 Prehistoric Europe</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Ancient_times">2 Ancient times</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-4"><a href="#Mesopotamia">2.1 Mesopotamia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#India">2.2 India</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Greece_and_Hellenistic_world">2.3 Greece and Hellenistic world</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ptolemaic_system">2.4 Ptolemaic system</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Egypt">2.5 Egypt</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#China">2.6 China</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="#Mesoamerica">2.7 Mesoamerica</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="#Middle_Ages">3 Middle Ages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Middle_East">3.1 Middle East</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#India_2">3.2 India</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Western_Europe">3.3 Western Europe</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_Europe">4 Renaissance and Early Modern Europe</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Copernican_Revolution">4.1 Copernican Revolution</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Completing_the_Solar_System">4.2 Completing the Solar System</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-18"><a href="#Stellar_astronomy">4.3 Stellar astronomy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Modern_astronomy">5 Modern astronomy</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-20"><a href="#19th_century">5.1 19th century</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#20th_century">5.2 20th century</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also">6 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#References">7 References</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-24"><a href="#Citations">7.1 Citations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#Works_cited">7.2 Works cited</a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Further_reading">8 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#External_links">9 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><h2 id="Early_history">Early history</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Early history" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento,tramonto_fondachelli_fantina,_sicilia.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG/220px-Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 165px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG/220px-Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="165" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG/330px-Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG/440px-Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Sunset at the <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinox</a> from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at <a href="/wiki/Fondachelli-Fantina" title="Fondachelli-Fantina">Fondachelli Fantina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a></figcaption></figure> Early <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">cultures</a> identified celestial objects with <a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">gods</a> and spirits.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Rain" title="Rain">rain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drought" title="Drought">drought</a>, <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>. It is generally believed that the first astronomers were <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priests</a>, and that they understood <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">celestial objects</a> and events to be manifestations of the <a href="/wiki/Divinity" title="Divinity">divine</a>, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>. A 32,500-year-old carved ivory <a href="/wiki/Mammoth" title="Mammoth">mammoth</a> tusk could contain the oldest known star chart (resembling the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a> <a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a>).<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> It has also been suggested that drawings on the wall of the <a href="/wiki/Lascaux" title="Lascaux">Lascaux</a> caves in France dating from 33,000 to 10,000 years ago could be a graphical representation of the <a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Pleiades</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Summer_Triangle" title="Summer Triangle">Summer Triangle</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crown" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern Crown">Northern Crown</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Ancient structures with possibly <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy#Alignments" title="Archaeoastronomy">astronomical alignments</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Stonehenge" title="Stonehenge">Stonehenge</a>) probably fulfilled astronomical, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religious</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Social_function" class="mw-redirect" title="Social function">social functions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a> of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the <a href="/wiki/Day" title="Day">day</a>, <a href="/wiki/Month" title="Month">month</a> and <a href="/wiki/Year" title="Year">year</a>), and were important to <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only lighting for night-time travel into city markets.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">common modern calendar</a> is based on the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>. Although originally a <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar calendar</a>, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one days. <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a> instigated <a href="/wiki/Calendar_reform" title="Calendar reform">calendar reform</a> in 46 <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BC</a> and introduced what is now called the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>, based upon the <a href="/wiki/Leap_year" title="Leap year"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">'"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000000F-QINU`"'</style>365+1⁄4 day year length</a> originally proposed by the 4th century <a href="/wiki/BCE" class="mw-redirect" title="BCE">BC</a> Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prehistoric_Europe">Prehistoric Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Prehistoric Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Archaeoastronomy" title="Archaeoastronomy">Archaeoastronomy</a></div> Ancient astronomical artifacts have been found throughout <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and astronomy. Among the discoveries are: <ul><li>Paleolithic archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Marshack" title="Alexander Marshack">Alexander Marshack</a> put forward a theory in 1972 that bone sticks from locations like Africa and Europe from possibly as long ago as 35,000 BC could be marked in ways that tracked the Moon's phases,<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] an interpretation that has met with criticism.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Warren_Field" title="Warren Field">Warren Field</a> calendar in the Dee River valley of <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aberdeenshire" title="Aberdeenshire">Aberdeenshire</a>. First <a href="/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excavation (archaeology)">excavated</a> in 2004 but only in 2013 revealed as a find of huge significance, it is to date the oldest known calendar, created around 8000 BC and predating all other calendars by some 5,000 years. The calendar takes the form of an early <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> monument containing a series of 12 pits which appear to help the observer track lunar months by mimicking the phases of the Moon. It also aligns to sunrise at the winter solstice, thus coordinating the solar year with the lunar cycles. The monument had been maintained and periodically reshaped, perhaps up to hundreds of times, in response to shifting solar/lunar cycles, over the course of 6,000 years, until the calendar fell out of use around 4,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goseck_circle" class="mw-redirect" title="Goseck circle">Goseck circle</a> is located in <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Linear_pottery_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Linear pottery culture">linear pottery culture</a>. First discovered in 1991, its significance was only clear after results from archaeological digs became available in 2004. The site is one of hundreds of similar <a href="/wiki/Circular_enclosure" class="mw-redirect" title="Circular enclosure">circular enclosures</a> built in a region encompassing <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> during a 200-year period starting shortly after 5000 BC.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nebra_disc_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg/220px-Nebra_disc_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4177" data-file-height="3385"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 178px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg/220px-Nebra_disc_1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="178" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg/330px-Nebra_disc_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg/440px-Nebra_disc_1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra sky disk">Nebra sky disk</a>, Germany, 1800–1600 BC</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebra sky disk">Nebra sky disc</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> bronze disc that was buried in Germany, not far from the Goseck circle, around 1600 BC. It measures about 30 cm (12 in) diameter with a mass of 2.2 kg (4.9 lb) and displays a blue-green patina (from oxidization) inlaid with gold symbols. Found by archeological thieves in 1999 and recovered in Switzerland in 2002, it was soon recognized as a spectacular discovery, among the most important of the 20th century.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Investigations revealed that the object had been in use around 400 years before burial (2000 BC), but that its use had been forgotten by the time of burial. The inlaid gold depicted the full moon, a crescent moon about 4 or 5 days old, and the <a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Pleiades</a> star cluster in a specific arrangement forming the earliest known depiction of celestial phenomena. Twelve lunar months pass in 354 days, requiring a calendar to insert a leap month every two or three years in order to keep synchronized with the solar year's seasons (making it <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar" title="Lunisolar calendar">lunisolar</a>). The earliest known descriptions of this coordination were recorded by the Babylonians in 6th or 7th centuries BC, over one thousand years later. Those descriptions verified ancient knowledge of the Nebra sky disc's celestial depiction as the precise arrangement needed to judge when to insert the <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)" title="Intercalation (timekeeping)">intercalary month</a> into a lunisolar calendar, making it an astronomical clock for regulating such a calendar a thousand or more years before any other known method.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kokino" title="Kokino">Kokino</a> site, discovered in 2001, sits atop an extinct <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_cone" title="Volcanic cone">volcanic cone</a> at an elevation of 1,013 metres (3,323 ft), occupying about 0.5 hectares overlooking the surrounding countryside in <a href="/wiki/North_Macedonia" title="North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Balkans">Bronze Age</a> <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">astronomical observatory</a> was constructed there around 1900 BC and continuously served the nearby community that lived there until about 700 BC. The central space was used to observe the rising of the Sun and full moon. Three markings locate sunrise at the summer and winter solstices and at the two equinoxes. Four more give the minimum and maximum declinations of the full moon: in summer, and in winter. Two measure the lengths of lunar months. Together, they reconcile solar and lunar cycles in marking the 235 <a href="/wiki/Lunation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunation">lunations</a> that occur during 19 solar years, regulating a lunar calendar. On a platform separate from the central space, at lower elevation, four stone seats (thrones) were made in north–south alignment, together with a trench marker cut in the eastern wall. This marker allows the rising Sun's light to fall on only the second throne, at midsummer (about July 31). It was used for ritual ceremony linking the ruler to the local sun god, and also marked the end of the growing season and time for harvest.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg/220px-Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1008" data-file-height="626"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 137px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg/220px-Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg" data-alt="" data-width="220" data-height="137" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg/330px-Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg/440px-Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Calendrical functions of the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Gold_Hat" title="Berlin Gold Hat">Berlin Gold Hat</a> c. 1000 BC</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_hat" title="Golden hat">Golden hats</a> of Germany, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a> dating from 1400 to 800 BC are associated with the Bronze Age <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a>. The Golden hats are decorated with a spiral <a href="/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)" title="Motif (visual arts)">motif</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>. They were probably a kind of <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a> used to <a href="/wiki/Calibrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Calibrate">calibrate</a> between the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">solar calendars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Modern <a href="/wiki/Scholarship" title="Scholarship">scholarship</a> has demonstrated that the ornamentation of the gold leaf cones of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Hat_of_Schifferstadt" title="Golden Hat of Schifferstadt">Schifferstadt type</a>, to which the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Gold_Hat" title="Berlin Gold Hat">Berlin Gold Hat</a> example belongs, represent systematic sequences in terms of number and types of ornaments per band. A detailed study of the Berlin example, which is the only fully preserved one, showed that the symbols probably represent a <a href="/wiki/Lunisolar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunisolar">lunisolar</a> calendar. The object would have permitted the determination of dates or periods in both <a href="/wiki/Lunar_calendar" title="Lunar calendar">lunar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solar_calendar" title="Solar calendar">solar calendars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-L2-25">[25]</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><h2 id="Ancient_times">Ancient times</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Ancient times" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astrology" title="Babylonian astrology">Babylonian astrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_calendar" title="Babylonian calendar">Babylonian calendar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/170px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="274" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="912" data-file-height="1470"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 170px;height: 274px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/170px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg" data-width="170" data-height="274" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/255px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/340px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Babylonian tablet in the <a href="/wiki/British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> recording <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_Comet" title="Halley's Comet">Halley's Comet</a> in 164 BC</figcaption></figure> The origins of astronomy can be found in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, the "land between the rivers" <a href="/wiki/Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, where the ancient kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a> were located. A form of writing known as <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> emerged among the Sumerians around 3500–3000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. <a href="/wiki/Astral_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Astral theology">Astral theology</a>, which gave planetary gods an important role in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology" title="Mesopotamian mythology">Mesopotamian mythology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian religion">religion</a>, began with the <a href="/wiki/Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumerians</a>. They also used a <a href="/wiki/Sexagesimal" title="Sexagesimal">sexagesimal</a> (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 <a href="/wiki/Degree_(angle)" title="Degree (angle)">degrees</a>, or an hour into 60 minutes, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_numerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Babylonian numerals">Babylonian numerals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">mathematics</a>. Mesopotamia is worldwide the place of the earliest known astronomer and poet by name: <a href="/wiki/Enheduanna" title="Enheduanna">Enheduanna</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a> high priestess to the <a href="/wiki/Lunar_deity" title="Lunar deity">lunar deity</a> <a href="/wiki/Sin_(mythology)" title="Sin (mythology)">Nanna/Sin</a> and princess, daughter of <a href="/wiki/Sargon_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Sargon the Great">Sargon the Great</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2334 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2279 BCE). She had the Moon tracked in her chambers and wrote poems about her divine Moon.<a href="#cite_note-c099-26">[26]</a> Classical sources frequently use the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chaldean" class="extiw" title="wikt:Chaldean">term Chaldeans</a> for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were originally <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Chaldeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Chaldeans">a people</a>, before being identified with priest-scribes specializing in <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>. The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the <a href="/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian dynasty">Old Babylonian period</a> document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of <a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablets known as the <a href="/wiki/En%C5%ABma_Anu_Enlil" class="mw-redirect" title="Enūma Anu Enlil">Enūma Anu Enlil</a>. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the <a href="/wiki/Venus_tablet_of_Ammisaduqa" title="Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa">Venus tablet</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ammi-saduqa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ammi-saduqa">Ammi-saduqa</a>, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The <a href="/wiki/MUL.APIN" title="MUL.APIN">MUL.APIN</a>, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting <a href="/wiki/Heliacal_rising" title="Heliacal rising">heliacal risings</a> and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">water clock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a>, shadows, and <a href="/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)" title="Intercalation (timekeeping)">intercalations</a>. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Nabonassar" title="Nabonassar">Nabonassar</a> (747–733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in <a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries" title="Babylonian astronomical diaries">Babylonian astronomical diaries</a> that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar eclipses</a>, for example. The Greek astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time. The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> (323–60 BC). In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was <a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus of Seleucia</a>, who was a supporter of the <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric model</a>. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek and Hellenistic astronomy</a>, in classical <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a>, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic astronomy">Islamic astronomy</a>, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.<a href="#cite_note-dp1998-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India">India</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: India" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_science#Indian_astronomy" title="History of science">History of science § Indian astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hindu_astrology" title="Hindu astrology">Hindu astrology</a></div>Astronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley Civilisation</a> during 3rd millennium BC, when it was used to create calendars.<a href="#cite_note-Bely-29">[29]</a> As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the <a href="/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha" title="Vedanga Jyotisha">Vedanga Jyotisha</a>, dating from the <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic period</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cosmic-30">[30]</a> The Vedanga Jyotisha is attributed to Lagadha and has an internal date of approximately 1350 BC, and describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. It is available in two recensions, one belonging to the Rig Veda, and the other to the Yajur Veda. According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a yuga or "era", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days and 62 synodic months. During the 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions.<a href="#cite_note-Bely-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aryabhata" title="Aryabhata">Aryabhata</a> (476–550), in his magnum opus <a href="/wiki/Aryabhatiya" title="Aryabhatiya">Aryabhatiya</a> (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation" title="Earth's rotation">spinning on its axis</a> and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the <a href="/wiki/Solar_eclipse" title="Solar eclipse">solar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lunar_eclipse" title="Lunar eclipse">lunar</a> <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a>, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Early followers of Aryabhata's model included <a href="/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira" title="Varāhamihira">Varāhamihira</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brahmagupta" title="Brahmagupta">Brahmagupta</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara II</a>. Astronomy was advanced during the <a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga Empire</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Star_catalogue" title="Star catalogue">star catalogues</a> were produced during this time. The Shunga period is known[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">according to whom?</a>] as the "Golden age of astronomy in India". It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_conjunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomical conjunction">conjunctions</a>, and the calculation of eclipses. Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers <a href="/wiki/Varahamihira" class="mw-redirect" title="Varahamihira">Varahamihira</a> and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer <a href="/wiki/Bhattotpala" class="mw-redirect" title="Bhattotpala">Bhattotpala</a> listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece_and_Hellenistic_world">Greece and Hellenistic world</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Greece and Hellenistic world" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/220px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1036" data-file-height="924"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 196px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/220px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="196" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/330px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/440px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_Mechanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Antikythera Mechanism">Antikythera Mechanism</a> was an <a href="/wiki/Analog_computer" title="Analog computer">analog computer</a> from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">Ancient Greeks</a> developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by <a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus of Cnidus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Callippus_of_Cyzicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Callippus of Cyzicus">Callippus of Cyzicus</a>. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary <a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides Ponticus</a> proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus, Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a <a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">world soul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric <a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">spheres</a>, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century. In the 3rd century BC <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> was the first to suggest a <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> estimated the <a href="/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Circumference of the Earth">circumference of the Earth</a> with great accuracy (see also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_geodesy" title="History of geodesy">history of geodesy</a>).<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an <a href="/wiki/Deferent" class="mw-redirect" title="Deferent">eccentric</a> circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an <a href="/wiki/Epicycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicycle">epicycle</a> which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</a> and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus of Nicea</a>. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a> and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">apparent magnitudes</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> astronomical observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150–100 BC, and was the first ancestor of an astronomical <a href="/wiki/Computer" title="Computer">computer</a>. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Antikythera" title="Antikythera">Antikythera</a>, between <a href="/wiki/Kythera" class="mw-redirect" title="Kythera">Kythera</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>. The device became famous for its use of a <a href="/wiki/Differential_gear" class="mw-redirect" title="Differential gear">differential gear</a>, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the <a href="/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens" class="mw-redirect" title="National Archaeological Museum of Athens">National Archaeological Museum of Athens</a>, accompanied by a replica. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemaic_system">Ptolemaic system</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ptolemaic system" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Ptolemaic system">Ptolemaic system</a></div> Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>][<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_astronomy#Dubious" title="Talk:History of astronomy">discuss</a>] of Classical physical astronomy is seen with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>, a Greco-Roman astronomer from Alexandria of Egypt, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title <a href="/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest">Almagest</a>, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a> four centuries earlier. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Egypt">Egypt</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Egypt" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2678" data-file-height="1589"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 131px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="131" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/330px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/440px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Segment of the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senenmut%27s_Tomb" title="Astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb">astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb</a> (circa 1479–1458 BC), depicting constellations, protective deities, and twenty-four segmented wheels for the hours of the day and the months of the year</figcaption></figure> The precise orientation of the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids" title="Egyptian pyramids">Egyptian pyramids</a> affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a>, which, because of the <a href="/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession of the equinoxes">precession of the equinoxes</a>, was at that time <a href="/wiki/Thuban" title="Thuban">Thuban</a>, a faint star in the constellation of <a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Evaluation of the site of the temple of <a href="/wiki/Amun-Re" class="mw-redirect" title="Amun-Re">Amun-Re</a> at <a href="/wiki/Karnak" title="Karnak">Karnak</a>, taking into account the change over time of the <a href="/wiki/Obliquity_of_the_ecliptic" class="mw-redirect" title="Obliquity of the ecliptic">obliquity of the ecliptic</a>, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the <a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">midwinter</a> Sun.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. The Egyptians also found the position of Sirius (the dog star) who they believed was Anubis, their Jackal headed god, moving through the heavens. Its position was critical to their civilisation as when it rose heliacal in the east before sunrise it foretold the flooding of the Nile. It is also the origin of the phrase 'dog days of summer'.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Astronomy played a considerable part in <a href="/wiki/Religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious">religious</a> matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the <a href="/wiki/Night" title="Night">night</a>. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a>. The rising of <a href="/wiki/Sirius" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egyptian_language" title="Egyptian language">Egyptian</a>: Sopdet, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar. Writing in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman era">Roman era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: <blockquote>And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a horologium (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a palm (φοίνιξ), the symbols of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Egyptian astronomy">astrology</a>. He must know by heart the <a href="/wiki/Hermetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermetism">Hermetic</a> astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a></blockquote> The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a <a href="/wiki/Plumb_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Plumb line">plumb line</a> and sighting instrument[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlin" title="Egyptian Museum of Berlin">Berlin Museum</a>; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arm's length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenistic">Hellenistic</a> <a href="/wiki/Hermetism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hermetism">Hermetism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of <a href="/wiki/Rameses_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses VI">Rameses VI</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rameses_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Rameses IX">Rameses IX</a> it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star <a href="/wiki/Culmination" title="Culmination">culminating</a> or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the <a href="/wiki/North" title="North">north</a> axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="China">China</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: China" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astronomy" title="Chinese astronomy">Chinese astronomy</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Silk" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Silk">Book of Silk</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">Chinese astrology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_astronomy" title="Timeline of Chinese astronomy">Timeline of Chinese astronomy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="877"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 164px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="164" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/330px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/440px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/History_of_typography_in_East_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of typography in East Asia">Printed</a> star map of <a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a> (1020–1101) showing the south polar projection</figcaption></figure> The astronomy of <a href="/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a> began in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. <a href="/wiki/Solar_term" title="Solar term">Solar term</a> was completed in <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a>. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia. Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses. Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose. Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of <a href="/wiki/Guest_star_(astronomy)" title="Guest star (astronomy)">"guest stars"</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a>: 客星; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: kèxīng; <abbr title="Literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'guest star') which suddenly appeared among the <a href="/wiki/Fixed_star" class="mw-redirect" title="Fixed star">fixed stars</a>. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 AD. Also, the supernova that created the <a href="/wiki/Crab_Nebula" title="Crab Nebula">Crab Nebula</a> in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies. The world's first <a href="/wiki/Star_catalogue" title="Star catalogue">star catalogue</a> was made by <a href="/wiki/Gan_De" title="Gan De">Gan De</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_astronomers" title="Category:Chinese astronomers">Chinese astronomer</a>, in the 4th century BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mesoamerica">Mesoamerica</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Mesoamerica" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Maya_astronomy" title="Maya astronomy">Maya astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya calendar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aztec_calendar" title="Aztec calendar">Aztec calendar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg/220px-Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="2194"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 107px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg/220px-Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="107" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg/330px-Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg/440px-Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>"El Caracol" observatory temple at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a> astronomical <a href="/wiki/Maya_codices" title="Maya codices">codices</a> include detailed tables for calculating <a href="/wiki/Lunar_phases" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunar phases">phases of the Moon</a>, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> as morning and <a href="/wiki/Venus#Observability" title="Venus">evening star</a>. The Maya based their <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">calendrics</a> in the carefully calculated cycles of the <a href="/wiki/Pleiades" title="Pleiades">Pleiades</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Dresden_Codex" title="Dresden Codex">Dresden Codex</a>, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> was crucial in their Cosmology.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early <a href="/wiki/Maya_mythology" title="Maya mythology">mythology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Maya_calendar" title="Maya calendar">Maya calendar</a> was not tied to the Sun, <a href="/wiki/John_E._Teeple" title="John E. Teeple">John Teeple</a> has proposed that the Maya calculated the <a href="/wiki/Tropical_year" title="Tropical year">solar year</a> to somewhat greater accuracy than the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization#Religion" title="Maya civilization">Maya religion</a>. The Maya believed that the Earth was the center of all things, and that the stars, moons, and planets were gods. They believed that their movements were the gods traveling between the Earth and other celestial destinations. Many key events in Maya culture were timed around celestial events, in the belief that certain gods would be present.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Middle Ages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Middle East" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Maragheh_observatory" title="Maragheh observatory">Maragheh observatory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory" title="Ulugh Beg Observatory">Ulugh Beg Observatory</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din" title="Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din">Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash,_ottone_inciso,_saragozza,_1079-1080.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG/220px-Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1288" data-file-height="1977"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 338px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG/220px-Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG" data-width="220" data-height="338" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG/330px-Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG/440px-Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Arabic <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> from 1079 to 1080 AD</figcaption></figure> The Arabic and the Persian world under <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a> and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> This led to the emergence of the first astronomical <a href="/wiki/Observatory" title="Observatory">observatories</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> by the early 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-Micheau-992-3-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zij" title="Zij">Zij</a> star catalogues were produced at these observatories. In the 9th century, Persian astrologer <a href="/wiki/Albumasar" class="mw-redirect" title="Albumasar">Albumasar</a> was thought to be one of the greatest astrologer at that time. His practical manuals for training astrologers profoundly influenced Muslim intellectual history and, through translations, that of western Europe and Byzantium In the 10th century,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Albumasar's "Introduction" was one of the most important sources for the recovery of Aristotle for medieval European scholars.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi">Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi</a> (Azophi) carried out observations on the <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and described their positions, <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">magnitudes</a>, brightness, and <a href="/wiki/Colour" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour">colour</a> and drawings for each constellation in his <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a>. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda Galaxy</a>. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellation</a>. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a> astronomers, very probably before 905 AD.<a href="#cite_note-NSOG-54">[54]</a> The first recorded mention of the <a href="/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud" title="Large Magellanic Cloud">Large Magellanic Cloud</a> was also given by al-Sufi.<a href="#cite_note-obspm-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-obspm2-56">[56]</a> In 1006, <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a> observed <a href="/wiki/SN_1006" title="SN 1006">SN 1006</a>, the brightest <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernova</a> in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near <a href="/wiki/Tehran" title="Tehran">Tehran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, by the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_al-Khujandi" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi">Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi</a> who observed a series of <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)" title="Meridian (astronomy)">meridian</a> <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_transit" title="Astronomical transit">transits</a> of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. He noted that measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, possible evidence that the axial tilt is not constant but was in fact decreasing.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 11th-century Persia, <a href="/wiki/Omar_Khayy%C3%A1m" class="mw-redirect" title="Omar Khayyám">Omar Khayyám</a> compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a> that was more accurate than the <a href="/wiki/Julian_Calendar" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Calendar">Julian</a> and came close to the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian</a>. Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Ptolemaic model</a>, the development of the universal latitude-independent <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a> by <a href="/wiki/Arzachel" class="mw-redirect" title="Arzachel">Arzachel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, <a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_Muhammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_ibn_Sh%C4%81kir" class="mw-redirect" title="Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir">Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir</a>'s belief that the <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">heavenly bodies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_sphere" title="Celestial sphere">celestial spheres</a> were subject to the same <a href="/wiki/Physical_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical law">physical laws</a> as <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>,<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> and the introduction of empirical testing by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir" title="Ibn al-Shatir">Ibn al-Shatir</a>, who produced the first model of <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">lunar</a> motion which matched physical observations.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">Natural philosophy</a> (particularly <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_physics" title="Aristotelian physics">Aristotelian physics</a>) was separated from astronomy by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a> (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century,<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> and Qushji in the 15th century.<a href="#cite_note-Ragep-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="India_2">India</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: India" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/220px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1984" data-file-height="1248"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 138px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/220px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="138" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/330px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/440px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Historical <a href="/wiki/Jantar_Mantar_(Jaipur)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jantar Mantar (Jaipur)">Jantar Mantar</a> observatory in <a href="/wiki/Jaipur" title="Jaipur">Jaipur</a>, India</figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II" title="Bhāskara II">Bhāskara II</a> (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Sun to orbit the Earth to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of <a href="/wiki/Nalanda" class="mw-redirect" title="Nalanda">Nalanda</a> at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies. Other important astronomers from India include <a href="/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama" title="Madhava of Sangamagrama">Madhava of Sangamagrama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji" title="Nilakantha Somayaji">Nilakantha Somayaji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jyeshtadeva" class="mw-redirect" title="Jyeshtadeva">Jyeshtadeva</a>, who were members of the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a> from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially <a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">heliocentric</a> planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a> orbit the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, which in turn orbits the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>, similar to the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic system</a> later proposed by <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a> in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitudinal</a> motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the <a href="/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics" title="Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics">Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics</a> who followed him accepted his planetary model.<a href="#cite_note-Joseph408-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-:6-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_Europe">Western Europe</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Western Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in the Middle Ages">Science in the Middle Ages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aratea_93v.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aratea_93v.jpg/220px-Aratea_93v.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="251" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1367"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 251px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aratea_93v.jpg/220px-Aratea_93v.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="251" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aratea_93v.jpg/330px-Aratea_93v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aratea_93v.jpg/440px-Aratea_93v.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>9th-century diagram of the positions of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_planet" title="Classical planet">seven planets</a> on 18 March 816, from the <a href="/wiki/Leiden_Aratea" title="Leiden Aratea">Leiden Aratea</a></figcaption></figure> After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> were written in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> were <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Calcidius" title="Calcidius">Calcidius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In the 6th century Bishop <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours" title="Gregory of Tours">Gregory of Tours</a> noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In the 7th century the English monk <a href="/wiki/Bede_of_Jarrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Bede of Jarrow">Bede of Jarrow</a> published an influential text, <a href="/wiki/De_temporum_ratione" class="mw-redirect" title="De temporum ratione">On the Reckoning of Time</a>, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> using a procedure called the <a href="/wiki/Computus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computus">computus</a>. This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university#Origins" title="Medieval university">Universities</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">12th century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">revival of learning</a> sponsored by the emperor <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> By the 9th century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> Building on this astronomical background, in the 10th century European scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillac" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerbert of Aurillac">Gerbert of Aurillac</a> began to travel to Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>. Soon scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Hermann_of_Reichenau" title="Hermann of Reichenau">Hermann of Reichenau</a> were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as <a href="/wiki/Walcher_of_Malvern" title="Walcher of Malvern">Walcher of Malvern</a>, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> By the 12th century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they <a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">translated into Latin</a> from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_de_Sacrobosco" title="Johannes de Sacrobosco">John of Sacrobosco</a> wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the <a href="/wiki/De_sphaera_mundi" title="De sphaera mundi">Sphere</a>, a Computus, a text on the <a href="/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)" title="Quadrant (instrument)">Quadrant</a>, and another on Calculation.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> In the 14th century, <a href="/wiki/Nicole_Oresme" title="Nicole Oresme">Nicole Oresme</a>, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the Earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved."<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> In the 15th century, Cardinal <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa" title="Nicholas of Cusa">Nicholas of Cusa</a> suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><h2 id="Renaissance_and_Early_Modern_Europe">Renaissance and Early Modern Europe</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Renaissance and Early Modern Europe" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Copernican_Revolution">Copernican Revolution</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Copernican Revolution" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Astronomia_nova" title="Astronomia nova">Astronomia nova</a> and <a href="/wiki/Epitome_Astronomiae_Copernicanae" title="Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae">Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae</a></div> During the renaissance period, astronomy began to undergo a revolution in thought known as the <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution" title="Copernican Revolution">Copernican Revolution</a>, which gets the name from the astronomer <a href="/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus" title="Nicolaus Copernicus">Nicolaus Copernicus</a>, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His <a href="/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium" title="De revolutionibus orbium coelestium">De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</a> was published in 1543.<a href="#cite_note-:0-77">[77]</a> While in the long term this was a very controversial claim, in the very beginning it only brought minor controversy.<a href="#cite_note-:0-77">[77]</a> The theory became the dominant view because many figures, most notably <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Kepler" title="Johannes Kepler">Johannes Kepler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> championed and improved upon the work. Other figures also aided this new model despite not believing the overall theory, like <a href="/wiki/Tycho_Brahe" title="Tycho Brahe">Tycho Brahe</a>, with his well-known observations.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> Brahe, a Danish noble, was an essential astronomer in this period.<a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> He came on the astronomical scene with the publication of De nova stella, in which he disproved conventional wisdom on the supernova <a href="/wiki/SN_1572" title="SN 1572">SN 1572</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-78">[78]</a> (As bright as Venus at its peak, SN 1572 later became invisible to the naked eye, disproving the <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotelian</a> doctrine of the immutability of the heavens.)<a href="#cite_note-:11-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-ruiz-80">[80]</a> He also created the <a href="/wiki/Tychonic_system" title="Tychonic system">Tychonic system</a>, where the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, but the other five planets revolve around the Sun. This system blended the mathematical benefits of the Copernican system with the "physical benefits" of the Ptolemaic system.<a href="#cite_note-Westman,_Robert_S_1975_p._322-81">[81]</a> This was one of the systems people believed in when they did not accept heliocentrism, but could no longer accept the Ptolemaic system.<a href="#cite_note-Westman,_Robert_S_1975_p._322-81">[81]</a> He is most known for his highly accurate observations of the stars and the planets. Later he moved to Prague and continued his work. In Prague he was at work on the <a href="/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables" title="Rudolphine Tables">Rudolphine Tables</a>, that were not finished until after his death.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[82]</a> The Rudolphine Tables was a star map designed to be more accurate than either the <a href="/wiki/Alfonsine_tables" title="Alfonsine tables">Alfonsine tables</a>, made in the 1300s, and the <a href="/wiki/Prutenic_Tables" title="Prutenic Tables">Prutenic Tables</a>, which were inaccurate.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[82]</a> He was assisted at this time by his assistant Johannes Kepler, who would later use his observations to finish Brahe's works and for his theories as well.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[82]</a> After the death of Brahe, Kepler was deemed his successor and was given the job of completing Brahe's uncompleted works, like the Rudolphine Tables.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[82]</a> He completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1624, although it was not published for several years.<a href="#cite_note-:2-82">[82]</a> Like many other figures of this era, he was subject to religious and political troubles, like the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a>, which led to chaos that almost destroyed some of his works. Kepler was, however, the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. He discovered the three <a href="/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion" title="Kepler's laws of planetary motion">Kepler's laws of planetary motion</a> that now carry his name, those laws being as follows: <ol><li>The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.</li> <li>A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.</li> <li>The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a></li></ol> With these laws, he managed to improve upon the existing heliocentric model. The first two were published in 1609. Kepler's contributions improved upon the overall system, giving it more credibility because it adequately explained events and could cause more reliable predictions. Before this, the Copernican model was just as unreliable as the Ptolemaic model. This improvement came because Kepler realized the orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg/220px-Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1180" data-file-height="1448"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 270px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg/220px-Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="270" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg/330px-Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg/440px-Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that the Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like the Moon. Portrait by <a href="/wiki/Justus_Sustermans" title="Justus Sustermans">Justus Sustermans</a>.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610, which are now collectively known as the <a href="/wiki/Galilean_moons" title="Galilean moons">Galilean moons</a>, in his honor.<a href="#cite_note-:3-85">[85]</a> This discovery was the first known observation of satellites orbiting another planet.<a href="#cite_note-:3-85">[85]</a> He also found that the Moon had craters and observed, and correctly explained sunspots, and that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases.<a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a> Galileo argued that these facts demonstrated incompatibility with the Ptolemaic model, which could not explain the phenomenon and would even contradict it.<a href="#cite_note-:4-86">[86]</a> With Jupiter's moons, he demonstrated that the Earth does not have to have everything orbiting it and that other bodies could orbit another planet, such as the Earth orbiting the Sun.<a href="#cite_note-:3-85">[85]</a> In the Ptolemaic system the celestial bodies were supposed to be perfect so such objects should not have craters or sunspots.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The phases of Venus could only happen in the event that Venus orbits around the Sun, which did not happen in the Ptolemaic system. He, as the most famous example, had to face challenges from church officials, more specifically the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman Inquisition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:5-88">[88]</a> They accused him of heresy because these beliefs went against the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and were challenging the Catholic church's authority when it was at its weakest.<a href="#cite_note-:5-88">[88]</a> While he was able to avoid punishment for a little while he was eventually tried and pled guilty to heresy in 1633.<a href="#cite_note-:5-88">[88]</a> Although this came at some expense, his book was banned, and he was put under house arrest until he died in 1642.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Table_of_Astronomy,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_1,_p_164.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg/220px-Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3055" data-file-height="2829"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 204px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg/220px-Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="204" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg/330px-Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg/440px-Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Plate with figures illustrating articles on astronomy, from the 1728 <a href="/wiki/Cyclop%C3%A6dia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences" title="Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences">Cyclopædia</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Isaac Newton">Sir Isaac Newton</a> developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his <a href="/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation" title="Newton's law of universal gravitation">law of universal gravitation</a>. Realizing that the same force that attracts objects to the surface of the Earth held the Moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain – in one theoretical framework – all known gravitational phenomena. In his <a href="/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica" title="Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica">Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica</a>, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. Those first principles are as follows: <ol><li>In an <a href="/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference" title="Inertial frame of reference">inertial frame of reference</a>, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant <a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">velocity</a>, unless acted upon by a <a href="/wiki/Force" title="Force">force</a>.</li> <li>In an inertial reference frame, the <a href="/wiki/Vector_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector sum">vector sum</a> of the forces F on an object is equal to the <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">mass</a> m of that object multiplied by the <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)</li> <li>When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a></li></ol> Thus while Kepler explained how the planets moved, Newton accurately managed to explain why the planets moved the way they do. Newton's theoretical developments laid many of the foundations of modern physics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Completing_the_Solar_System">Completing the Solar System</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Completing the Solar System" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Outside of England, Newton's theory took some time to become established. <a href="/wiki/Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes">Descartes</a>' <a href="/wiki/Descartes%27_vortex_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Descartes' vortex theory">theory of vortices</a> held sway in France, and <a href="/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens" title="Christiaan Huygens">Huygens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cassini" title="Jacques Cassini">Cassini</a> accepted only parts of Newton's system, preferring their own philosophies. <a href="/wiki/Voltaire" title="Voltaire">Voltaire</a> published a popular account in 1738.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In 1748, the <a href="/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences" title="French Academy of Sciences">French Academy of Sciences</a> offered a reward for solving the question of the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn, which was eventually done by <a href="/wiki/Euler" class="mw-redirect" title="Euler">Euler</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrange">Lagrange</a>. <a href="/wiki/Laplace" class="mw-redirect" title="Laplace">Laplace</a> completed the theory of the planets, publishing from 1798 to 1825. The early origins of the <a href="/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis" title="Nebular hypothesis">solar nebular model</a> of planetary formation had begun. <a href="/wiki/Edmond_Halley" title="Edmond Halley">Edmond Halley</a> succeeded <a href="/wiki/John_Flamsteed" title="John Flamsteed">Flamsteed</a> as <a href="/wiki/Astronomer_Royal" title="Astronomer Royal">Astronomer Royal</a> in England and succeeded in predicting the return of the <a href="/wiki/Halley%27s_comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Halley's comet">comet that bears his name</a> in 1758. <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir William Herschel">Sir William Herschel</a> found the first new planet, <a href="/wiki/Uranus" title="Uranus">Uranus</a>, to be observed in modern times in 1781. The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the <a href="/wiki/Titius%E2%80%93Bode_law" title="Titius–Bode law">Titius–Bode law</a> was filled by the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a> <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a> and <a href="/wiki/2_Pallas" title="2 Pallas">Pallas</a> in 1801 and 1802 with many more following. At first, <a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_Astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Colonial American Astronomy">astronomical thought in America</a> was based on <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian philosophy">Aristotelian philosophy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in <a href="/wiki/Almanacs" class="mw-redirect" title="Almanacs">Almanacs</a> as early as 1659.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stellar_astronomy">Stellar astronomy</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Stellar astronomy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_pluralism" title="Cosmic pluralism">Cosmic pluralism</a> is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems. Ideas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by <a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a> and by <a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus of Samos</a>, but did not find mainstream acceptance. The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was <a href="/wiki/Giordano_Bruno" title="Giordano Bruno">Giordano Bruno</a> in his De l'infinito universo et mondi (1584). This idea, together with a belief in intelligent extraterrestrial life, was among the charges brought against him by the Inquisition. The idea became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of <a href="/wiki/Conversations_on_the_Plurality_of_Worlds" title="Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds">Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle" title="Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle">Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle</a> (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy. The Italian astronomer <a href="/wiki/Geminiano_Montanari" title="Geminiano Montanari">Geminiano Montanari</a> recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star <a href="/wiki/Algol" title="Algol">Algol</a> in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the <a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">proper motion</a> of a pair of nearby "fixed" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greek</a> astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus. <a href="/wiki/William_Herschel" title="William Herschel">William Herschel</a> was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky. During the 1780s, he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight. From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way <a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">core</a>. His son <a href="/wiki/John_Herschel" title="John Herschel">John Herschel</a> repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are physical companions that form binary star systems.<a href="#cite_note-Magill1992-95">[95]</a> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><h2 id="Modern_astronomy">Modern astronomy</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Modern astronomy" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">Observational astronomy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology#History_of_study" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology § History of study</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: 19th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/220px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="713" data-file-height="394"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 122px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/220px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png" data-width="220" data-height="122" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/330px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/440px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> surface map of <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli" title="Giovanni Schiaparelli">Giovanni Schiaparelli</a></figcaption></figure> Pre-photography, data recording of astronomical data was limited by the human eye. In 1840, <a href="/wiki/John_W._Draper" class="mw-redirect" title="John W. Draper">John W. Draper</a>, a chemist, created the earliest known astronomical photograph of the Moon. And by the late 19th century thousands of photographic plates of images of planets, stars, and galaxies were created. Most photography had lower quantum efficiency (i.e. captured less of the incident photons) than human eyes but had the advantage of long integration times (100 ms for the human eye compared to hours for photos). This vastly increased the data available to astronomers, which led to the rise of <a href="/wiki/Human_computers" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computers">human computers</a>, famously the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a>, to track and analyze the data. Scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">X-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_ray" title="Gamma ray">gamma rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet radiation">ultraviolet radiation</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Infrared_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared radiation">infrared radiation</a>. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of <a href="/wiki/Infrared_astronomy" title="Infrared astronomy">infrared astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/X-ray_astronomy" title="X-ray astronomy">x-ray astronomy</a> and finally <a href="/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy" title="Gamma-ray astronomy">gamma-ray astronomy</a>. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of <a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">temperatures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mass" title="Mass">masses</a> and sizes. The science of <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">stellar spectroscopy</a> was pioneered by <a href="/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer" title="Joseph von Fraunhofer">Joseph von Fraunhofer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Angelo_Secchi" title="Angelo Secchi">Angelo Secchi</a>. By comparing the spectra of stars such as <a href="/wiki/Sirius" title="Sirius">Sirius</a> to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their <a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">absorption lines</a>—the dark lines in stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere's absorption of specific frequencies. In 1865, Secchi began classifying stars into <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">spectral types</a>.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow spectral line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (<a href="/wiki/61_Cygni" title="61 Cygni">61 Cygni</a> at 11.4 <a href="/wiki/Light-years" class="mw-redirect" title="Light-years">light-years</a>) was made in 1838 by <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Friedrich Bessel">Friedrich Bessel</a> using the <a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">parallax</a> technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion. <a href="/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering" title="Edward Charles Pickering">Edward Pickering</a> discovered the first <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopic_binary" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectroscopic binary">spectroscopic binary</a> in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star <a href="/wiki/Mizar_(star)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizar (star)">Mizar</a> in a 104-day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Georg_Wilhelm_von_Struve" title="Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve">Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sherburne_Wesley_Burnham" title="Sherburne Wesley Burnham">S. W. Burnham</a>, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from the computation of <a href="/wiki/Orbital_elements" title="Orbital elements">orbital elements</a>. The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> In 1847, <a href="/wiki/Maria_Mitchell" title="Maria Mitchell">Maria Mitchell</a> discovered a comet using a telescope. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: 20th century" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg/220px-Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="533"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 147px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg/220px-Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="147" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg/330px-Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg/440px-Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a></figcaption></figure> With the accumulation of large sets of astronomical data, teams like the <a href="/wiki/Harvard_Computers" title="Harvard Computers">Harvard Computers</a> rose in prominence which led to many female astronomers, previously relegated as assistants to male astronomers, gaining recognition in the field. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Naval_Observatory" title="United States Naval Observatory">United States Naval Observatory</a> (USNO) and other astronomy research institutions hired <a href="/wiki/Human_computer" class="mw-redirect" title="Human computer">human "computers"</a>, who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. <a href="/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt" title="Henrietta Swan Leavitt">Henrietta Swan Leavitt</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Cepheid_variable" title="Cepheid variable">cepheid variable</a> star <a href="/wiki/Period-luminosity_relation" title="Period-luminosity relation">period-luminosity relation</a> which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of the Solar System. A veteran of the Harvard Computers, <a href="/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon" title="Annie Jump Cannon">Annie J. Cannon</a> developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000).<a href="#cite_note-HubenyMihalas2014-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. <a href="/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild" title="Karl Schwarzschild">Karl Schwarzschild</a> discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the <a href="/wiki/Visual_magnitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual magnitude">visual magnitude</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Photographic_magnitude" title="Photographic magnitude">photographic magnitude</a>. The development of the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric</a> <a href="/wiki/Photometer" title="Photometer">photometer</a> allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 <a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an <a href="/wiki/Interferometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Interferometer">interferometer</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory#100-inch_Hooker_telescope" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Hooker telescope</a> at <a href="/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory" title="Mount Wilson Observatory">Mount Wilson Observatory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/220px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3600" data-file-height="2000"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 220px;height: 122px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/220px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg" data-width="220" data-height="122" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/330px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/440px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Comparison of <a href="/wiki/CMB" class="mw-redirect" title="CMB">CMB</a> (Cosmic microwave background) results from satellites <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer" title="Cosmic Background Explorer">COBE</a>, <a href="/wiki/WMAP" class="mw-redirect" title="WMAP">WMAP</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)" title="Planck (spacecraft)">Planck</a> documenting a progress in 1989–2013</figcaption></figure> Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1913, the <a href="/wiki/Hertzsprung%E2%80%93Russell_diagram" title="Hertzsprung–Russell diagram">Hertzsprung–Russell diagram</a> was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars. In <a href="/wiki/Potsdam" title="Potsdam">Potsdam</a> in 1906, the Danish astronomer <a href="/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung" title="Ejnar Hertzsprung">Ejnar Hertzsprung</a> published the first plots of color versus <a href="/wiki/Luminosity" title="Luminosity">luminosity</a> for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence. At <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell" title="Henry Norris Russell">Henry Norris Russell</a> plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, and found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Successful <a href="/wiki/Stellar_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Stellar model">models</a> were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. <a href="/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin" title="Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin">Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin</a> first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 doctoral thesis.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum physics</a>. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined.<a href="#cite_note-new_cosmos-103">[103]</a> As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Bengt_Str%C3%B6mgren" title="Bengt Strömgren">Bengt Strömgren</a> introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram. A refined scheme for <a href="/wiki/Stellar_classification" title="Stellar classification">stellar classification</a> was published in 1943 by <a href="/wiki/William_Wilson_Morgan" title="William Wilson Morgan">William Wilson Morgan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philip_Childs_Keenan" title="Philip Childs Keenan">Philip Childs Keenan</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Milky_way_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><noscript><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Milky_way_map.png/310px-Milky_way_map.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="339" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="2238"></noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 310px;height: 339px;" data-mw-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Milky_way_map.png/310px-Milky_way_map.png" data-width="310" data-height="339" data-mw-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Milky_way_map.png/465px-Milky_way_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Milky_way_map.png/620px-Milky_way_map.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a><figcaption>Map of the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a> Galaxy, with the <a href="/wiki/Constellations" class="mw-redirect" title="Constellations">constellations</a> that cross the <a href="/wiki/Galactic_plane" title="Galactic plane">galactic plane</a> in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including <a href="/wiki/Spiral_arm" title="Spiral arm">main arms</a>, spurs, bar, <a href="/wiki/Galactic_Center" title="Galactic Center">nucleus/bulge</a>, notable <a href="/wiki/Nebulae" class="mw-redirect" title="Nebulae">nebulae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Globular_clusters" class="mw-redirect" title="Globular clusters">globular clusters</a></figcaption></figure> The existence of our <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Milky_Way" title="Milky Way">Milky Way</a>, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">universe</a> seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. The "<a href="/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)" title="Great Debate (astronomy)">Great Debate</a>" between <a href="/wiki/Harlow_Shapley" title="Harlow Shapley">Harlow Shapley</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heber_Curtis" class="mw-redirect" title="Heber Curtis">Heber Curtis</a>, in the 1920s, concerned the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> was further refined. The Sun was found to be part of a <a href="/wiki/Galaxy" title="Galaxy">galaxy</a> made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of <a href="/wiki/The_great_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="The great debate">the great debate</a>, was settled by <a href="/wiki/Edwin_Hubble" title="Edwin Hubble">Edwin Hubble</a>, who identified the <a href="/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy" title="Andromeda Galaxy">Andromeda nebula</a> as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy. <a href="/wiki/Physical_cosmology" title="Physical cosmology">Physical cosmology</a>, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang" title="Big Bang">Big Bang</a> heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the <a href="/wiki/Redshift" title="Redshift">redshifts</a> of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the <a href="/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmic microwave background radiation">cosmic microwave background radiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubble%27s_law" title="Hubble's law">Hubble's law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis" title="Big Bang nucleosynthesis">cosmological abundances of elements</a>. </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">Age of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropic_principle" title="Anthropic principle">Anthropic principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrotheology" title="Astrotheology">Astrotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe" title="Expansion of the universe">Expansion of the universe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy" title="Hebrew astronomy">Hebrew astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astrology" title="History of astrology">History of astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation" title="History of Mars observation">History of Mars observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_supernova_observation" title="History of supernova observation">History of supernova observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_telescope" title="History of the telescope">History of the telescope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots" title="Letters on Sunspots">Letters on Sunspots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomers" title="List of astronomers">List of astronomers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers" title="List of French astronomers">List of French astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_astronomers" title="List of Hungarian astronomers">List of Hungarian astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists" title="List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists">List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovenian_astronomers" title="List of Slovenian astronomers">List of Slovenian astronomers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers" title="List of women astronomers">List of women astronomers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers" title="List of astronomical instrument makers">List of astronomical instrument makers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories" title="List of astronomical observatories">List of astronomical observatories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy" title="Patronage in astronomy">Patronage in astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy" title="Society for the History of Astronomy">Society for the History of Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy" title="Timeline of astronomy">Timeline of astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_astronomy" title="Timeline of Solar System astronomy">Timeline of Solar System astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Worship of heavenly bodies</a></li></ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"><h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Citation_style plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-citation_style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article has an unclear <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Citation_style" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation style</a>. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes" title="Help:Footnotes">footnoting</a>. 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title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon 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.citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pages.uoregon.edu/jschombe/ast121/lectures/lec02.html">"History of Astronomy"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Astronomy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpages.uoregon.edu%2Fjschombe%2Fast121%2Flectures%2Flec02.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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Astronomy & Geophysics. 51 (3): 3.25 – 3.30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2010.51325.x">10.1111/j.1468-4004.2010.51325.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomy+%26+Geophysics&rft.atitle=The+impact+of+astronomy&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3.25+-%3C%2Fspan%3E+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3.30%3C%2Fspan%3E&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1468-4004.2010.51325.x&rft.aulast=Fabian&rft.aufirst=Andy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fastrogeo%2Farticle%2F51%2F3%2F3.25%2F224270%2394074640&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/astronomy/History-of-astronomy">"Astronomy - Ancient, Celestial, Observations"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Astronomy+-+Ancient%2C+Celestial%2C+Observations&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2Fastronomy%2FHistory-of-astronomy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.space.com/16014-astronomy.html#section-history-of-astronomy-the-beginnings">"Astronomy: Everything you need to know"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Space.com" title="Space.com">Space.com</a>. 28 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Space.com&rft.atitle=Astronomy%3A+Everything+you+need+to+know&rft.date=2022-10-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.space.com%2F16014-astronomy.html%23section-history-of-astronomy-the-beginnings&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrupp2003" class="citation cs2">Krupp, Edwin C. 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New York: Dover Publications Inc. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61102-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61102-0"><bdi>978-0-486-61102-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Binary+Stars&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=1964&rft.isbn=978-0-486-61102-0&rft.aulast=Aitken&rft.aufirst=Robert+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041030073611/http://maia.usno.navy.mil/women_history/history.html">"history of women"</a>. October 30, 2004. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maia.usno.navy.mil/women_history/history.html">the original</a> on October 30, 2004.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=history+of+women&rft.date=2004-10-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmaia.usno.navy.mil%2Fwomen_history%2Fhistory.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HubenyMihalas2014-99"><a href="#cite_ref-HubenyMihalas2014_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIvan_HubenyDimitri_Mihalas2014" class="citation book cs1">Ivan Hubeny; Dimitri Mihalas (26 October 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TmuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA23">Theory of Stellar Atmospheres: An Introduction to Astrophysical Non-equilibrium Quantitative Spectroscopic Analysis</a>. Princeton University Press. p. 23. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16329-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16329-1"><bdi>978-0-691-16329-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Stellar+Atmospheres%3A+An+Introduction+to+Astrophysical+Non-equilibrium+Quantitative+Spectroscopic+Analysis&rft.pages=23&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2014-10-26&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16329-1&rft.au=Ivan+Hubeny&rft.au=Dimitri+Mihalas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTmuYDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scriptamus.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/ladies-of-the-laboratory-2-how-in-a-few-months-late-in-the-19th-century-one-man-who-had-little-interest-in-gender-equality-hired-more-female-astronomers-than-the-world-had-ever-known/">"Ladies of the Laboratory 2: How in a Few Months Late in the 19th Century One Man Who Had Little Interest in Gender Equality Hired More Female Astronomers than the World Had Ever Known"</a>. December 14, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ladies+of+the+Laboratory+2%3A+How+in+a+Few+Months+Late+in+the+19th+Century+One+Man+Who+Had+Little+Interest+in+Gender+Equality+Hired+More+Female+Astronomers+than+the+World+Had+Ever+Known&rft.date=2009-12-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscriptamus.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F12%2F14%2Fladies-of-the-laboratory-2-how-in-a-few-months-late-in-the-19th-century-one-man-who-had-little-interest-in-gender-equality-hired-more-female-astronomers-than-the-world-had-ever-known%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichelsonPease1921" class="citation journal cs1">Michelson, A. A.; Pease, F. G. (1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084808">"Measurement of the diameter of Alpha Orionis with the interferometer"</a>. Astrophysical Journal. 53 (5): 249–259. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1921ApJ....53..249M">1921ApJ....53..249M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F142603">10.1086/142603</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1084808">1084808</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16586823">16586823</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21969744">21969744</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=Measurement+of+the+diameter+of+Alpha+Orionis+with+the+interferometer&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E249-%3C%2Fspan%3E259&rft.date=1921&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1084808%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21969744%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1921ApJ....53..249M&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16586823&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F142603&rft.aulast=Michelson&rft.aufirst=A.+A.&rft.au=Pease%2C+F.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1084808&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050318221903/http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Payne-Gaposchkin,_Cecilia_Helena@861234567.html">"" Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia Helena." CWP"</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Payne-Gaposchkin,_Cecilia_Helena@861234567.html">the original</a> on 2005-03-18. Retrieved 2013-02-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%22+Payne-Gaposchkin%2C+Cecilia+Helena.%22+CWP&rft.pub=University+of+California&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcwp.library.ucla.edu%2FPhase2%2FPayne-Gaposchkin%2C_Cecilia_Helena%40861234567.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-new_cosmos-103"><a href="#cite_ref-new_cosmos_103-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnsöld2001" class="citation book cs1">Unsöld, Albrecht (2001). The New Cosmos (5th ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 180–185, 215–216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67877-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67877-9"><bdi>978-3-540-67877-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Cosmos&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E180-%3C%2Fspan%3E185%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-3-540-67877-9&rft.aulast=Uns%C3%B6ld&rft.aufirst=Albrecht&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaver" class="citation web cs1">Weaver, H. F. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/rtrumpler.html">"Robert Julius Trumpler"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Academy_of_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Academy of Sciences">US National Academy of Sciences</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131224112329/http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/biomems/rtrumpler.html">Archived</a> from the original on December 24, 2013. Retrieved January 5, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Robert+Julius+Trumpler&rft.pub=US+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=H.+F.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nap.edu%2Freadingroom%2Fbooks%2Fbiomems%2Frtrumpler.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Works cited" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAveni1980" class="citation book cs1">Aveni, Anthony F. (1980). Skywatchers of Ancient Mexico. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-292-77557-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-292-77557-1"><bdi>0-292-77557-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skywatchers+of+Ancient+Mexico&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-292-77557-1&rft.aulast=Aveni&rft.aufirst=Anthony+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1998" class="citation book cs1">Evans, James (1998). The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-509539-1"><bdi>0-19-509539-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Practice+of+Ancient+Astronomy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-509539-1&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoseph2000" class="citation book cs1">Joseph, George G. (2000). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (2nd ed.). London: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-00659-8"><bdi>0-691-00659-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Crest+of+the+Peacock%3A+Non-European+Roots+of+Mathematics&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-691-00659-8&rft.aulast=Joseph&rft.aufirst=George+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCluskey1998" class="citation book cs1">McCluskey, Stephen C. (1998). Astronomies and Cultures in Early Medieval Europe. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-77852-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-77852-2"><bdi>0-521-77852-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomies+and+Cultures+in+Early+Medieval+Europe&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-77852-2&rft.aulast=McCluskey&rft.aufirst=Stephen+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Pedersen" title="Olaf Pedersen">Pedersen, Olaf</a> (1993). Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction (rev. ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40899-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-40899-7"><bdi>0-521-40899-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Physics+and+Astronomy%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.edition=rev.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-521-40899-7&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPingree1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Pingree" title="David Pingree">Pingree, David</a> (1998). "Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens". In <a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley" title="Stephanie Dalley">Dalley, Stephanie</a> (ed.). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814946-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814946-8"><bdi>0-19-814946-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Legacies+in+Astronomy+and+Celestial+Omens&rft.btitle=The+Legacy+of+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E125-%3C%2Fspan%3E137&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-19-814946-8&rft.aulast=Pingree&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRochberg2004" class="citation book cs1">Rochberg, Francesca (2004). The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture. Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heavenly+Writing%3A+Divination%2C+Horoscopy%2C+and+Astronomy+in+Mesopotamian+Culture&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Rochberg&rft.aufirst=Francesca&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson1994" class="citation book cs1">Stephenson, Bruce (1994). Kepler's Physical Astronomy. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03652-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-03652-7"><bdi>0-691-03652-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kepler%27s+Physical+Astronomy&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-691-03652-7&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Asger_Aaboe" title="Asger Aaboe">Aaboe, Asger</a> (2001). Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95136-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-387-95136-9"><bdi>0-387-95136-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Episodes+from+the+Early+History+of+Astronomy&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-387-95136-9&rft.aulast=Aaboe&rft.aufirst=Asger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Berry, Arthur (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofas025511mbp">A Brief History of Astronomy</a> – via <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Astronomy&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Berry&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshorthistoryofas025511mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._L._E._Dreyer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. L. E. Dreyer">Dreyer, J. L. E.</a> (1953) [1906]. History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Astronomy+from+Thales+to+Kepler&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1953&rft.aulast=Dreyer&rft.aufirst=J.+L.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Eastwood, Bruce (2002). The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Vol. CS 279. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-868-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-868-7"><bdi>0-86078-868-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Revival+of+Planetary+Astronomy+in+Carolingian+and+Post-Carolingian+Europe&rft.series=Variorum+Collected+Studies+Series&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-86078-868-7&rft.aulast=Eastwood&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hodson, F. R., ed. (1974). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-725944-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-725944-8"><bdi>0-19-725944-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Place+of+Astronomy+in+the+Ancient+World%3A+A+Joint+Symposium+of+the+Royal+Society+and+the+British+Academy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-19-725944-8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Hoskin, Michael (2003). The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280306-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-280306-9"><bdi>0-19-280306-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Astronomy%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-280306-9&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation arxiv cs1">Magli, Giulio (2004). "On the possible discovery of precessional effects in ancient astronomy". <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0407108">physics/0407108</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=arXiv&rft.atitle=On+the+possible+discovery+of+precessional+effects+in+ancient+astronomy&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2Fphysics%2F0407108&rft.aulast=Magli&rft.aufirst=Giulio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer" title="Otto E. Neugebauer">Neugebauer, Otto</a> (1969) [1957]. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (2 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Dover_Publications" title="Dover Publications">Dover Publications</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-22332-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-22332-2"><bdi>978-0-486-22332-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Exact+Sciences+in+Antiquity&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-486-22332-2&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Anton_Pannekoek" title="Anton Pannekoek">Pannekoek, Anton</a> (1989). A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Astronomy&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Pannekoek&rft.aufirst=Anton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">ISBN missing</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). Astronomy before the telescope. British Museum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-1746-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-7141-1746-3"><bdi>0-7141-1746-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Astronomy+before+the+telescope&rft.pub=British+Museum+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-7141-1746-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+astronomy" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_astronomy&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div><section class="mf-section-9 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class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D9%83" title="تاريخ علم الفلك – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ علم الفلك" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_l%27astronom%C3%ADa" title="Historia de l'astronomía – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia de l'astronomía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiya_tarixi" title="Astronomiya tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Astronomiya tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9E%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জ্যোতির্বিজ্ঞানের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%96" title="Гісторыя астраноміі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Гісторыя астраноміі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%82%D0%B0" title="История на астрономията – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на астрономията" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_de_l%27astronomia" title="Història de l'astronomia – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història de l'astronomia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_astronomie" title="Dějiny astronomie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny astronomie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiens_historie" title="Astronomiens historie – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Astronomiens historie" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_der_Astronomie" title="Geschichte der Astronomie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte der Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronoomia_ajalugu" title="Astronoomia ajalugu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Astronoomia ajalugu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%82_%CE%B1%CF%83%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%AF%CE%B1%CF%82" title="Ιστορία της αστρονομίας – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία της αστρονομίας" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_de_la_astronom%C3%ADa" title="Historia de la astronomía – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia de la astronomía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_la_astronomio" title="Historio de la astronomio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de la astronomio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiaren_historia" title="Astronomiaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Astronomiaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D8%AE%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="تاریخ اخترشناسی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ اخترشناسی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27astronomie" title="Histoire de l'astronomie – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'astronomie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_da_astronom%C3%ADa" title="Historia da astronomía – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Historia da astronomía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%9C%EB%AC%B8%ED%95%99%EC%82%AC" title="천문학사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="천문학사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Աստղագիտության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Աստղագիտության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="खगोलिकी का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="खगोलिकी का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_astronomije" title="Povijest astronomije – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest astronomije" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%E1%BB%A5k%E1%BB%8D_banyere_mbara_igwe" title="Akụkọ banyere mbara igwe – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Akụkọ banyere mbara igwe" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_astronomi" title="Sejarah astronomi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah astronomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_astronomia" title="Historia del astronomia – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del astronomia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_dell%27astronomia" title="Storia dell'astronomia – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia dell'astronomia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%94" title="היסטוריה של האסטרונומיה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של האסטרונומיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_astronomiae" title="Historia astronomiae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Historia astronomiae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschicht_vun_der_Astronomie" title="Geschicht vun der Astronomie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Geschicht vun der Astronomie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Историја на астрономијата – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на астрономијата" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_astronomi" title="Sejarah astronomi – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah astronomi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_de_astronomie" title="Geschiedenis van de astronomie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van de astronomie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%A6%E5%8F%B2" title="天文学史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="天文学史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomiens_historie" title="Astronomiens historie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Astronomiens historie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%BE%D9%88%D9%87%D9%86%DB%90_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_(2)" title="د ستورپوهنې تاريخ (2) – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ستورپوهنې تاريخ (2)" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_da_astronomia" title="História da astronomia – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História da astronomia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_astronomiei" title="Istoria astronomiei – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria astronomiei" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia_da_l%27astronomia" title="Istorgia da l'astronomia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Istorgia da l'astronomia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%B8" title="История астрономии – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История астрономии" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_astronomis%C3%AB" title="Historia e astronomisë – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e astronomisë" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of astronomy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_astron%C3%B3mie" title="Dejiny astronómie – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny astronómie" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B5" title="Историја астрономије – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Историја астрономије" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historija_astronomije" title="Historija astronomije – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Historija astronomije" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A4htitieteen_historia" title="Tähtitieteen historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tähtitieteen historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomins_historia" title="Astronomins historia – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Astronomins historia" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomi_tarihi" title="Astronomi tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Astronomi tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%97" title="Історія астрономії 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