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</li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Physical geography</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 83 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-83" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">83 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="جغرافيا طبيعية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جغرافيا طبيعية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भौतिक भूगोल – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="भौतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziki_co%C4%9Frafiya" title="Fiziki coğrafiya – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fiziki coğrafiya" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%83%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%82%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B2" title="প্রাকৃতিক ভূগোল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাকৃতিক ভূগোল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB-ji%C3%A2n_t%C4%93-l%C3%AD-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Chū-jiân tē-lí-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chū-jiân tē-lí-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізічная геаграфія – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Фізічная геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%B0%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізычная геаграфія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Фізычная геаграфія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भौतिक भूगोल – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="भौतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisikal_na_heograpiya" title="Pisikal na heograpiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pisikal na heograpiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физическа география – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Физическа география" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_f%C3%ADsica" title="Geografia física – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Geografia física" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%C4%83%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Физикăлла географи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Физикăлла географи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzick%C3%A1_geografie" title="Fyzická geografie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Fyzická geografie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daearyddiaeth_ffisegol" title="Daearyddiaeth ffisegol – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Daearyddiaeth ffisegol" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturgeografi" title="Naturgeografi – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Naturgeografi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physische_Geographie" title="Physische Geographie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Physische Geographie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loodusgeograafia" title="Loodusgeograafia – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Loodusgeograafia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%B5%CF%89%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φυσική γεωγραφία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φυσική γεωγραφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geograf%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Geografía física – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Geografía física" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizika_geografio" title="Fizika geografio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Fizika geografio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_fisiko" title="Geografia fisiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Geografia fisiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C" title="جغرافیای طبیعی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جغرافیای طبیعی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9ographie_physique" title="Géographie physique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Géographie physique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%ADreola%C3%ADocht_fhisiceach" title="Tíreolaíocht fhisiceach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tíreolaíocht fhisiceach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeograf%C3%ADa_f%C3%ADsica" title="Xeografía física – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xeografía física" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9E%90%EC%97%B0%EC%A7%80%EB%A6%AC%ED%95%99" title="자연지리학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="자연지리학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A1%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%A3%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ֆիզիկական աշխարհագրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆիզիկական աշխարհագրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भौतिक भूगोल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="भौतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizi%C4%8Dka_geografija" title="Fizička geografija – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Fizička geografija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi_fisik" title="Geografi fisik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Geografi fisik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia_physic" title="Geographia physic – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Geographia physic" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_fisica" title="Geografia fisica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Geografia fisica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%96%D7%99%D7%AA" title="גאוגרפיה פיזית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="גאוגרפיה פיזית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფიზიკური გეოგრაფია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფიზიკური გეოგრაფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физикалық география – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Физикалық география" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физикалык география – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Физикалык география" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographia_physica" title="Geographia physica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Geographia physica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizisk%C4%81_%C4%A3eogr%C4%81fija" title="Fiziskā ģeogrāfija – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Fiziskā ģeogrāfija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physesch_Geographie" title="Physesch Geographie – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Physesch Geographie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizin%C4%97_geografija" title="Fizinė geografija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Fizinė geografija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भौतिक भूगोल – Maithili" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="भौतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="Maithili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физичка географија – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Физичка географија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="प्राकृतिक भूगोल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्राकृतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografi_fizikal" title="Geografi fizikal – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Geografi fizikal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA_%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%B7%D2%AF%D0%B9" title="Физик газар зүй – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Физик газар зүй" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9B%E1%80%B0%E1%80%95_%E1%80%95%E1%80%91%E1%80%9D%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA" title="ရူပ ပထဝီဝင် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ရူပ ပထဝီဝင်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysische_geografie" title="Fysische geografie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Fysische geografie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B2" title="भौतिक भूगोल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="भौतिक भूगोल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="自然地理学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="自然地理学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysisk_geografi" title="Fysisk geografi – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Fysisk geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysisk_geografi" title="Fysisk geografi – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Fysisk geografi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_fisica" title="Geografia fisica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Geografia fisica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tabiiy_geografiya" title="Tabiiy geografiya – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Tabiiy geografiya" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%82%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%B2" title="ਭੌਤਿਕ ਭੂਗੋਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੌਤਿਕ ਭੂਗੋਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="طبیعی جغرافیا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="طبیعی جغرافیا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B2%DB%8C%DA%A9%D9%8A_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%87" title="فزیکي جغرافیه – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فزیکي جغرافیه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_fizyczna" title="Geografia fizyczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Geografia fizyczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografia_f%C3%ADsica" title="Geografia física – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Geografia física" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1biyiy_geografiya" title="Tábiyiy geografiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Tábiyiy geografiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geografie_fizic%C4%83" title="Geografie fizică – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Geografie fizică" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Физическая география – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Физическая география" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geografie" title="Physical geografie – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Physical geografie" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjeografia_fizike" title="Gjeografia fizike – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjeografia fizike" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giugraf%C3%ACa_f%C3%ACsica" title="Giugrafìa fìsica – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Giugrafìa fìsica" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_geography" title="Physical geography – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Physical geography" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyzick%C3%A1_geografia" title="Fyzická geografia – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Fyzická geografia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizi%C4%8Dna_geografija" title="Fizična geografija – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Fizična geografija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Физичка географија – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Физичка географија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fizi%C4%8Dka_geografija" title="Fizička geografija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Fizička geografija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fyysinen_maantiede" title="Fyysinen maantiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Fyysinen maantiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysisk_geografi" title="Fysisk geografi – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Fysisk geografi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heograpiyang_pisikal" title="Heograpiyang pisikal – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Heograpiyang pisikal" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="இயற்கைப் புவியியல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="இயற்கைப் புவியியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E" title="ภูมิศาสตร์กายภาพ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภูมิศาสตร์กายภาพ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiziki_co%C4%9Frafya" title="Fiziki coğrafya – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Fiziki coğrafya" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Фізична географія – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Фізична географія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B9%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D8%BA%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%81%DB%8C%DB%81" title="طبیعی جغرافیہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="طبیعی جغرافیہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BB%8Ba_l%C3%BD_t%E1%BB%B1_nhi%C3%AAn" title="Địa lý tự nhiên – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Địa lý tự nhiên" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyograpiya_pisikal" title="Heyograpiya pisikal – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Heyograpiya pisikal" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%A6" title="自然地理学 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="自然地理学" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86" title="自然地理 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="自然地理" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fysische_geografie" title="Fysische geografie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Fysische geografie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%84%B6%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="自然地理學 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="自然地理學" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q52107#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div 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natural environment</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the academic discipline. For the peer-reviewed journal, see <a href="/wiki/Physical_Geography_(journal)" title="Physical Geography (journal)">Physical Geography (journal)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Physiography" redirects here. The term may also refer to <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg/300px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg/450px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg/600px-Land_ocean_ice_cloud_1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption>NASA true-color image of the Earth's surface and atmosphere.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum,_by_Abraham_Ortelius,_World,_1572.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/175px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="119" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/263px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg/350px-Theatrum_Orbis_Terrarum%2C_by_Abraham_Ortelius%2C_World%2C_1572.jpg 2x" data-file-width="12136" data-file-height="8263" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History of geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography#Greco-Roman_world" title="History of geography">Graeco-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese cartography">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cartography" title="History of cartography">History of cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">Environmental determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">Quantitative revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical geography</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a>/ <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedology_(soil_study)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedology (soil study)">Pedology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><b>Fields</b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Methods</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Map_algebra" title="Map algebra">Map algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participant_observation" title="Participant observation">Participant observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogrammetry" title="Photogrammetry">Photogrammetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote Sensing">Remote Sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Statistical survey">Statistical survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">Surveying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li></ul> <table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Qualitative_geography" title="Qualitative geography">Qualitative</a></th></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopoetics" title="Geopoetics">Geopoetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview_(research)" title="Interview (research)">Interview (research)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey (human research)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Theoretical Approaches</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align:center;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_geography" title="Marxist geography">Marxist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-representational_theory" title="Non-representational theory">Non-representational theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">Semiotics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; padding-top: 0.5em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographical_societies" title="List of geographical societies">Societies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">Geographers</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_sidebar" title="Template talk:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Physical geography</b> (also known as <b>physiography</b>) is one of the three main branches of <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-intro1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physical geography is the branch of <a href="/wiki/Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural science</a> which deals with the processes and patterns in the <a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">natural environment</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biosphere" title="Biosphere">biosphere</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geosphere" title="Geosphere">geosphere</a>. This focus is in contrast with the branch of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geography</a>, which focuses on the <a href="/wiki/Built_environment" title="Built environment">built environment</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">technical geography</a>, which focuses on using, studying, and creating tools to obtain, analyze, interpret, and understand spatial information.<sup id="cite_ref-intro1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-intro1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Haidu1_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haidu1-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dada1_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dada1-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The three branches have significant overlap, however. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sub-branches">Sub-branches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Sub-branches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/100px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="59" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/150px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg/200px-Delicate_Arch_LaSalle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="1812" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">natural arch</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Physical geography can be divided into several branches or related fields, as follows: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNR_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is concerned with understanding the <a href="/wiki/Lithosphere" title="Lithosphere">surface</a> of the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present as well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields that deal with the specific <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landforms</a> of various environments, e.g. <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">desert</a> geomorphology and <a href="/wiki/Fluvial" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluvial">fluvial</a> geomorphology; however, these sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them, mainly tectonic or climatic processes. Geomorphology seeks to understand <a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">landform</a> history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling (<a href="/wiki/Geomorphometry" title="Geomorphometry">Geomorphometry</a>). Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of <a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">soil science</a>.</li></ul> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meander-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/100px-Meander-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/150px-Meander-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Meander-en.svg/200px-Meander-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Meander" title="Meander">Meander</a> formation.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNR_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is predominantly concerned with the amounts and quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the <a href="/wiki/Hydrological_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrological cycle">hydrological cycle</a>. Thus the field encompasses water in <a href="/wiki/River" title="River">rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lake" title="Lake">lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifers</a> and to an extent <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a>, in which the field examines the process and dynamics involved in these bodies of water. Hydrology has historically had an important connection with <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and has thus developed a largely quantitative method in its research; however, it does have an <a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">earth science</a> side that embraces the systems approach. Similar to most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres e.g. <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">limnology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">ecohydrology</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></b> is the study of <a href="/wiki/Glacier" title="Glacier">glaciers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ice_sheets" class="mw-redirect" title="Ice sheets">ice sheets</a>, or more commonly the <a href="/wiki/Cryosphere" title="Cryosphere">cryosphere</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a> and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former (glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although research in the areas is similar to research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers, the former tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers e.g. <a href="/wiki/Snow" title="Snow">snow</a> hydrology and <a href="/wiki/Glacial_geology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glacial geology">glacial geology</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNR_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the science which deals with geographic patterns of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns. Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a>, although the field prior to the late twentieth century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and descriptive in its approach. The main stimulus for the field since its founding has been that of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a> and the theory of island biogeography. The field can largely be divided into five sub-fields: <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a>, paleobiogeography, <a href="/wiki/Phylogeography" title="Phylogeography">phylogeography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">zoogeography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">phytogeography</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-UNR_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the study of the <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a>, scientifically defined as weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. Climatology examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates and the natural and <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthropogenic" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:anthropogenic">anthropogenic</a> influences on them. The field is also sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study of specific phenomena or time periods e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclone_rainfall_climatology" title="Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology">tropical cyclone rainfall climatology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a>.</li> <li><b>Soil geography</b> deals with the distribution of soils across the <a href="/wiki/Terrain" title="Terrain">terrain</a>. This discipline, between geography and soil science, is fundamental to both physical geography and <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">pedology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment. It deals with <a href="/wiki/Pedogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedogenesis">pedogenesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_morphology" title="Soil morphology">soil morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soil_classification" title="Soil classification">soil classification</a>. Soil geography studies the spatial distribution of soils as it relates to <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topography</a>, climate (water, air, temperature), <a href="/wiki/Soil_life" class="mw-redirect" title="Soil life">soil life</a> (micro-organisms, plants, animals) and mineral materials within soils (<a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycles</a>).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a cross-disciplinary study that examines the preserved material in the stratigraphic record to determine the distribution of the continents through geologic time. Almost all the evidence for the positions of the continents comes from <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> or <a href="/wiki/Paleomagnetism" title="Paleomagnetism">paleomagnetism</a>. The use of these data has resulted in evidence for <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Supercontinents" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercontinents">supercontinents</a>. This, in turn, has supported palaeogeographic theories such as the <a href="/wiki/Wilson_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilson cycle">Wilson cycle</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></b> is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e. coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of coastal <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathering</a> processes, particularly wave action, sediment movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans interact with the coast. Coastal geography, although predominantly geomorphological in its research, is not just concerned with coastal landforms, but also the causes and influences of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea level change">sea level change</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-DCL_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the branch of physical geography that studies the Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (<a href="/wiki/Biological_oceanography" title="Biological oceanography">biological oceanography</a>); ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (<a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">physical oceanography</a>); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor (<a href="/wiki/Geological_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological oceanography">geological oceanography</a>); and fluxes of various chemical substances and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries (<a href="/wiki/Chemical_oceanography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical oceanography">chemical oceanography</a>). These diverse topics reflect multiple disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the world ocean and understanding of processes within it.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-UNR_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is an interdisciplinary field of study focusing on the <a href="/wiki/Quaternary" title="Quaternary">Quaternary</a> period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years. The field studies the last ice age and the recent <a href="/wiki/Interstadial" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstadial">interstadial</a> the <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> and uses proxy evidence to reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the climatic and environmental changes that have occurred.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></b> is a sub-discipline of <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecology</a> and geography that address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials, and individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows). The field was largely funded by the German geographer <a href="/wiki/Carl_Troll" title="Carl Troll">Carl Troll</a>. Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and holistic context. The main difference between biogeography and landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species and chemical cycles.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></b> is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic information, or spatially referenced information. Geomatics includes <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a> (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and polar motion), <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">geographical information science (GIS)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> (the short or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording or real-time sensing devices that are not in physical or intimate contact with the object).</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Environmental_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental geography">Environmental geography</a></b> is a branch of geography that analyzes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment. Although the branch was previously more visible in research than at present with theories such as <a href="/wiki/Environmental_determinism" title="Environmental determinism">environmental determinism</a> linking society with the environment. It has largely become the domain of the study of environmental management or anthropogenic influences.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Journals_and_literature">Journals and literature</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Journals and literature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Main category:</i> <a href="/wiki/Category:Geography_journals" title="Category:Geography journals">Geography Journals</a> </p><p>Mental geography and earth science journals communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions. Most journals cover a specific publish the research within that field, however unlike human geographers, physical geographers tend to publish in inter-disciplinary journals rather than predominantly geography journal; the research is normally expressed in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a>. Additionally, textbooks, books, and communicate research to laypeople, although these tend to focus on <a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">environmental issues</a> or cultural dilemmas. Examples of journals that publish articles from physical geographers are: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Bulletin_of_the_American_Meteorological_Society" title="Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society">Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Climatic_Change" class="mw-redirect" title="Climatic Change">Climatic Change</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Earth_Interactions" title="Earth Interactions">Earth Interactions</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Earth_Surface_Processes_and_Landforms" title="Earth Surface Processes and Landforms">Earth Surface Processes and Landforms</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geographia_Technica" title="Geographia Technica">Geographia Technica</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geographical_Bulletin" title="Geographical Bulletin">Geographical Bulletin</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology_(journal)" title="Geomorphology (journal)">Geomorphology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Geophysical_Research_Letters" title="Geophysical Research Letters">Geophysical Research Letters</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Climate" title="Journal of Climate">Journal of Climate</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Coastal_Research" title="Journal of Coastal Research">Journal of Coastal Research</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Biogeography" title="Journal of Biogeography">Journal of Biogeography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Geography_and_Geology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Geography and Geology (page does not exist)">Journal of Geography and Geology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Geocryology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Geocryology (page does not exist)">Journal of Geocryology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Glaciology" class="mw-redirect" title="Journal of Glaciology">Journal of Glaciology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Hydrology" title="Journal of Hydrology">Journal of Hydrology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Hydrometeorology" title="Journal of Hydrometeorology">Journal of Hydrometeorology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Maps" title="Journal of Maps">Journal of Maps</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Quaternary_Science" title="Journal of Quaternary Science">Journal of Quaternary Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Landscape_Ecology_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Landscape Ecology (journal) (page does not exist)">Landscape Ecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Natural_Hazards_and_Earth_System_Sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences">Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography,_Palaeoclimatology,_Palaeoecology" title="Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology">Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Polar_Research_(journal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polar Research (journal)">Polar Research</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Progress_in_Physical_Geography" title="Progress in Physical Geography">Progress in Physical Geography</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Remote_Sensing_of_Environment" title="Remote Sensing of Environment">Remote Sensing of Environment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sedimentology_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sedimentology (journal) (page does not exist)">Sedimentology</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Soil_Science_(journal)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Soil Science (journal) (page does not exist)">Soil Science</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Professional_Geographer" title="The Professional Geographer">The Professional Geographer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Transactions_of_the_Institute_of_British_Geographers" title="Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers">Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers</a></i></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_evolution_of_the_discipline">Historical evolution of the discipline</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Historical evolution of the discipline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the birth of geography as a science during the Greek classical period and until the late nineteenth century with the birth of <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">anthropogeography</a> (human geography), geography was almost exclusively a natural science: the study of location and descriptive gazetteer of all places of the known world. Several works among the best known during this long period could be cited as an example, from <a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a> (<i>Geography</i>), <a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (<i>Geographika</i>) or <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Periegetes" title="Dionysius Periegetes">Dionysius Periegetes</a> (<i>Periegesis Oiceumene</i>) in the Ancient Age. In more modern times, these works include the <a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (<i>Kosmos</i>) in the nineteenth century, in which geography is regarded as a physical and natural science through the work <i><a href="/wiki/Suma_de_Geographia" title="Suma de Geographia">Summa de Geografía</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Mart%C3%ADn_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Enciso" title="Martín Fernández de Enciso">Martín Fernández de Enciso</a> from the early sixteenth century, which indicated for the first time the New World. </p><p>During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a controversy exported from geology, between supporters of <a href="/wiki/James_Hutton" title="James Hutton">James Hutton</a> (uniformitarianism thesis) and <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a> (catastrophism) strongly influenced the field of geography, because geography at this time was a natural science. </p><p>Two historical events during the nineteenth century had a great effect on the further development of physical geography. The first was the European colonial expansion in <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> and even <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">America</a> in search of raw materials required by industries during the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>. This fostered the creation of geography departments in the universities of the colonial powers and the birth and development of national geographical societies, thus giving rise to the process identified by Horacio Capel as the institutionalization of geography. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Exploration_of_Siberia" class="mw-redirect" title="Exploration of Siberia">exploration of Siberia</a> is an example. In the mid-eighteenth century, many geographers were sent to perform geographical surveys in the area of Arctic <a href="/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a>. Among these is who is considered the patriarch of Russian geography, <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a>. In the mid-1750s Lomonosov began working in the Department of Geography, Academy of Sciences to conduct research in Siberia. They showed the organic origin of soil and developed a comprehensive law on the movement of the ice, thereby founding a new branch of geography: <a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">glaciology</a>. In 1755 on his initiative was founded <a href="/wiki/Moscow_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Moscow University">Moscow University</a> where he promoted the study of geography and the training of geographers. In 1758 he was appointed director of the Department of Geography, Academy of Sciences, a post from which would develop a working methodology for geographical survey guided by the most important long expeditions and geographical studies in Russia. </p><p>The contributions of the Russian school became more frequent through his disciples, and in the nineteenth century we have great geographers such as <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Dokuchaev" title="Vasily Dokuchaev">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> who performed works of great importance as a "principle of comprehensive analysis of the territory" and "Russian <a href="/wiki/Chernozem" title="Chernozem">Chernozem</a>". In the latter, he introduced the geographical concept of soil, as distinct from a simple geological stratum, and thus found a new geographic area of study: <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">pedology</a>. Climatology also received a strong boost from the Russian school by <a href="/wiki/Wladimir_K%C3%B6ppen" title="Wladimir Köppen">Wladimir Köppen</a> whose main contribution, climate classification, is still valid today. However, this great geographer also contributed to the paleogeography through his work "The climates of the geological past" which is considered the father of <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">paleoclimatology</a>. Russian geographers who made great contributions to the discipline in this period were: <a href="/w/index.php?title=NM_Sibirtsev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="NM Sibirtsev (page does not exist)">NM Sibirtsev</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pyotr_Semyonov" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyotr Semyonov">Pyotr Semyonov</a>, <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Glinka" title="Konstantin Glinka">K.D. Glinka</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neustrayev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neustrayev (page does not exist)">Neustrayev</a>, among others. </p><p>The second important process is the theory of evolution by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin</a> in mid-century (which decisively influenced the work of <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Ratzel" title="Friedrich Ratzel">Friedrich Ratzel</a>, who had academic training as a zoologist and was a follower of Darwin's ideas) which meant an important impetus in the development of Biogeography. </p><p>Another major event in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries took place in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. <a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a> not only made important contributions to the establishment of discipline in his country but revolutionized the field to develop <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a> theory which he proposed as a paradigm for geography in general, although in actually served as a paradigm for physical geography. His theory explained that mountains and other landforms are shaped by factors that are manifested cyclically. He explained that the cycle begins with the lifting of the relief by geological processes (faults, volcanism, tectonic upheaval, etc.). Factors such as rivers and runoff begin to create V-shaped valleys between the mountains (the stage called "youth"). During this first stage, the terrain is steeper and more irregular. Over time, the currents can carve wider valleys ("maturity") and then start to wind, towering hills only ("senescence"). Finally, everything comes to what is a plain flat plain at the lowest elevation possible (called "baseline") This plain was called by Davis' "<a href="/wiki/Peneplain" title="Peneplain">peneplain</a>" meaning "almost plain" Then <a href="/wiki/River_rejuvenation" title="River rejuvenation">river rejuvenation</a> occurs and there is another mountain lift and the cycle continues. </p><p>Although Davis's theory is not entirely accurate, it was absolutely revolutionary and unique in its time and helped to modernize and create a geography subfield of <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>. Its implications prompted a myriad of research in various branches of physical geography. In the case of the Paleogeography, this theory provided a model for understanding the evolution of the landscape. For hydrology, glaciology, and climatology as a boost investigated as studying geographic factors shape the landscape and affect the cycle. The bulk of the work of William Morris Davis led to the development of a new branch of physical geography: Geomorphology whose contents until then did not differ from the rest of geography. Shortly after this branch would present a major development. Some of his disciples made significant contributions to various branches of physical geography such as <a href="/wiki/Curtis_Marbut" class="mw-redirect" title="Curtis Marbut">Curtis Marbut</a> and his invaluable legacy for Pedology, <a href="/wiki/Mark_Jefferson_(geographer)" title="Mark Jefferson (geographer)">Mark Jefferson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Bowman" title="Isaiah Bowman">Isaiah Bowman</a>, among others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_physical_geographers">Notable physical geographers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Notable physical geographers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_geographers" title="List of geographers">List of geographers</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg/170px-Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg/255px-Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg/340px-Alexander_von_Humboldt-selfportrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2705" data-file-height="3525" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a>, considered to be the founding father of physical geography.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (276 – 194 BC) who invented the discipline of geography.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He made the first known reliable estimation of the Earth's size.<sup id="cite_ref-Eratosthenes_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eratosthenes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is considered the father of mathematical geography and <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Eratosthenes_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Eratosthenes-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/circa" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:circa">c.</a> 90 – c. 168), who compiled Greek and Roman knowledge to produce the book <i><a href="/wiki/Geography_(Ptolemy)" title="Geography (Ptolemy)">Geographia</a></i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_Rayh%C4%81n_B%C4%ABr%C5%ABn%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī">Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī</a> (973 – 1048 AD), considered the father of <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ahmed_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ahmed-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag needs to be fact-checked with the cited source(s). (September 2010)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (Avicenna, 980–1037), who formulated the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_superposition" title="Law of superposition">law of superposition</a> and concept of <a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism_(science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Uniformitarianism (science)">uniformitarianism</a> in <i>Kitāb al-Šifāʾ</i> (also called <i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a>)</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> (Dreses, 1100 – <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1165</span>), who drew the <i><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Rogeriana" title="Tabula Rogeriana">Tabula Rogeriana</a></i>, the most accurate world map in pre-modern times.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis" title="Piri Reis">Piri Reis</a> (1465 – c. 1554), whose <a href="/wiki/Piri_Reis_map" title="Piri Reis map">Piri Reis map</a> is the oldest surviving world map to include the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and possibly <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerardus_Mercator" title="Gerardus Mercator">Gerardus Mercator</a> (1512–1594), an innovative <a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">cartographer</a> and originator of the <a href="/wiki/Mercator_projection" title="Mercator projection">Mercator projection</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernhardus_Varenius" title="Bernhardus Varenius">Bernhardus Varenius</a> (1622–1650), Wrote his important work "General Geography" (1650), first overview of the geography, the foundation of modern geography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Lomonosov" title="Mikhail Lomonosov">Mikhail Lomonosov</a> (1711–1765), father of Russian geography and founded the study of glaciology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_von_Humboldt" title="Alexander von Humboldt">Alexander von Humboldt</a> (1769–1859), considered the father of modern geography. Published <i><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_(Humboldt)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmos (Humboldt)">Cosmos</a></i> and founded the study of biogeography.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arnold_Henry_Guyot" title="Arnold Henry Guyot">Arnold Henry Guyot</a> (1807–1884), who noted the structure of glaciers and advanced the understanding of glacial motion, especially in fast ice flow.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Agassiz" title="Louis Agassiz">Louis Agassiz</a> (1807–1873), the author of a glacial theory which disputed the notion of a steady-cooling Earth.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1823–1913), founder of modern biogeography and the <a href="/wiki/Wallace_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Wallace line">Wallace line</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasily_Dokuchaev" title="Vasily Dokuchaev">Vasily Dokuchaev</a> (1840–1903), patriarch of Russian geography and founder of pedology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wladimir_Peter_K%C3%B6ppen" class="mw-redirect" title="Wladimir Peter Köppen">Wladimir Peter Köppen</a> (1846–1940), developer of most important climate classification and founder of Paleoclimatology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Morris_Davis" title="William Morris Davis">William Morris Davis</a> (1850–1934), father of American geography, founder of Geomorphology and developer of the geographical cycle theory.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Francon_Williams" title="John Francon Williams">John Francon Williams</a> <a href="/wiki/FRGS" class="mw-redirect" title="FRGS">FRGS</a> (1854-1911), wrote his seminal work <i>Geography of the Oceans</i> published in 1881.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walther_Penck" title="Walther Penck">Walther Penck</a> (1888–1923), proponent of the <a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_erosion" title="Cycle of erosion">cycle of erosion</a> and the simultaneous occurrence of <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Denudation" title="Denudation">denudation</a>.</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Shackleton" title="Ernest Shackleton">Ernest Shackleton</a> (1874–1922), Antarctic explorer during the <a href="/wiki/Heroic_Age_of_Antarctic_Exploration" title="Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration">Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Horton" title="Robert E. Horton">Robert E. Horton</a> (1875–1945), founder of modern hydrology and concepts such as <a href="/wiki/Infiltration_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Infiltration capacity">infiltration capacity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Overland_flow" class="mw-redirect" title="Overland flow">overland flow</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J_Harlen_Bretz" title="J Harlen Bretz">J Harlen Bretz</a> (1882–1981), pioneer of research into the shaping of landscapes by catastrophic floods, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Missoula_Floods" class="mw-redirect" title="Missoula Floods">Bretz (Missoula) floods</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Garc%C3%ADa_S%C3%A1inz" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis García Sáinz">Luis García Sáinz</a> (1894–1965), pioneer of physical geography in Spain.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willi_Dansgaard" title="Willi Dansgaard">Willi Dansgaard</a> (1922–2011), <a href="/wiki/Palaeoclimatologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeoclimatologist">palaeoclimatologist</a> and quaternary scientist, instrumental in the use of oxygen-isotope dating and co-identifier of <a href="/wiki/Dansgaard-Oeschger_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Dansgaard-Oeschger event">Dansgaard-Oeschger events</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Oeschger" title="Hans Oeschger">Hans Oeschger</a> (1927–1998), palaeoclimatologist and pioneer in ice core research, co-identifier of Dansgaard-Orschger events.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Chorley" title="Richard Chorley">Richard Chorley</a> (1927–2002), a key contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Quantitative_revolution" title="Quantitative revolution">quantitative revolution</a> and the use of <a href="/wiki/Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> in geography.</li> <li>Sir <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Shackleton" title="Nicholas Shackleton">Nicholas Shackleton</a> (1937–2006), who demonstrated that oscillations in climate over the past few million years could be correlated with variations in the orbital and positional relationship between the Earth and the Sun.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Physical_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline of geography § Physical geography</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Areography" title="Areography">Areography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concepts_and_Techniques_in_Modern_Geography" title="Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography">Concepts and Techniques in Modern Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_science" title="Planetary science">Planetary science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiographic_regions_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiographic regions of the world">Physiographic regions of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selenography" title="Selenography">Selenography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical geography</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/1b.html">"1(b). Elements of Geography"</a>. <i>www.physicalgeography.net</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.physicalgeography.net&rft.atitle=1%28b%29.+Elements+of+Geography&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net%2Ffundamentals%2F1b.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPidwirnyJones1999–2015" class="citation web cs1">Pidwirny, Michael; Jones, Scott (1999–2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net">"Physical Geography"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Physical+Geography&rft.date=1999%2F2015&rft.aulast=Pidwirny&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft.au=Jones%2C+Scott&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.physicalgeography.net&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshKaufman2013" class="citation book cs1">Marsh, William M.; Kaufman, Martin M. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uF3aJSC20yMC&q=physical+geography+system"><i>Physical Geography: Great Systems and Global Environments</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521764285" title="Special:BookSources/9780521764285"><bdi>9780521764285</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Geography%3A+Great+Systems+and+Global+Environments&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780521764285&rft.aulast=Marsh&rft.aufirst=William+M.&rft.au=Kaufman%2C+Martin+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuF3aJSC20yMC%26q%3Dphysical%2Bgeography%2Bsystem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-intro1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-intro1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDahlmanRenwick2014" class="citation book cs1">Dahlman, Carl; Renwick, William (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pearson.com/store/en-us/pearsonplus/p/9780137504510.html?creative=545445680380&keyword=&matchtype=&network=g&device=c&gclid=CjwKCAjwpKyYBhB7EiwAU2Hn2QPXxmu7Nqnx04A__xcaDqM3GuPh2cbR2wI7G7ihOs2cQpV7CUFAxxoCzLEQAvD_BwE&gclsrc=aw.ds"><i>Introduction to Geography: People, Places & Environment</i></a> (6 ed.). Pearson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780137504510" title="Special:BookSources/9780137504510"><bdi>9780137504510</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Geography%3A+People%2C+Places+%26+Environment&rft.edition=6&rft.pub=Pearson&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780137504510&rft.aulast=Dahlman&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Renwick%2C+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pearson.com%2Fstore%2Fen-us%2Fpearsonplus%2Fp%2F9780137504510.html%3Fcreative%3D545445680380%26keyword%3D%26matchtype%3D%26network%3Dg%26device%3Dc%26gclid%3DCjwKCAjwpKyYBhB7EiwAU2Hn2QPXxmu7Nqnx04A__xcaDqM3GuPh2cbR2wI7G7ihOs2cQpV7CUFAxxoCzLEQAvD_BwE%26gclsrc%3Daw.ds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haidu1-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haidu1_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaidu2016" class="citation journal cs1">Haidu, Ionel (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://technicalgeography.org/pdf/1_2016/01_haidu.pdf">"What is Technical Geography"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Geographia Technica</i>. <b>11</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.21163%2FGT_2016.111.01">10.21163/GT_2016.111.01</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220119112718/http://www.technicalgeography.org/pdf/1_2016/01_haidu.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 19 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 July</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Geographia+Technica&rft.atitle=What+is+Technical+Geography&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E5&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.21163%2FGT_2016.111.01&rft.aulast=Haidu&rft.aufirst=Ionel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftechnicalgeography.org%2Fpdf%2F1_2016%2F01_haidu.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dada1-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dada1_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDada2022" class="citation journal cs1">Dada, Anup (December 2022). "The Process of Geomorphology Related to Sub Branches of Physical Geography". <i>Black Sea Journal of Scientific Research</i>. <b>59</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36962%2FGBSSJAR%2F59.3.004">10.36962/GBSSJAR/59.3.004</a> (inactive 1 November 2024).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Black+Sea+Journal+of+Scientific+Research&rft.atitle=The+Process+of+Geomorphology+Related+to+Sub+Branches+of+Physical+Geography&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.date=2022-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.36962%2FGBSSJAR%2F59.3.004&rft.aulast=Dada&rft.aufirst=Anup&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DCL-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DCL_7-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchguides.dartmouth.edu/physical_geography">"Physical Geography: Defining Physical Geography"</a>. <i>Dartmouth College Library</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-11-18</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dartmouth+College+Library&rft.atitle=Physical+Geography%3A+Defining+Physical+Geography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fresearchguides.dartmouth.edu%2Fphysical_geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-UNR-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-UNR_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNR_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNR_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNR_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-UNR_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unr.edu/geography/department-specialties/physical-geography">"Physical Geography"</a>. <i>University of Nevada, Reno</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=University+of+Nevada%2C+Reno&rft.atitle=Physical+Geography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unr.edu%2Fgeography%2Fdepartment-specialties%2Fphysical-geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.civilserviceindia.com/subject/General-Studies/notes/images/social-science.png">"Subdisciplines of Geography"</a>. <i>Civil Service India</i> (PNG). <q>Soils Geography lies between Physical Geography and Pedology</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Civil+Service+India&rft.atitle=Subdisciplines+of+Geography&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.civilserviceindia.com%2Fsubject%2FGeneral-Studies%2Fnotes%2Fimages%2Fsocial-science.png&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBridges1981" class="citation journal cs1">Bridges, E. M. (1981). "Soil geography: a subject transformed". <i>Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment</i>. <b>5</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">398–</span>407. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981PrPG....5..398B">1981PrPG....5..398B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F030913338100500303">10.1177/030913338100500303</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131268490">131268490</a>. <q>(Soil geography) is a branch of study which lies between geography and soil science and is to be found as a fundamental part of both subjects (Bridges and Davidson, 1981)</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Progress+in+Physical+Geography%3A+Earth+and+Environment&rft.atitle=Soil+geography%3A+a+subject+transformed&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E398-%3C%2Fspan%3E407&rft.date=1981&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A131268490%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F030913338100500303&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981PrPG....5..398B&rft.aulast=Bridges&rft.aufirst=E.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDegórski2004" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Degórski, Marek (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rcin.org.pl/igipz/Content/71/z3_2004.pdf">"Geografia gleb jako dyscyplina flzycznogeograficzna"</a> [Soil geography as a physical geography discipline] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Przeglad Geograficzny</i> (in Polish). <b>76</b>. Warsaw: Institute of Geography and Spatial Organization PAS: <span class="nowrap">271–</span>288. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0033-2143">0033-2143</a> – via RCIN. <q>soil geography may be defined as a scientific discipline - within both geography and soil science - that deals with the distribution of soils across the Earth's surface</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Przeglad+Geograficzny&rft.atitle=Geografia+gleb+jako+dyscyplina+flzycznogeograficzna&rft.volume=76&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E271-%3C%2Fspan%3E288&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0033-2143&rft.aulast=Deg%C3%B3rski&rft.aufirst=Marek&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frcin.org.pl%2Figipz%2FContent%2F71%2Fz3_2004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM._Degórski2004" class="citation web cs1">M. Degórski (January 2004). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285924145">"Soil geography as a physical geography discipline"</a></span>. <i>ResearchGate</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ResearchGate&rft.atitle=Soil+geography+as+a+physical+geography+discipline&rft.date=2004-01&rft.au=M.+Deg%C3%B3rski&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F285924145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEratosthenes2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a> (2010). <i>Eratosthenes' "Geography"</i>. Fragments collected and translated, with commentary and additional material by Duane W. Roller. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14267-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-14267-8"><bdi>978-0-691-14267-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eratosthenes%27+%22Geography%22&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-691-14267-8&rft.au=Eratosthenes&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eratosthenes-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eratosthenes_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eratosthenes_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Avraham Ariel, Nora Ariel Berger (2006)."<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2xTJt3b3SHUC&pg=PA12">Plotting the globe: stories of meridians, parallels, and the international</a></i>". <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Publishing_Group" title="Greenwood Publishing Group">Greenwood Publishing Group</a>. p.12. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-98895-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-275-98895-3">0-275-98895-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jennifer Fandel (2006)."<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kRp7R_WnAiEC&pg=PA4">The Metric System</a></i>". The Creative Company. p. 4. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58341-430-4" title="Special:BookSources/1-58341-430-4">1-58341-430-4</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ahmed-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ahmed_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", <i>RAIN</i> <b>60</b>, pp. 9–10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", <i>Cooperation South Journal</i> <b>1</b>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scott_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S. P. Scott (1904), <i>History of the Moorish Empire</i>, pp. 461–2: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The compilation of Edrisi marks an era in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">history of science</a>. Not only is its historical information most interesting and valuable, but its descriptions of many parts of the earth are still authoritative. For three centuries geographers copied his maps without alteration. The relative position of the lakes which form the Nile, as delineated in his work, does not differ greatly from that established by <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Baker" title="Samuel Baker">Baker</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley" title="Henry Morton Stanley">Stanley</a> more than seven hundred years afterward, and their number is the same.</p></blockquote></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolden2004" class="citation book cs1">Holden, Joseph. (2004). <i>Introduction to Physical Geography and the Environment</i>. Prentice-Hall, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Physical+Geography+and+the+Environment&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall%2C+London&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Holden&rft.aufirst=Joseph.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInkpen2004" class="citation book cs1">Inkpen, Robert. (2004). <i>Science, Philosophy and Physical Geography</i>. Routledge, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science%2C+Philosophy+and+Physical+Geography&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+London&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Inkpen&rft.aufirst=Robert.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). <i>Glossary of Terms for Physical Geography.</i> Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780987702906" title="Special:BookSources/9780987702906">9780987702906</a>. Available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Michael_Pidwirny_Glossary_of_Terms_for_Physical_Ge?id=jQoIBAAAQBAJ">Google Play</a>.</li> <li>Pidwirny, Michael. (2014). <i>Understanding Physical Geography.</i> Planet Earth Publishing, Kelowna, Canada. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780987702944" title="Special:BookSources/9780987702944">9780987702944</a>. Available on <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/store/search?q=Pidwirny">Google Play</a>.</li> <li>Reynolds, Stephen J. et al. (2015). <i>Exploring Physical Geography.</i> [A Visual Textbook, Featuring more than 2500 Photographies & Illustrations]. McGraw-Hill Education, New York. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-809516-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-809516-0">978-0-07-809516-0</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmithson2002" class="citation book cs1">Smithson, Peter; et al. (2002). <i>Fundamentals of the Physical Environment</i>. Routledge, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+the+Physical+Environment&rft.pub=Routledge%2C+London&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Smithson&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrahlerStrahler_Arthur.2006" class="citation book cs1">Strahler, Alan; Strahler Arthur. (2006). <i>Introducing Physical Geography</i>. Wiley, New York.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Physical+Geography&rft.pub=Wiley%2C+New+York&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Strahler&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft.au=Strahler+Arthur.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSummerfield1991" class="citation book cs1">Summerfield, M. (1991). <i>Global Geomorphology</i>. Longman, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Geomorphology&rft.pub=Longman%2C+London&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Summerfield&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWainwrightMulligan,_M.2003" class="citation book cs1">Wainwright, John; Mulligan, M. (2003). <i>Environmental Modelling: Finding Simplicity in Complexity</i>. John Wiley and Sons Ltd, London.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Environmental+Modelling%3A+Finding+Simplicity+in+Complexity&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons+Ltd%2C+London&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Wainwright&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Mulligan%2C+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APhysical+geography" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Physical_geography&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.antiquebooks.net/readpage.html#physiography">Physiography by T.X. Huxley, 1878</a>, full text, physical geography of the Thames River Basin</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/contents.html">Fundamentals of Physical Geography, 2nd Edition, by M. Pidwirny, 2006</a>, full text</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.geography-site.co.uk/pages/physical.html">Physical Geography for Students and Teachers</a>, UK National Grid For Learning</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> 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href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Geography" title="Portal:Geography">Portal</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Geography_topics" title="Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Geography_topics" title="Template talk:Geography topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Geography_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Geography topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Geography_topics778" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">Geography</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">topics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Glossary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geography" title="History of geography">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_geography_articles" title="Index of geography articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Outline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Branches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_geography" title="Behavioral geography">Behavioral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_geography" title="Cognitive geography">Cognitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geography" title="Critical geography">Critical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_geography" title="Cultural geography">Cultural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_geographies" class="mw-redirect" title="Animal geographies">Animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children%27s_geographies" title="Children's geographies">Children's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_geography" title="Economic geography">Economic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_geography" title="Agricultural geography">Agricultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyber_geography" title="Cyber geography">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_geography" title="Development geography">Development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_finance" title="Geography of finance">Financial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_economic_geography" title="Historical economic geography">Histo-economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_geography" title="Labor geography">Labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomarketing" title="Geomarketing">Marketing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retail_geography" title="Retail geography">Retail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_economic_geography" title="Theoretical economic geography">Theoretical economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_geography" title="Language geography">Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geolinguistics" title="Geolinguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_geography" title="Vernacular geography">Vernacular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_geography" title="Moral geography">Moral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychogeography" title="Psychogeography">Psychological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_geography" title="Emotional geography">Emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neogeography" title="Neogeography">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_and_space" title="Sexuality and space">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_geography" title="Religion and geography">Religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_food" title="Geography of food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_geography" title="Health geography">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_geography" title="Historical geography">Historical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagined_geographies" title="Imagined geographies">Imagined</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_geography" title="Internet geography">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_geography" title="Political geography">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_geopolitics" title="Critical geopolitics">Critical geopolitics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electoral_geography" title="Electoral geography">Electoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_geography" title="Strategic geography">Strategic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_geography" title="Military geography">Military</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_geography" title="Population geography">Population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_geography" title="Settlement geography">Settlement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_geography" title="Regional geography">Regional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_geography" title="Urban geography">Urban</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_geography" title="Music geography">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_geography" title="Transport geography">Transport</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_geography" title="Social geography">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_geography" title="Tourism geography">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_geography" title="Tropical geography">Tropical</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Physical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytogeography" title="Phytogeography">Phytogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeography" title="Zoogeography">Zoogeography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> / <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">Oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_science" title="Earth science">Earth science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_science" title="Atmospheric science">Atmospheric science</a> / <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">Meteorology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_science" title="Environmental science">Environmental science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climatology" title="Climatology">Climatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimatology" title="Paleoclimatology">Paleoclimatology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Palaeogeography" title="Palaeogeography">Palaeogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geobiology" title="Geobiology">Geobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophysics" title="Geophysics">Geophysics</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">Geomorphology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glaciology" title="Glaciology">Glaciology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a> / <a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_science" title="Soil science">Soil science</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pedology" title="Pedology">Pedology</a>/<a href="/wiki/Edaphology" title="Edaphology">Edaphology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_science" title="Quaternary science">Quaternary science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technical_geography" title="Technical geography">Technical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geodesign" title="Geodesign">Geodesign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">Geodesy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geoinformatics" title="Geoinformatics">Geoinformatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_science" title="Geographic information science">Geographic information science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomatics" title="Geomatics">Geomatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_geography" title="Statistical geography">Statistical geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_analysis" title="Spatial analysis">Spatial analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integrated_geography" title="Integrated geography">Integrated</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_social_science" title="Environmental social science">Environmental social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_studies" title="Environmental studies">Environmental studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_architecture" title="Landscape architecture">Landscape architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_geography" title="Time geography">Time geography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_geography#Tasks_and_tools_of_geography" title="Outline of geography">Techniques and tools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_geography" title="Quantitative geography">Quantitative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Cartography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer_cartography" title="Computer cartography">Computer cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_mapping" title="Web mapping">Web mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geochronology" title="Geochronology">Geochronology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographic_information_system" title="Geographic information system">Geographic information system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_GIS" title="Distributed GIS">Distributed GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_GIS" title="Internet GIS">Internet GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Web_GIS" title="Web GIS">Web GIS</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geologic_modelling" title="Geologic modelling">Geologic modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geomathematics" title="Geomathematics">Geomathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geostatistics" title="Geostatistics">Geostatistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geovisualization" title="Geovisualization">Geovisualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Positioning_System" title="Global Positioning System">Global Positioning System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a></li> 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