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<span>Value</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Value-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Value subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intrinsic_and_instrumental" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intrinsic_and_instrumental"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Intrinsic and instrumental</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intrinsic_and_instrumental-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absolute_and_relative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absolute_and_relative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Absolute and relative</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absolute_and_relative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_distinctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_distinctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Other distinctions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_distinctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Schools_of_thought" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_of_thought"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Schools of thought</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Schools_of_thought-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Schools of thought subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Schools_of_thought-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Realism_and_anti-realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Realism_and_anti-realism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Realism and anti-realism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Realism_and_anti-realism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources_of_value" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_value"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Sources of value</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_value-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monism_and_pluralism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monism_and_pluralism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Monism and pluralism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monism_and_pluralism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Others" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Others"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Others</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Others-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_various_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_various_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>In various fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_various_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_del_valor_(axiolog%C3%ADa)" title="Teoría del valor (axiología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría del valor (axiología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valorteorio" title="Valorteorio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Valorteorio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B2%D8%B4" title="نظریه ارزش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه ارزش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Systematic study of values</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Value_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Value (disambiguation)">Value (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p><b>Value theory</b> is the interdisciplinary study of <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a>. Also called <i><b>axiology</b></i>, it examines the nature, sources, and types of values. Primarily a branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a>, it is an interdisciplinary field closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> like <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>. </p><p>Value is the worth of something, usually understood as a degree that covers both positive and negative magnitudes corresponding to the terms <i><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a></i> and <i>bad</i>. Values influence many human endeavors related to <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Decision-making" title="Decision-making">decision-making</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a>. Value theorists distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">intrinsic and instrumental value</a>. An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself, independent of external factors. An entity has instrumental value if it is useful as a means leading to other good things. Some classifications focus on the type of benefit, including economic, moral, political, aesthetic, and religious values. Other categorizations, based on the meaning and function of evaluative terms, discuss attributive, predicative, personal, impersonal, and agent-relative values. </p><p>Value <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realists</a> state that values have mind-independent existence as <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> features of reality. This view is rejected by <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realists</a>, some of whom argue that values are subjective human creations, whereas others claim that value statements are meaningless. Several sources of value have been proposed, such as <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a>, which says that only <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> has intrinsic value, and desire theories, which identify <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desires</a> as the ultimate source of value. <a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)" title="Perfectionism (philosophy)">Perfectionism</a>, another prominent theory, emphasizes the cultivation of characteristic human abilities. Value <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralism</a> holds that there are diverse sources of intrinsic value, raising the issue of whether values belonging to different types are comparable. Value theorists employ various <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_methodology" title="Philosophical methodology">methods of inquiry</a>, ranging from <a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">reliance on intuitions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought experiments">thought experiments</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">description of first-person experience</a> and the analysis of language. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> is a closely related field focusing primarily on <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> concepts about which behavior is right, whereas value theory explores evaluative concepts about what is good. In economics, <a href="/wiki/Value_(economics)#Theories" title="Value (economics)">theories of value</a> are frameworks to assess and explain the economic value of <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodities</a>. Sociology and anthropology examine values as aspects of societies and cultures, reflecting their dominant preferences and beliefs. Psychologists tend to understand values as abstract <a href="/wiki/Motivational" class="mw-redirect" title="Motivational">motivational</a> goals that shape an individual's <a href="/wiki/Personality" title="Personality">personality</a>. The roots of value theory lie in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a> in the form of reflections on the <a href="/wiki/Highest_good" class="mw-redirect" title="Highest good">highest good</a> that humans should pursue. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Value theory, also known as <i>axiology</i> and <i>theory of values</i>, is the systematic study of <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">values</a>. As the branch of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a> examining which things are good and what it means for something to be good, it distinguishes different types of values and explores how they can be measured and compared. It also studies whether values are a fundamental aspect of reality and how they affect phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desire</a>, decision, and <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its topic is relevant to many human endeavors because values are guiding principles that underlie the political, economic, scientific, and personal spheres.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Value theory analyzes and evaluates phenomena such as <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utility" title="Utility">utility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, human life, <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">love</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">justice</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The precise definition of value theory is disputed and some theorists rely on alternative characterizations. In a broad sense, <i>value theory</i> is a catch-all label that encompasses all philosophical disciplines studying evaluative or normative topics. According to this view, value theory is one of the main branches of philosophy and includes <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">social philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">philosophy of religion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar broad characterization sees value theory as a multidisciplinary area of inquiry that covers research from fields like <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">anthropology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a> in addition to philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a narrow sense, value theory is a subdiscipline of ethics that is particularly relevant to the school of <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a> since it determines how to assess the value of consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word <i>axiology</i> has its origin in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">ancient Greek</a> terms <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ἄξιος</span></span> (axios, meaning <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">worth</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">value</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>) and <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">λόγος</span></span> (logos, meaning <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">study</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span> or <span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">theory of</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even though the roots of value theory reach back to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a>, this area of thought was only conceived as a distinct discipline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, when the term <i>axiology</i> was coined.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>value theory</i> and <i>axiology</i> are usually used as synonyms but some philosophers distinguish between them. According to one characterization, axiology is a subfield of value theory that limits itself to theories about what things are valuable and how valuable they are.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>timology</i> is an older and less common synonym.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Value">Value</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics_and_social_sciences)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics and social sciences)">Value (ethics and social sciences)</a></div> <p>Value is the worth, usefulness, or merit of something.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many evaluative terms are employed to talk about value, including <i>good</i>, <i>best</i>, <i>great</i>, and <i>excellent</i> as well as their negative counterparts, like <i>bad</i> and <i>terrible</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some value terms, like <i>good</i> and <i>bad</i>, are pure evaluations in that they only express the value of something without any additional descriptive content. They are known as <i>thin evaluative concepts</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thick_concept" title="Thick concept">Thick evaluative concepts</a>, like <i><a href="/wiki/Courage" title="Courage">courageous</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Cruel" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruel">cruel</a></i>, provide more information by expressing other qualities besides the evaluation, such as <a href="/wiki/Character_trait" class="mw-redirect" title="Character trait">character traits</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Values are often understood as degrees that cover positive and negative magnitudes corresponding to good and bad. The term <i>value</i> is sometimes restricted to positive degrees to contrast with the term <i>disvalue</i> for the negative degrees. The terms <i>better</i> and <i>worse</i> are used to compare degrees, but it is controversial whether this is possible in all cases.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Evaluation" title="Evaluation">Evaluation</a> is the assessment or measurement of value, often employed to compare the benefits of different options to find the most advantageous choice.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Evaluative terms are sometimes distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> or deontic terms. Normative terms, like <i>right</i>, <i>wrong</i>, and <i>obligation</i>, prescribe actions or other states by expressing what ought to be done or what is required.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evaluative terms have a wider scope because they are not limited to what people can control or are responsible for. For example, involuntary events like digestion and earthquakes can have a positive or negative value even if they are not right or wrong in a strict sense.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite the distinction, evaluative and normative concepts are closely related. For example, the value of the consequences of an action may affect whether this action is right or wrong.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Value theorists distinguish various types or categories of values. The different classifications overlap and are based on considerations like the source, beneficiary, and function of the value.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intrinsic_and_instrumental">Intrinsic and instrumental</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Intrinsic and instrumental"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_and_intrinsic_value" title="Instrumental and intrinsic value">Instrumental and intrinsic value</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of intrinsic and instrumental values" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg/220px-Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="67" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg/330px-Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg/440px-Intrinsic_and_instrumental_values.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="156" /></a><figcaption>An entity has intrinsic value if it is good in itself. An entity has instrumental value if it leads to other good things.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of a chain of instrumental values" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg/220px-Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg/330px-Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg/440px-Chain_of_instrumental_values.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="64" /></a><figcaption>Instrumental values can form chains with intrinsic values as their end points.</figcaption></figure> <p>A thing has intrinsic or final value if it is good in itself or good for its own sake. This means that it is good independent of external factors or outcomes. A thing has extrinsic or instrumental value if it is useful or leads to other good things. In other words, it is a means to bring about a desired end. For example, tools like microwaves or money have instrumental value thanks to the useful functions they perform.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some cases, the thing produced this way has itself instrumental value, like when using money to buy a microwave. This can result in a chain of instrumentally valuable things in which each link gets its value by causing the following link. Intrinsically valuable things stand at the endpoint of these chains and ground the value of all the links that come before them.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One suggestion to distinguish between intrinsic and instrumental value relies on a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> that imagines the valuable thing in isolation from everything else. In such a situation, purely instrumentally valuable things lose their value since they serve no purpose while purely intrinsically valuable things remain valuable.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a common view, <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> is one of the sources of intrinsic value. Other suggested sources include <a href="/wiki/Desire" title="Desire">desire</a> satisfaction, <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>, <a href="/wiki/Life" title="Life">life</a>, <a href="/wiki/Health" title="Health">health</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">beauty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Intrinsic and instrumental value are not exclusive categories. As a result, a thing can have both intrinsic and instrumental value if it is both good in itself while also leading to other good things.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a similar sense, a thing can have different instrumental values at the same time, both positive and negative ones. This is the case if some of its consequences are good while others are bad. The total instrumental value of a thing is the value balance of all its consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because instrumental value depends on other values, it is an open question whether it should be understood as a value in a strict sense. For example, the overall value of a chain of causes leading to an intrinsically valuable thing remains the same if instrumentally valuable links are added or removed without affecting the intrinsically valuable thing. The observation that the overall value does not change is sometimes used as an argument that the things added or removed do not have value.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, value theorists have used the terms <i>intrinsic value</i> and <i>final value</i> interchangeably, just like the terms <i>extrinsic value</i> and <i>instrumental value</i>. This practice has been questioned in the 20th century based on the idea that they are similar but not identical concepts. According to this view, a thing has intrinsic value if the source of its value is an <a href="/wiki/Intrinsic_property" class="mw-redirect" title="Intrinsic property">intrinsic property</a>, meaning that the value does not depend on how the thing is related to other objects. Extrinsic value, by contrast, depends on <a href="/wiki/Relation_(philosophy)#Internal_and_external" title="Relation (philosophy)">external relations</a>. This view sees instrumental value as one type of extrinsic value based on causal relations. At the same time, it allows that there are other types of non-instrumental extrinsic value. Final value is understood as what is valued for its own sake, independent of whether intrinsic or extrinsic properties are responsible.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Absolute_and_relative">Absolute and relative</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Absolute and relative"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another distinction relies on the contrast between absolute and relative value. Absolute value, also called <i>value simpliciter</i>, is a form of unconditional value. A thing has relative value if its value is limited to certain considerations or viewpoints.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One form of relative value is restricted to the type of an entity, expressed in sentences like "That is a good knife" or "Jack is a good thief". This form is known as <i><a href="/wiki/Attributive_expression" title="Attributive expression">attributive</a> goodness</i> since the word "good" modifies the meaning of another term. To be attributively good as a certain type means to possess certain qualities characteristic of that type. For example, a good knife is sharp and a good thief has the skill of stealing without getting caught. Attributive goodness contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Predicative_expression" title="Predicative expression">predicative</a> goodness. The sentence "Pleasure is good" is an example since the word good is used as a predicate to talk about the unqualified value of pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Attributive and predicative goodness can accompany each other, but this is not always the case. For instance, being a good thief is not necessarily a good thing.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another type of relative value restricts goodness to a specific person. Known as <i>personal value</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it expresses what benefits a particular person, promotes their <a href="/wiki/Welfare_spending" title="Welfare spending">welfare</a>, or is in their interest. For example, a poem written by a child may have personal value for the parents even if the poem lacks value for others. Impersonal value, by contrast, is good in general without restriction to any specific person or viewpoint.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some philosophers, like <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, reject the existence of personal values, holding that all values are impersonal. Others have proposed theories about the relation between personal and impersonal value. The agglomerative theory says that impersonal value is nothing but the sum of all personal values. Another view understands impersonal value as a specific type of personal value taken from the perspective of the universe as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Agent-relative value is sometimes contrasted with personal value as another person-specific limitation of the evaluative outlook. Agent-relative values affect moral considerations about what a person is responsible for or guilty of. For example, if Mei promises to pick Pedro up from the airport then an agent-relative value obligates Mei to drive to the airport. This obligation is in place even if it does not benefit Mei, in which case there is an agent-relative value without a personal value. In <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> agent-relative values are often discussed in relation to <a href="/wiki/Ethical_dilemmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical dilemmas">ethical dilemmas</a>. One dilemma revolves around the question of whether an individual should murder an innocent person if this prevents the murder of two innocent people by a different perpetrator. The agent-neutral perspective tends to affirm this idea since one murder is preferable to two. The agent-relative perspective tends to reject this conclusion, arguing that the initial murder should be avoided since it negatively impacts the agent-relative value of the individual.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditionally, most value theorists see absolute value as the main topic of value theory and focus their attention on this type. Nonetheless, some philosophers, like <a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, have argued that the concept of absolute value by itself is meaningless and should be understood as one form of relative value.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_distinctions">Other distinctions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other distinctions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Other classifications of values have been proposed without a widely accepted main classification.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some focus on the types of entities that have value. They include distinct categories for entities like things, the environment, individuals, groups, and society. Another subdivision pays attention to the type of benefit involved and encompasses material, economic, moral, social, political, aesthetic, and religious values. Classifications by the beneficiary of the value distinguish between self- and other-oriented values.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A historically influential approach identifies three spheres of value: <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>, goodness, and beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a> characterizes them as the highest goals of <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> aiming at truth, <a href="/wiki/Will_(philosophy)" title="Will (philosophy)">will</a> aiming at goodness, and <a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">emotion</a> aiming at beauty. A similar view, proposed by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese philosopher</a> Zhang Dainian, says that the value of truth belongs to knowledge, the value of goodness belongs to behavior, and the value of beauty belongs to art.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This three-fold distinction also plays a central role in the philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a> and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other suggested types of values include objective, subjective, potential, actual, contingent, necessary, inherent, and constitutive values.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Schools_of_thought">Schools of thought</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Schools of thought"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism_and_anti-realism">Realism and anti-realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Realism and anti-realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Value <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> is the view that values have mind-independent existence.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This means that <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity_and_objectivity_(philosophy)" title="Subjectivity and objectivity (philosophy)">objective</a> facts determine what has value, irrespective of subjective beliefs and preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, the evaluative statement "That act is bad" is as objectively true or false as the empirical statement "That act causes distress".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Realists often analyze values as <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> of valuable things.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, stating that kindness is good asserts that kindness possesses the property of goodness. Value realists disagree about what type of property is involved. <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalists</a> say that value is a natural property. Natural properties can be known through <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical observation</a> and are studied by the natural sciences. This means that value is similar to other natural properties, like size and shape. <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">Non-naturalists</a> reject this view but agree that values are real. They say that values differ significantly from empirical properties and belong to another realm of reality. According to one view, they are known through rational or emotional intuition rather than empirical observation.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another disagreement among realists is about whether the entity carrying the value is a concrete <a href="/wiki/Particular" title="Particular">individual</a> or a <a href="/wiki/State_of_affairs_(philosophy)" title="State of affairs (philosophy)">state of affairs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the name "Bill" refers to an individual while the sentence "Bill is pleased" refers to a state of affairs. States of affairs are complex entities that combine other entities, like the individual "Bill" and the property "is pleased". Some value theorists hold that the value is a property directly of Bill while others contend that it is a property of the fact that Bill is pleased.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinction affects various disputes in value theory. In some cases, a value is intrinsic according to one view and extrinsic according to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Value realism contrasts with <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>, which comes in various forms. In its strongest version, anti-realism rejects the existence of values in any form, claiming that value statements are meaningless.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>j<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between these two positions, there are various intermediary views. Some anti-realists accept that value claims have meaning but deny that they have a <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>k<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a position known as <a href="/wiki/Non-cognitivism" title="Non-cognitivism">non-cognitivism</a>. For example, <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivists</a> say that value claims express emotional attitudes, similar to how exclamations like "Yay!" or "Boo!" express emotions rather than stating facts.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>l<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cognitivism_(ethics)" title="Cognitivism (ethics)">Cognitivists</a> contend that value statements have a truth value. <a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">Error theorists</a> defend anti-realism based on this view by stating that all value statements are false because there are no values.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another view accepts the existence of values but denies that they are mind-independent. According to this view, the <a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">mental states</a> of individuals determine whether an object has value, for instance, because individuals desire it.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar view is defended by <a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">existentialists</a> like <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>, who argued that values are human creations that endow the world with meaning.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subjectivist theories say that values are relative to each subject, whereas more objectivist outlooks hold that values depend on <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mind</a> in general rather than on the individual mind.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different position accepts that values are mind-independent but holds that they are reducible to other facts, meaning that they are not a fundamental part of reality. One form of <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a> maintains that a thing is good if it is fitting to favor this thing, regardless of whether people actually favor it. The strongest form of realism says that value is a fundamental part of reality and cannot be reduced to other aspects.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_of_value">Sources of value</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Sources of value"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various theories about the sources of value have been proposed. They aim to clarify what kinds of things are intrinsically good.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The historically influential theory of <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonism</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>m<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> states that how people feel is the only source of value. More specifically, it says that <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> is the only intrinsic good and <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a> is the only intrinsic evil.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, everything else only has instrumental value to the extent that it leads to pleasure or pain, including knowledge, health, and justice. Hedonists usually understand the term <i>pleasure</i> in a broad sense that covers all kinds of enjoyable experiences, including bodily pleasures of food and sex as well as more intellectual or abstract pleasures, like the joy of reading a book or being happy about a friend's promotion. Pleasurable experiences come in degrees, and hedonists usually associate their intensity and duration with the magnitude of value they have.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many hedonists identify pleasure and pain as symmetric opposites, meaning that the value of pleasure balances out the disvalue of pain if they have the same intensity. However, some hedonists reject this symmetry and give more weight to avoiding pain than to experiencing pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it is widely accepted that pleasure is valuable, the hedonist claim that it is the only source of value is controversial.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Welfarism" title="Welfarism">Welfarism</a>, a closely related theory, understands <a href="/wiki/Well-being" title="Well-being">well-being</a> as the only source of value. Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person. As a consequence, welfarism asserts that value has its origin in the states of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Desire theories offer a slightly different account, stating that desire satisfaction<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>n<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the only source of value.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>o<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory overlaps with hedonism because many people desire pleasure and because desire satisfaction is often accompanied by pleasure. Nonetheless, there are important differences: people desire a variety of other things as well, like knowledge, achievement, and respect; additionally, desire satisfaction may not always result in pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some desire theorists hold that value is a property of desire satisfaction itself, while others say that it is a property of the objects that satisfy a desire.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One debate in desire theory concerns whether any desire is a source of value. For example, if a person has a false belief that money makes them happy, it is questionable whether the satisfaction of their desire for money is a source of value. To address this consideration, some desire theorists say that a desire can only provide value if a fully informed and rational person would have it. This view excludes faulty desires.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Perfectionism_(philosophy)" title="Perfectionism (philosophy)">Perfectionism</a> identifies the realization of <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> and the cultivation of characteristic human abilities as the source of intrinsic goodness. It covers capacities and character traits belonging to the bodily, emotional, volitional, cognitive, social, artistic, and religious fields. Perfectionists disagree about which human excellences are the most important. Many are pluralistic in recognizing a diverse array of human excellences, such as knowledge, creativity, health, beauty, free agency, and moral virtues like benevolence and courage.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one suggestion, there are two main fields of human goods: theoretical abilities responsible for understanding the world and practical abilities responsible for interacting with it.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some perfectionists provide an ideal characterization of human nature, holding that human excellences are those aspects that promote the realization of this goal. This view is exemplified in <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s focus on <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> as the nature and ideal state of human beings.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Non-humanistic versions extend perfectionism to the natural world in general, arguing that excellence as a source of intrinsic value is not limited to the human realm.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monism_and_pluralism">Monism and pluralism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Monism and pluralism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monist</a> theories of value assert that there is only a single source of intrinsic value. They agree that various things have value but maintain that all fundamentally good things belong to the same type. For example, hedonists hold that nothing but pleasure has intrinsic value, while desire theorists argue that desire satisfaction is the only source of fundamental goodness. <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">Pluralists</a> reject this view, contending that a simple single-value system is too crude to capture the complexity of the sphere of values. They say that diverse sources of value exist independently of one another, each contributing to the overall value of the world.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One motivation for value pluralism is the observation that people value diverse types of things, including happiness, friendship, success, and knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This diversity becomes particularly prominent when people face difficult decisions between competing values, such as choosing between friendship and career success.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since monists accept only one source of intrinsic value, they explain this observation by holding that other items in this diversity have only instrumental value or, in some cases, no value at all.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Max_Scheler2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Max Scheler" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Max_Scheler2.jpg/220px-Max_Scheler2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Max_Scheler2.jpg/330px-Max_Scheler2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Max_Scheler2.jpg/440px-Max_Scheler2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="879" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>According to <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Scheler</a>'s value pluralism, different types of values form a hierarchy and people should not promote lower values at the expense of higher ones.</figcaption></figure> <p>Pluralists have proposed various accounts of how their view affects practical decisions. Rational decisions often rely on value comparisons to determine which course of action should be pursued.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some pluralists discuss a hierarchy of values reflecting the relative importance and weight of different value types to help people promote higher values when faced with difficult choices.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a> ranks values based on how enduring and fulfilling they are into the levels of pleasure, utility, vitality, culture, and holiness. He asserts that people should not promote lower values, like pleasure, if this comes at the expense of higher values.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>p<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Radical pluralists reject this approach, putting more emphasis on diversity by holding that different types of values are not comparable with each other. This means that each value type is unique, making it impossible to determine which one is superior.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>q<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some value theorists use radical pluralism to argue that value conflicts are inevitable, that the gain of one value cannot always compensate for the loss of another, and that some <a href="/wiki/Ethical_dilemmas" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethical dilemmas">ethical dilemmas</a> are irresolvable.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Isaiah_Berlin" title="Isaiah Berlin">Isaiah Berlin</a> applied this idea to the values of <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">liberty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_equality" title="Social equality">equality</a>, arguing that a gain in one cannot make up for a loss in the other. Similarly, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Raz" title="Joseph Raz">Joseph Raz</a> said that it is often impossible to compare the values of career paths, like when choosing between becoming a <a href="/wiki/Lawyer" title="Lawyer">lawyer</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Clarinetist" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarinetist">clarinetist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms <i>incomparability</i> and <i>incommensurability</i> are often used as synonyms. However, philosophers like <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Chang" title="Ruth Chang">Ruth Chang</a> distinguish them. According to this view, incommensurability means that there is no common measure to quantify values of different types. Incommensurable values may or may not be comparable. If they are, it is possible to say that one value is better than another, but it is not possible to quantify how much better it is.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Others"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Several controversies surround the question of how the intrinsic value of a <a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">whole</a> is determined by the intrinsic values of its parts. According to the additivity principle, the intrinsic value of a whole is simply the sum of the intrinsic values of its parts. For example, if a virtuous person becomes happy then the intrinsic value of the happiness is simply added to the intrinsic value of the virtue, thereby increasing the overall value.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_George_Edward_Moore_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of G. E. Moore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> introduced the idea of organic unities to describe entities whose total intrinsic value is not the sum of the intrinsic values of their parts.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Various counterexamples to the additivity principle have been proposed, suggesting that the relation between parts and wholes is more complex. For example, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> argued that if a vicious person becomes happy, this happiness, though good in itself, does not increase the overall value. On the contrary, it makes things worse, according to Kant, since viciousness should not be rewarded with happiness. This situation is known as an <i>organic unity</i>, a whole whose intrinsic value differs from the sum of the intrinsic values of its parts.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another perspective, called <i>holism about value</i>, asserts that the intrinsic value of a thing depends on its context. Holists can argue that happiness has positive intrinsic value in the context of virtue and negative intrinsic value in the context of vice. Atomists reject this view, saying that intrinsic value is context-independent.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Theories of value aggregation provide concrete principles for calculating the overall value of an outcome based on how positively or negatively each individual is affected by it. For example, if a government implements a new policy that affects some people positively and others negatively, theories of value aggregation can be used to determine whether the overall value of the policy is positive or negative. Axiological <a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">utilitarianism</a> accepts the additivity principle, saying that the total value is simply the sum of all individual values.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axiological <a href="/wiki/Egalitarianism" title="Egalitarianism">egalitarians</a> are not only interested in the sum total of value but also in how the values are distributed. They argue that an outcome with a balanced advantage distribution is better than an outcome where some benefit a lot while others benefit little, even if the two outcomes have the same sum total.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Axiological <a href="/wiki/Prioritarianism" title="Prioritarianism">prioritarians</a> are particularly concerned with the benefits of individuals who are worse off. They say that providing advantages to people in need has more value than providing the same advantages to others.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_117-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another debate addresses the <a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">meaning of life</a>, investigating whether life or existence as a whole has a higher meaning or purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Ethical_naturalism" title="Ethical naturalism">Naturalist</a> views argue that the meaning of life is found within the physical world, either as objective values that are true for everyone or as subjective values that vary according to individual preferences. Suggested fields where humans find meaning include exercising <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, committing oneself to a cause, practicing <a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">altruism</a>, engaging in positive <a href="/wiki/Social_relationships" class="mw-redirect" title="Social relationships">social relationships</a>, or pursuing personal <a href="/wiki/Happyness" class="mw-redirect" title="Happyness">happy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernaturalists</a>, by contrast, propose that meaning lies beyond the natural world. For example, various religions teach that <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> created the world for a higher purpose, imbuing existence with meaning. A related outlook argues that immortal <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">souls</a> serve as sources of meaning by being connected to a <a href="/wiki/Transcendent_reality" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendent reality">transcendent reality</a> and evolving <a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">spiritually</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Existential_nihilism" title="Existential nihilism">Existential nihilists</a> reject both naturalist and supernaturalist explanations by asserting that there is no higher purpose. They suggest that life is meaningless, with the consequence that there is no higher reason to continue living and that all efforts, achievements, happiness, and suffering are ultimately pointless.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Formal axiology is a theory of value initially developed by philosopher <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Hartman" title="Robert S. Hartman">Robert S. Hartman</a>. This approach treats axiology as a <a href="/wiki/Formal_science" title="Formal science">formal science</a>, akin to <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>. It uses <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> to give an abstract definition of value, understanding it not as a property of things but as a property of concepts. Values measure the extent to which an entity fulfills its concept. For example, a good car has all the desirable qualities of cars, like a reliable engine and effective brakes, whereas a bad car lacks many. Formal axiology distinguishes between three fundamental value types: intrinsic values apply to people; extrinsic values apply to things, actions, and social roles; systemic values apply to conceptual constructs. Formal axiology examines how these value types form a hierarchy and how they can be measured.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Value theorists employ various <a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">methods</a> to conduct their inquiry, justify theories, and measure values. <a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">Intuitionists</a> rely on <a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">intuitions</a> to assess evaluative claims. In this context, an intuition is an immediate apprehension or understanding of a <a href="/wiki/Self-evident" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-evident">self-evident</a> claim, meaning that its truth can be assessed without <a href="/wiki/Inference" title="Inference">inferring</a> it from another observation.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Value theorists often rely on <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiments" class="mw-redirect" title="Thought experiments">thought experiments</a> to gain this type of understanding. Thought experiments are imagined scenarios that exemplify philosophical problems. Philosophers use <a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_thinking" title="Counterfactual thinking">counterfactual reasoning</a> to evaluate the possible consequences and gain insight into the underlying problem.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, philosopher <a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a> imagines an <a href="/wiki/Experience_machine" title="Experience machine">experience machine</a> that can virtually simulate an ideal life. Based on his observation that people would not want to spend the rest of their lives in this pleasurable simulation, Nozick argues against the <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonist</a> claim that pleasure is the only source of intrinsic value. According to him, the thought experiment shows that the value of an authentic connection to reality is not reducible to pleasure.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>r<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenologists</a> provide a detailed first-person description of the <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a> of values. They closely examine emotional experiences, ranging from desire, interest, and preference to feelings in the form of love and hate. However, they do not limit their inquiry to these phenomena, asserting that values permeate experience at large.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A key aspect of the phenomenological method is to <a href="/wiki/Epoche" class="mw-redirect" title="Epoche">suspend preconceived ideas and judgments</a> to understand the essence of experiences as they present themselves to consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The analysis of concepts and <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language</a> is another method of inquiry. By examining terms and sentences used to talk about values, value theorists aim to clarify their meanings, uncover crucial distinctions, and formulate arguments for and against axiological theories.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, a prominent dispute between <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">non-naturalists</a> hinges on the <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a> of the term <i><a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a></i>, in particular, whether its meaning can be analyzed through natural terms, like <i><a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>s<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, value theorists face the challenge of measuring the evaluative outlook of individuals and groups. Specifically, they aim to determine personal value hierarchies, for example, whether a subject gives more weight to truth than to moral goodness or beauty.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They distinguish between direct and indirect measurement methods. Direct methods involve asking people straightforward questions about what things they value and which value priorities they have. This approach assumes that people are aware of their evaluative outlook and able to articulate it accurately. Indirect methods do not share this assumption, asserting instead that values guide behavior and choices on an unconscious level. Consequently, they observe how people decide and act, seeking to infer the underlying value attitudes responsible for picking one course of action rather than another.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of value scale proposed by Shalom H. Schwartz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png/310px-Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png/465px-Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png/620px-Proposed_circular_motivational_continuum_of_19_values_with_sources_that_underlie_their_order.png 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_basic_human_values" title="Theory of basic human values">Schwartz theory of basic human values</a> is an instrument to measure value priorities. It arranges different values in a circle, using <a href="/wiki/Angular_distance" title="Angular distance">angular distance</a> between values to indicate how compatible they are.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartzCieciuch2016109–113_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartzCieciuch2016109–113-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Various catalogs or <a href="/wiki/Values_scale" title="Values scale">scales of values</a> have been proposed to measure value priorities. The <a href="/wiki/Rokeach_Value_Survey" title="Rokeach Value Survey">Rokeach Value Survey</a> considers a total of 36 values divided into two groups: instrumental values, like honesty and capability, which serve as means to promote terminal values, such as freedom and family security. It asks participants to rank them based on their impact on the participants' lives, aiming to understand the relative importance assigned to each of them. The <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_basic_human_values" title="Theory of basic human values">Schwartz theory of basic human values</a> is a modification of the Rokeach Value Survey that seeks to provide a more cross-cultural and universal assessment. It arranges the values in a circular manner to reflect that neighboring values are compatible with each other, such as tradition and security, while values on opposing sides may conflict with each other, such as tradition and self-direction.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_various_fields">In various fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: In various fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></div> <p>Ethics and value theory are overlapping fields of inquiry. Ethics studies <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">moral</a> phenomena, focusing on how people should act or which behaviors are morally right.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Value theory investigates the nature, sources, and types of values in general.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some philosophers understand value theory as a subdiscipline of ethics. This is based on the idea that what people should do is affected by value considerations but not necessarily limited to them.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another view sees ethics as a subdiscipline of value theory. This outlook follows the idea that ethics is concerned with moral values affecting what people can control, whereas value theory examines a broader horizon of values, including those beyond anyone's control.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some perspectives contrast ethics and value theory, asserting that the <a href="/wiki/Normativity" title="Normativity">normative</a> concepts examined by ethics are distinct from the evaluative concepts examined by value theory.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">Axiological ethics</a> is a subfield of ethics examining the nature and role of values from a moral perspective, with particular interest in determining which ends are worth pursuing.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ethical theory of <a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">consequentialism</a> combines the perspectives of ethics and value theory, asserting that the rightness of an action depends on the value of its consequences. Consequentialists compare possible courses of action, saying that people should follow the one leading to the best overall consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The overall consequences of an action are the totality of its effects, or how it impacts the world by starting a causal chain of events that would not have occurred otherwise.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Distinct versions of consequentialism rely on different theories of the sources of value. <a href="/wiki/Classical_utilitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical utilitarianism">Classical utilitarianism</a>, a prominent form of consequentialism, says that moral actions produce the greatest amount of <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a> for the greatest number of people. It combines a consequentialist outlook on right action with a <a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">hedonist</a> outlook on pleasure as the only source of intrinsic value.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economics">Economics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Economics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></div> <p>Economics is a <a href="/wiki/Social_science" title="Social science">social science</a> studying how goods and services are produced, distributed, and consumed, both from the perspective of individual agents and societal systems.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Economists view evaluations as a driving force underlying economic activity. They use the notion of <a href="/wiki/Economic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic value">economic value</a> and related evaluative concepts to understand decision-making processes, resource allocation, and the impact of policies. The economic value or benefit of a <a href="/wiki/Commodity" title="Commodity">commodity</a> is the advantage it provides to an <a href="/wiki/Economic_agent" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic agent">economic agent</a>, often measured in terms of the money people are <a href="/wiki/Willingness_to_pay" title="Willingness to pay">willing to pay</a> for it.<sup id="cite_ref-143" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Economic theories of value are frameworks to explain how economic value arises and which factors influence it. Prominent frameworks include the classical <a href="/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value" title="Labor theory of value">labor theory of value</a> and the neo-classical <a href="/wiki/Marginal_theory_of_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Marginal theory of value">marginal theory of value</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The labor theory, initially developed by the economists <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Ricardo" title="David Ricardo">David Ricardo</a>, distinguishes between <a href="/wiki/Use_value" title="Use value">use value</a>—the utility or satisfaction a commodity provides—and <a href="/wiki/Exchange_value" title="Exchange value">exchange value</a>—the proportion at which one commodity can be exchanged with another.<sup id="cite_ref-145" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It focuses on exchange value, which it says is determined by the <a href="/wiki/Socially_necessary_labour_time" title="Socially necessary labour time">amount of labor required to produce the commodity</a>. In its simplest form, it directly correlates exchange value to labor time. For example, if the time needed to hunt a deer is twice the time needed to hunt a beaver then one deer is worth two beavers.<sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a> extended the labor theory of value in various ways. He introduced the concept of <a href="/wiki/Surplus_value" title="Surplus value">surplus value</a>, which goes beyond the time and resources invested to explain how <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalists</a> can profit from the labor of their employees.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The marginal theory of value focuses on consumption rather than production. It says that the utility a commodity is the source of its value. Specifically, it is interested in <a href="/wiki/Marginal_utility" title="Marginal utility">marginal utility</a>, the additional satisfaction gained from consuming one more unit of the commodity. Marginal utility often diminishes if many units have already been consumed, leading to a decrease in the exchange value of commodities that are abundantly available.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both the labor theory and the marginal theory were later challenged by the <a href="/wiki/Piero_Sraffa#Production_of_Commodities_by_Means_of_Commodities" title="Piero Sraffa">Sraffian theory of value</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology">Sociology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Sociology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></div> <p>Sociology studies social behavior, relationships, institutions, and society at large.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their analyses and explanations of these phenomena, some sociologists use the concept of values to understand issues like <a href="/wiki/Social_cohesion" class="mw-redirect" title="Social cohesion">social cohesion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_conflict" title="Social conflict">conflict</a>, the norms and practices people follow, and <a href="/wiki/Collective_action" title="Collective action">collective action</a>. They usually understand values as subjective attitudes possessed by individuals and shared in social groups. According to this view, values are beliefs or priorities about goals worth pursuing that guide people to act in certain ways. This subjective conception of values as aspects of individuals and social groups contrasts with the objective conceptions of values more prominent in economics, which understands values as aspects of commodities.<sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shared values can help unite people in the pursuit of a common cause, fostering social cohesion. Value differences, by contrast, may divide people into antagonistic groups that promote conflicting projects. Some sociologists employ value research to predict how people will behave. Given the observation that someone values the environment, they may conclude that this person is more likely to <a href="/wiki/Recycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Recycle">recycle</a> or support pro-environmental legislation.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One approach to this type of research uses <a href="/wiki/Values_scale" title="Values scale">value scales</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rokeach_Value_Survey" title="Rokeach Value Survey">Rokeach Value Survey</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_basic_human_values" title="Theory of basic human values">Schwartz theory of basic human values</a>, to measure the value outlook of individuals and groups.<sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthropology">Anthropology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Anthropology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a></div> <p>Anthropology also studies human behavior and societies but does not limit itself to contemporary social structures, extending its focus to humanity both past and present.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar to sociologists, many anthropologists understand values as social representations of goals worth pursuing. For them, values are embedded in mental structures associated with culture and ideology about what is desirable. A slightly different approach in anthropology focuses on the practical side of values, holding that values are constantly created through human activity.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anthropological_theories_of_value" title="Anthropological theories of value">Anthropological value theorists</a> use values to compare cultures.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They can be employed to examine similarities as universal concerns present in every society. For example, anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Clyde_Kluckhohn" title="Clyde Kluckhohn">Clyde Kluckhohn</a> and sociologist <a href="/wiki/Fred_Strodtbeck" title="Fred Strodtbeck">Fred Strodtbeck</a> proposed a set of value orientations found in every culture.<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Values can also be used to analyze differences between cultures and value changes within a culture. Anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Louis_Dumont" title="Louis Dumont">Louis Dumont</a> followed this idea, suggesting that the cultural meaning systems in distinct societies differ in their value priorities. He argued that values are ordered hierarchically around a set of paramount values that trump all other values.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The contrast between <a href="/wiki/Individualism_and_collectivism" class="mw-redirect" title="Individualism and collectivism">individualism and collectivism</a> is an influential topic in cross-cultural value research. Individualism promotes values associated with the <a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">autonomy</a> of individuals, such as <a href="/wiki/Self-directedness" title="Self-directedness">self-directedness</a>, independence, and personal goals. Collectivism gives priority to group-related values, like cooperation, <a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">conformity</a>, and foregoing personal advantages for the sake of collective benefits. As a rough simplification, it is often suggested that individualism is more prominent in <a href="/wiki/Western_culture" title="Western culture">Western cultures</a>, whereas collectivism is more commonly observed in <a href="/wiki/Eastern_culture" title="Eastern culture">Eastern cultures</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychology">Psychology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Psychology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">Psychology</a></div> <p>As the study of <a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">mental phenomena</a> and behavior, psychology contrasts with sociology and anthropology by focusing more on the perspective of individuals than the broader social and cultural contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychologists tend to understand values as abstract <a href="/wiki/Motivation" title="Motivation">motivational</a> goals or general principles about what matters.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this perspective, values differ from specific plans and <a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">intentions</a> since they are stable evaluative tendencies not bound to concrete situations.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various psychological theories of values establish a close link between an individual's evaluative outlook and their <a href="/wiki/Personality" title="Personality">personality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An early theory, formulated by psychologists <a href="/wiki/Philip_E._Vernon" title="Philip E. Vernon">Philip E. Vernon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Allport" title="Gordon Allport">Gordon Allport</a>, understands personality as a collection of aspects unified by a coherent <a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">value system</a>. It distinguishes between six personality types corresponding to the value spheres of theory, economy, aesthetics, society, politics, and religion. For example, people with theoretical personalities place special importance on the <a href="/wiki/Value_of_knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Value of knowledge">value of knowledge</a> and discovery of <a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by Vernon and Allport, psychologist <a href="/wiki/Milton_Rokeach" title="Milton Rokeach">Milton Rokeach</a> conceptualized values as enduring beliefs about what goals and conduct are preferable. He divided values into the categories of instrumental and terminal values. He thought that a central aspect of personality lies in how people prioritize the values within each category.<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Psychologist <a href="/wiki/Shalom_Schwartz" class="mw-redirect" title="Shalom Schwartz">Shalom Schwartz</a> refined this approach by linking values to emotion and motivation. He explored how value rankings affect decisions in which the values of different options conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The origin of value theory lies in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient period">ancient period</a>, with early reflections on the good life and the ends worth pursuing.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Socrates" title="Socrates">Socrates</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 469–399 BCE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> identified the highest good as the right combination of <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pleasure" title="Pleasure">pleasure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a>, holding that active inquiry is associated with pleasure while knowledge of the good leads to virtuous action.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 428–347 BCE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conceived <a href="/wiki/The_good" class="mw-redirect" title="The good">the good</a> as a universal and changeless idea. It is the highest form in his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">theory of forms</a>, acting as the source of all other forms and the foundation of reality and knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> (384–322 BCE)<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saw <a href="/wiki/Eudaimonia" title="Eudaimonia">eudaimonia</a> as the highest good and ultimate goal of human life. He understood eudaimonia as a form of happiness or flourishing achieved through the exercise of virtues in accordance with <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, leading to the full realization of human potential.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 341–271 BCE</span>) proposed a nuanced <a href="/wiki/Egoistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Egoistic">egoistic</a> hedonism, stating that personal pleasure is the greatest good while recommending moderation to avoid the negative effects of excessive desires and anxiety about the future.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoics</a>, a virtuous life following nature and reason is the highest good. They thought that self-mastery and <a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">rationality</a> lead to a pleasant <a href="/wiki/Apatheia" title="Apatheia">equanimity</a> independent of external circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by Plato, <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 204/5–270 CE</span>) held that the Good is the ultimate principle of reality from which everything emanates. For him, <a href="/wiki/Evil" title="Evil">evil</a> is not a distinct opposing principle but merely a deficiency or absence of <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">being</a> resulting from a missing connection to the Good.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Confucius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/150px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/225px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg/300px-Half_Portraits_of_the_Great_Sage_and_Virtuous_Men_of_Old_-_Confucius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1595" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> viewed <a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">general benevolence towards humanity</a> as the supreme virtue.</figcaption></figure> <p>In ancient <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, the idea that people are trapped in a <a href="/wiki/Samsara" class="mw-redirect" title="Samsara">cycle of rebirths</a> arose around 600 BCE.<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many traditions adopted it, arguing that liberation from this cycle is the highest good.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu philosophy</a> distinguishes the <a href="/wiki/Puru%E1%B9%A3%C4%81rtha" title="Puruṣārtha">four fundamental values</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">duty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artha" title="Artha">economic wealth</a>, <a href="/wiki/K%C4%81ma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kāma">sensory pleasure</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mok%E1%B9%A3a" class="mw-redirect" title="Mokṣa">liberation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many <a href="/wiki/%C4%80stika" class="mw-redirect" title="Āstika">Hindu schools of thought</a> prioritize the value of liberation.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A similar outlook is found in ancient <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist philosophy</a>, starting between the sixth and the fifth centuries BCE, where the cessation of <a href="/wiki/Du%E1%B8%A5kha" title="Duḥkha">suffering</a> through the attainment of <a href="/wiki/Nirvana" title="Nirvana">Nirvana</a> is considered the ultimate goal.<sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient China">ancient China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 551–479 BCE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explored the role of <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a> in leading a virtuous life, viewing <a href="/wiki/Ren_(philosophy)" title="Ren (philosophy)">general benevolence towards humanity</a> as the supreme virtue.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In comparing the highest virtue to water, <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (6th century BCE)<sup id="cite_ref-185" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>t<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> emphasized the importance of living in harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">natural order of the universe</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Painting of Adi Shankara" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/150px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/225px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png/300px-Raja_Ravi_Varma_-_Sankaracharya_-_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1620" data-file-height="2444" /></a><figcaption>Many schools of <a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian philosophy</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita Vedanta</a>, see <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberation</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sa%E1%B9%83s%C4%81ra" title="Saṃsāra">cycle of rebirth</a> as the highest good.</figcaption></figure> <p>Religious teachings influenced value theory in the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval period">medieval period</a>. Early <a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian thinkers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine_of_Hippo" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine of Hippo</a> (354–430 CE),<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> adapted the theories of Plato and Plotinus into a religious framework. They identified God as the ultimate source of existence and goodness, seeing evil as a mere lack or privation of good.<sup id="cite_ref-188" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Drawing on <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a>, Christian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (1224–1274 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> said that communion with the divine, achieved through a <a href="/wiki/Beatific_vision" title="Beatific vision">beatific vision</a> of God, is the <a href="/wiki/Summum_bonum" title="Summum bonum">highest end</a> of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Arabic–Persian philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">al-Farabi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 878–950 CE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asserted that the supreme form of human perfection is an intellectual happiness, reachable in the <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a> by developing the intellect to its fullest potential.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (980–1037 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also regarded the intellect as the highest human faculty. He thought that a contemplative life prepares humans for the greatest good, which is only attained in the afterlife when humans are free from bodily distractions.<sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Indian philosophy, <a href="/wiki/Adi_Shankara" title="Adi Shankara">Adi Shankara</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 700–750 CE</span>)<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> taught that liberation, the highest human end, is reached by realizing that the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80tman_(Hinduism)" title="Ātman (Hinduism)">self</a> is the same as <a href="/wiki/Brahman" title="Brahman">ultimate reality</a> encompassing all of existence.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Chinese thought, the early <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">neo-Confucian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a> (768–824) identified the sage as an ideal role model who, through self-cultivation, achieves personal integrity expressed in harmony between theory and action in daily life.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> (1588–1679)<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> understood values as subjective phenomena that depend on a person's interests. He examined how the interests of individuals can be aggregated to guide political decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> (1711–1776)<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> agreed with Hobbes's subjectivism, exploring <a href="/wiki/Is%E2%80%93ought_problem" title="Is–ought problem">how values differ from objective facts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> (1724–1804)<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asserted that the highest good is happiness in proportion to moral virtue. He emphasized the primacy of virtue by respecting the moral law and the inherent value of people, adding that moral virtue is ideally, but not always, accompanied by personal happiness.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Bentham" title="Jeremy Bentham">Jeremy Bentham</a> (1748–1832)<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/John_Stuart_Mill" title="John Stuart Mill">John Stuart Mill</a> (1806–1873)<sup id="cite_ref-205" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formulated <a href="/wiki/Classical_utilitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical utilitarianism">classical utilitarianism</a>, combining a <a href="/wiki/Hedonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Hedonist">hedonist</a> theory about value with a <a href="/wiki/Consequentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Consequentialist">consequentialist</a> theory about right action.<sup id="cite_ref-206" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Hermann Lotze</a> (1817–1881)<sup id="cite_ref-207" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed a philosophy of values, holding that values make the world meaningful as an ordered whole centered around goodness.<sup id="cite_ref-208" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Influenced by Lotze, the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Kantian">neo-Kantian</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a> (1848–1915)<sup id="cite_ref-209" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> understood philosophy as a theory of values, claiming that universal values determine the principles that all subjects should follow, including the norms of knowledge and action.<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> (1844–1900)<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> held that values are human creations. He criticized traditional values in general and Christian values in particular, calling for a <a href="/wiki/Transvaluation_of_values" title="Transvaluation of values">revaluation of all values</a> centered on life-affirmation, power, and excellence.<sup id="cite_ref-212" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> (1859–1952)<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formulated an axiological <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>. He distinguished values from value judgments, adding that the skill of correct value assessment must be learned through experience.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-216" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>u<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> (1873–1958)<sup id="cite_ref-217" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed and refined various axiological concepts, such as organic unities and the contrast between intrinsic and extrinsic value. He defended <a href="/wiki/Ethical_non-naturalism" title="Ethical non-naturalism">non-naturalism</a> about the nature of values and <a href="/wiki/Ethical_intuitionism" title="Ethical intuitionism">intuitionism</a> about the knowledge of values.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/W._D._Ross" title="W. D. Ross">W. D. Ross</a> (1877–1971)<sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> accepted and further elaborated on Moore's intuitionism, using it to formulate an axiological pluralism.<sup id="cite_ref-220" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-222" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>v<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/R._B._Perry" class="mw-redirect" title="R. B. Perry">R. B. Perry</a> (1876–1957)<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/David_Prall" title="David Prall">D. W. Prall</a> (1886–1940)<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> articulated systematic theories of value based on the idea that values originate in affective states such as interest and liking.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._Hartman" title="Robert S. Hartman">Robert S. Hartman</a> (1910–1973)<sup id="cite_ref-226" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> developed formal axiology, saying that values measure the level to which a thing embodies its ideal concept.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a> (1910–1989)<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proposed anti-realism about values, arguing that <a href="/wiki/Expressivism" title="Expressivism">value statements merely express</a> the speaker's approval or disapproval.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different type of anti-realism, formulated by <a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a> (1917–1981),<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asserts that <a href="/wiki/Error_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Error theory">all value assertions are false</a> since no values exist.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/G._H._von_Wright" class="mw-redirect" title="G. H. von Wright">G. H. von Wright</a> (1916–2003)<sup id="cite_ref-232" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> provided a <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Conceptual analysis">conceptual analysis</a> of the term <i>good</i> by distinguishing different meanings or varieties of goodness, such as the technical goodness of a good driver and the hedonic goodness of a good meal.<sup id="cite_ref-233" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna,_1875.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Franz Brentano" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png/150px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png/225px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png/300px-Franz_Brentano_in_Vienna%2C_1875.png 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="1218" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a> articulated an early version of the fitting-attitude theory of value.</figcaption></figure> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">continental philosophy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a> (1838–1917)<sup id="cite_ref-234" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> formulated an early version of the fitting-attitude theory of value, saying that a thing is good if it is fitting to have a positive attitude towards it, such as love.<sup id="cite_ref-235" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1890s, his students <a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Alexius Meinong</a> (1853–1920)<sup id="cite_ref-auto_236-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_von_Ehrenfels" title="Christian von Ehrenfels">Christian von Ehrenfels</a> (1859–1932)<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conceived the idea of a general theory of values.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a> (1859–1938),<sup id="cite_ref-auto_236-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> another of Brentano's students, developed <a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">phenomenology</a> and applied this approach to the study of values.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Husserl's approach, <a href="/wiki/Max_Scheler" title="Max Scheler">Max Scheler</a> (1874–1928) and <a href="/wiki/Nicolai_Hartmann" title="Nicolai Hartmann">Nicolai Hartmann</a> (1882–1950) each proposed a comprehensive system of <a href="/wiki/Axiological_ethics" title="Axiological ethics">axiological ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asserting that values have objective reality, they explored how different value types form a value hierarchy and examined the problems of value conflicts and right decisions from this hierarchical perspective.<sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> (1889–1976)<sup id="cite_ref-242" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> criticized value theory, claiming that it rests on a mistaken <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> perspective by understanding values as aspects of things.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Existentialist" class="mw-redirect" title="Existentialist">Existentialist</a> philosopher <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> (1905–1980)<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> said that values do not exist by themselves but are actively created, emphasizing the role of human <a href="/wiki/Freedom" title="Freedom">freedom</a>, responsibility, and <a href="/wiki/Authenticity_(philosophy)" title="Authenticity (philosophy)">authenticity</a> in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Another view sees axiology as the wider field and restricts value theory to questions concerning the nature of value.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The term <i>value</i> has other meanings as well, such as the value of a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical">mathematical</a> variable expressing the information or quantity that this variable carries.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Value theory is only interested in the evaluative sense of the term about being <a href="/wiki/Good" title="Good">good</a> or bad in a certain respect.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some philosophers, such as <a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iris_Murdoch" title="Iris Murdoch">Iris Murdoch</a>, have argued that there are no pure thin evaluative terms.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Critics of this thought experiment argue that it depends on controversial assumptions about the nature of intrinsic value and is not applicable to all cases.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a>, some works rely on the concept of <i>relational value</i> to understand the value of the relationship between humans and nature. According to this view, relational value is a unique type of value that is neither intrinsic nor instrumental.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Prudential_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Prudential value">Prudential value</a> is a closely related concept signifying what is good for a person.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Consequentialism is a theory in <a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">normative ethics</a>. It says that an act is right if it leads to the best consequences.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic philosophy">scholastic philosophy</a>, they are known as <a href="/wiki/Transcendentals" title="Transcendentals">transcendentals</a> and considered fundamental aspects of being.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">If this position limits itself to the moral realm, it is known as <a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">moral realism</a>, an influential position in <a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">ethics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This view is sometimes called <i>radical <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilism</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This means that value statements are neither true nor false.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Projectivism" title="Projectivism">Projectivism</a> is a closely related view holding that values are projections of emotions onto the world.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This view is sometimes called <i>axiological hedonism</i> to distinguish it from related theories under this label.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some theorists use the terms <i>desire satisfaction</i> and <i>desire fulfillment</i> as synonyms while others distinguish between them. According to the latter view, desire satisfaction is a subjective state involving a possibly false belief that a desire is satisfied. Desire fulfillment is an objective state present if the desired outcome actually exists, even if the person does not know about it.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Some desire theories aim to explain goodness in general while others restrict themselves to goodness for a person.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In some places, Scheler talks about four levels instead of five: sensory, vital, spiritual, and holy.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">More specifically, this implies that one value is not better than the other, not worse than the other, and not as good as the other.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Moore's isolation test is another influential thought experiment about intrinsic value.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This problem is the main topic of Moore's controversial <a href="/wiki/Open_question_argument" class="mw-redirect" title="Open question argument">open question argument</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_130-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">This period is given in traditional sources. Some contemporary scholars have suggested later dates or questioned whether there was a single person by that name.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Irving_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Irving Lewis">Clarence Irving Lewis</a> (1883-1964) accepted and further elaborated many of Dewey's insights.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ross is primarily known for his deontological pluralism about different types of <a href="/wiki/Prima_facie_duties" class="mw-redirect" title="Prima facie duties">prima facie duties</a>, which is related but not identical to his axiological pluralism about different types of values.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-auto2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSmithThomas1998">Smith & Thomas 1998</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiroseOlson2015">Hirose & Olson 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA1">1, 4–6</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W2a4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67–68</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHiles2008">Hiles 2008</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=byh1AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT84">52–53</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W2a4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67–68</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA4">4–5</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCowan2020">Cowan 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">4</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ADG4EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiroseOlson2015">Hirose & Olson 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1–2</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA4">4–5</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto7-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">357</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTaliaferro2010">Taliaferro 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CfWoAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">24</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFArneson2009">Arneson 2009</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC&pg=PA69">69–70</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFGrünberg2000">Grünberg 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cFsiNrHfN1AC&pg=PA11">11–12</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, p. 29</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6–7</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrenzGuretzkiNordling2010">Grenz, Guretzki & Nordling 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18">18</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGrünberg2000">Grünberg 2000</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cFsiNrHfN1AC&pg=PA11">11–12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarperCollins2022">HarperCollins 2022</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1. Basic Questions</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1">1</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher1969">Rescher 1969</a>, p. 1</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWilandDriver2022">Wiland & Driver 2022</a>, § 2. Moral and Political Philosophy</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChappell2013">Chappell 2013</a>, pp. 188–189</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">2–3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiroseOlson2015">Hirose & Olson 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1.2 Good, Better, Bad, § 2.3 Incommensurability/Incomparability</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122">122–123</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTappolet2015">Tappolet 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA82">82</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 636–637</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher1969">Rescher 1969</a>, pp. 61–62</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 636–637</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 3. Relation to the Deontic</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">357–358</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8">8–9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 3. Relation to the Deontic</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">357–358</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W2a4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70">70</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1.1 Varieties of Goodness</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA22">22–23</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher1969">Rescher 1969</a>, pp. 13–14, 18</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006a">Hurka 2006a</a>, pp. 719–720</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.1 Intrinsic Value</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015">Rønnow-Rasmussen 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">29–30</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006a">Hurka 2006a</a>, pp. 719–720</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 6. What Is Extrinsic Value?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 2. What Is Intrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015">Rønnow-Rasmussen 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA30">30–31</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA31">31–32</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 1. What Has Intrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.1 Intrinsic Value</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchellekens2010">Schellekens 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LB4SBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA38">38</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFVilkka2021">Vilkka 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2WxPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA32">32</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 6. What Is Extrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2001">Zimmerman 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pqECJM08rkC&pg=PA253">253</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 6. What Is Extrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2001">Zimmerman 2001</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pqECJM08rkC&pg=PA252">252</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.1 Intrinsic Value</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019">Zimmerman & Bradley 2019</a>, § 3. Is There Such a Thing As Intrinsic Value At All?, § 6. What Is Extrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015">Rønnow-Rasmussen 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA29">29–30</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFChanGouldPascual2018">Chan, Gould & Pascual 2018</a>, pp. A1–A2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJax2023">Jax 2023</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j57WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT38">59–60</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGupta2024">Gupta 2024</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U9EEEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">11</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45">45–46</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1. Basic Questions</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1. Basic Questions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFZimmerman2015">Zimmerman 2015</a>, pp. 13–14</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSilverstein2016">Silverstein 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=96qkDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA227">227</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTiberius2015">Tiberius 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA158">158</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63">63–64</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1. Basic Questions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2011">Rønnow-Rasmussen 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b_O3l9_QgNgC&pg=PA1">1–2</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1.1.1 Good Simpliciter and Good For</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA63">63–65</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHaines">Haines</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHooker2023">Hooker 2023</a>, § 1. Utilitarianism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">73–74</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 3.3 Agent-Relative Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCullity2015">Cullity 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">96–97</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA45">45–46, 61</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 1.1.2 Attributive Good</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRescher1969">Rescher 1969</a>, pp. 13–14</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRescher1969">Rescher 1969</a>, pp. 15–16, 18</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPradhan2024">Pradhan 2024</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m4wWEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA142">142</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHartman2011">Hartman 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA306">306</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDe_Haan2020">De Haan 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a5EHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA302">302</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W2a4BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">80–81</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOllig1998">Ollig 1998</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/neo-kantianism/v-1">Lead section</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMartin2016">Martin 2016</a>, pp. 3–5, 42–43</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMartin2016">Martin 2016</a>, pp. 4–5</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKriegel2018">Kriegel 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3e9IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA96">96–97, 149, 253, 288</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA44">44</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA60">60–63</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.1.1 What is Intrinsic Value?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015">Rønnow-Rasmussen 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA39">39–40</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski2004">Zagzebski 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KhqPito92b8C&pg=PA11">11</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 639–640</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski2004">Zagzebski 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KhqPito92b8C&pg=PA11">11–12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 639–640</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 639–640</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLutz2023">Lutz 2023</a>, Lead section, § 1. What Is Moral Naturalism?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLapp">DeLapp</a>, § 4a. Moral Realisms</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFitzPatrick2011">FitzPatrick 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230294899_2">7–8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRidge2019">Ridge 2019</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">35</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBradley2006">Bradley 2006</a>, pp. 111–112</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliveira2016">Oliveira 2016</a>, § 1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">35</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBradley2006">Bradley 2006</a>, pp. 111–112, 115</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliveira2016">Oliveira 2016</a>, § 1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA35">35–36, 130–131</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBradley2006">Bradley 2006</a>, pp. 111–112</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section, § Are Value Claims Truth Evaluable?, § Value Realism by Degrees: a Flow Chart</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Are Value Claims Truth Evaluable?, § Quasi-Realism and Creeping Minimalism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHarperCollins2022a">HarperCollins 2022a</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Are Value Claims Truth Evaluable?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTappolet2015">Tappolet 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">80</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeNicola2019">DeNicola 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_sp6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA267">267</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFTappolet2015">Tappolet 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80">80</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Quasi-Realism and Creeping Minimalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Do Value Claims Have Truth Makers?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord1988">Sayre-McCord 1988</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-msmrkE-67IC&pg=PA10">10</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski2004">Zagzebski 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KhqPito92b8C&pg=PA14">14</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Are the Value Facts Mind Independent?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2015">Oddie 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60–62</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMander2016">Mander 2016</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f0UFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14">§ 2.3 An Overview</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOnof">Onof</a>, §6c. An Ethical Dimension</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLandau2012">Landau 2012</a>, pp. 1–2</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, § Are the Value Facts Mind Independent?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2015">Oddie 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60">60–62</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2013">Oddie 2013</a>, Lead section, § Are the Value Facts Irreducible?, § Value Realism by Degrees: a Flow Chart</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2015">Oddie 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA67">67–68</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliver1998">Oliver 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">357</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOliveira2016">Oliveira 2016</a>, § 1. Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKershnar2010">Kershnar 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vwMN7WRb2fEC&pg=PA37">37</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFde_Bres2014">de Bres 2014</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-rawls-lexicon/hedonism/602FBE3D4ACFED4422C43BCCBA3BAB48">336–338</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA359">359</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA359">359–360</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoore2019">Moore 2019</a>, § 2. Ethical Hedonism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA360">360</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA361">361</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMoore2019">Moore 2019</a>, § 2.3 Other Arguments Against Ethical Hedonism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2021">Crisp 2021</a>, Lead section, § 5.1 Welfarism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHallTiberius2015">Hall & Tiberius 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zZdGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA175">175–176</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFNebel2024">Nebel 2024</a>, § Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOddie2017">Oddie 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OTElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">49</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362">362–363</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFScanlon1993">Scanlon 1993</a>, pp. 186–187</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA361">361–362, 364</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362">362–363</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA362">362–363</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2016">Heathwood 2016</a>, pp. 138–140</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 3.2 Fitting Attitudes</li><li><a href="#CITEREFScanlon1993">Scanlon 1993</a>, pp. 186–187</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSheaKintz2022">Shea & Kintz 2022</a>, p. 461</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364">364–366</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWall2021">Wall 2021</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140">140</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364">364</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA365">365–366</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWall2021">Wall 2021</a>, § 1. Perfectionism and Value Theory</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWall2021">Wall 2021</a>, § 1. Perfectionism and Value Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGill2024">Gill 2024</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VMcFEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">85</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136">136–137, 139–140</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.2 Monism/Pluralism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA358">358–359</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.2 Monism/Pluralism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA145">145–146</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 2. The Attraction of Pluralism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.2 Monism/Pluralism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § 2.2.2 Revisionary Commitments?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 4. Pluralism and Rational Choice</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, Lead section, § 4. Deliberation and Choice</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKinneging2011">Kinneging 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1Qya55bssVQC&pg=PA206">206–207</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPerrin1991">Perrin 1991</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-6ewCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">69, 73–74, 76</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPerrin1991">Perrin 1991</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-6ewCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69">69, 73–74, 76–80</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDavisSteinbock2024">Davis & Steinbock 2024</a>, § 3. Value Personalism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPerrin1991">Perrin 1991</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-6ewCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA76">76–80</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142">142–143</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, § 1.2 Incommensurable or Incomparable?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, § 1.2 Incommensurable or Incomparable?</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 4.4 Accepting Incomparability</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, § 3.2 Moral Dilemmas?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeathwood2015">Heathwood 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142">142–143</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 4.4 Accepting Incomparability</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, § 1.2 Incommensurable or Incomparable?</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChernissHardy2023">Cherniss & Hardy 2023</a>, § 4.1 Berlin’s Definition of Value Pluralism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 4. Pluralism and Rational Choice</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021">Hsieh & Andersson 2021</a>, § 1.2 Incommensurable or Incomparable?</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2001">Oddie 2001</a>, pp. 313, 318</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDancy2004">Dancy 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_78SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA188">188</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHurka2021">Hurka 2021</a>, § 4. The Ideal</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOddie2001">Oddie 2001</a>, pp. 313, 318</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDancy2004">Dancy 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_78SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176">176–177</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98">98–100</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021a">Schroeder 2021a</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDancy2004">Dancy 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_78SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA176">176–177</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHoltug2015">Holtug 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA267">267–268</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPeterson2013">Peterson 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KscNwy-F3u8C&pg=PA147">147</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHirose2015">Hirose 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-5jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">25–27</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto6-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_117-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_117-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHoltug2015">Holtug 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA273">273</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPeterson2013">Peterson 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KscNwy-F3u8C&pg=PA147">147</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHirose2015">Hirose 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-5jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">25–27</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMetz2023">Metz 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCowan2020">Cowan 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">25–26</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGroothuis2020">Groothuis 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160">160–162</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMetz2023">Metz 2023</a>, § 3. Naturalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCowan2020">Cowan 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA25">25–26</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFYalom2020">Yalom 2020</a>, pp. 431–435</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMetz2023">Metz 2023</a>, § 2. Supernaturalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGroothuis2020">Groothuis 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162–164</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSeachris">Seachris</a>, § 3. Theories of Meaning <i>in</i> Life</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMetz2023">Metz 2023</a>, 4. Nihilism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPratt">Pratt</a>, § 3. 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Value Personalism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 371–372</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGrünberg1990">Grünberg 1990</a>, pp. 199–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1997">Hart 1997</a>, pp. 1–2, 6–7</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSmith">Smith</a>, § b. Phenomenological Reduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFStaiti2020">Staiti 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TGMPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA368">368–369</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMoritz1972">Moritz 1972</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-2424-2_3">33–46</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, § Basic Questions</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_130-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_130-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLaskowskiFinlay2017">Laskowski & Finlay 2017</a>, pp. 537–539</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChrisman2016">Chrisman 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JiklDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79">79</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 106, 108</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiles2008">Hiles 2008</a>, p. 53</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 106–107</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPowe2007">Powe 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QpIgHPHmegsC&pg=PA123">123</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartzCieciuch2016109–113-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchwartzCieciuch2016109–113_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 109–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 109–113</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, § The Rokeach tradition, § The Schwartz Scale of Values</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFNorman2005">Norman 2005</a>, p. 622</li><li><a href="#CITEREFNagel2006">Nagel 2006</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2011">Crisp 2011</a>, § 1. Ethics and Metaethics</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSchroeder2021">Schroeder 2021</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOrsi2015">Orsi 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cc3cBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFCowan2020">Cowan 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-2jDDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHurka2006">Hurka 2006</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K44RDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA357">357–358</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, pp. 1–2, 4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKupperman2005">Kupperman 2005</a>, pp. 73–74</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005">Crisp 2005</a>, pp. 200–201</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021">Alexander & Moore 2021</a>, § 1. Deontology's Foil: Consequentialism</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDorsey2020">Dorsey 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=d0D8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">97–98</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, § 1. Classic Utilitarianism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChenneville2017">Chenneville 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yn06DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHearn1971">Hearn 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0z_z0RYmr38C&pg=PA2">2</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPape2000">Pape 2000</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fYzMz3UlyaMC&pg=PA7">7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWelchWelch2009">Welch & Welch 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=O5i-d3thv-4C&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMukherjeeMukherjeeGhose2013">Mukherjee, Mukherjee & Ghose 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iVKja7n06iIC&pg=PA17">17</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, p. 1</li><li><a href="#CITEREFYoungLoomis2014">Young & Loomis 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=brDcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289">289</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTurnerGeorgiouClarkBrouwer2004">Turner et al. 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=coz0lmhjZAYC&pg=PA50">50</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, pp. 1, 8–9</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAyres2023">Ayres 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GW28EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">104</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFraser2009">Fraser 2009</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRogersCastreeKitchin2013">Rogers, Castree & Kitchin 2013</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, pp. 2–3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAyres2023">Ayres 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GW28EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">104</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMoseley2023">Moseley 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=43m-EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA48">48</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, pp. 7–8</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPirgmaier2021">Pirgmaier 2021</a>, p. 3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBlackHashimzadeMyles2009">Black, Hashimzade & Myles 2009</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAyres2023">Ayres 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GW28EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA104">104</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBhushanSachdeva2012">Bhushan & Sachdeva 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qgZFB3UOuNkC&pg=PA4">4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSharma1996">Sharma 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QQ1nBcV_zCMC&pg=PA10">10</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, Lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 33–34, 37, 39–40</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTormos2019">Tormos 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u8y8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11">11</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, Lead section, § Social Values</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 39–40, 47</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, Lead section, § The Rokeach Tradition, § The Schwartz Scale of Values</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTormos2019">Tormos 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u8y8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13–15</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSutton2021">Sutton 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pjAXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFluehr-Lobban2013">Fluehr-Lobban 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LUJPAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA158">158</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRobbins2023">Robbins 2023</a>, § Foundations of Value Theory, § A Third Approach to Value</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 53–54, 56, 58</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 3, 55</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRobbins2023">Robbins 2023</a>, § Foundations of Value Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSykes2016">Sykes 2016</a>, § Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, p. 54</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRobbins2023">Robbins 2023</a>, § Foundations of Value Theory</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRobbins2023">Robbins 2023</a>, § Foundations of Value Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSykes2016">Sykes 2016</a>, § Introduction, § General Overviews</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 3, 61–62</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKarp2000">Karp 2000</a>, § Individualism and Collectivism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFatehiPriestleyTaasoobshirazi2020">Fatehi, Priestley & Taasoobshirazi 2020</a>, pp. 7–9</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKim2002">Kim 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bsr3h16zrkwC&pg=PA22">22</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSernaMartínez2022">Serna & Martínez 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tIedEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA423">423</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, p. 4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFWoodworthMarquis2014">Woodworth & Marquis 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IXPpAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 7–8</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 106–107</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 14, 19–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 4, 11–12</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, p. 106</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 11–12</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, p. 106</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 12–13</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 106–107</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSteinert2023">Steinert 2023</a>, pp. 13–15</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016">Schwartz & Cieciuch 2016</a>, pp. 107–108</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 636–637</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, p. 3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChang2001">Chang 2001</a>, pp. 68–69</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSharma1991">Sharma 1991</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5tSOV8W1aCUC&pg=PA27">27–28</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDevettere2002">Devettere 2002</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sPwqJHoBD5EC&pg=PA33">33–34</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeinaman2016">Heinaman 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jEYlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA123">123–124</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 156</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHonderich2005">Honderich 2005</a>, p. 349</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA112">112</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHiles2008">Hiles 2008</a>, pp. 52–53</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 639</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCrisp2005a">Crisp 2005a</a>, p. 349</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFO’Keefe">O’Keefe</a>, § 5. Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFGaskin2005">Gaskin 2005</a>, p. 258</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 639</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDurandShogryBaltzly2023">Durand, Shogry & Baltzly 2023</a>, § 4. Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPigliucci">Pigliucci</a>, § 3. The Third Topos: Ethics, § 4. Apatheia and the Stoic Treatment of Emotions</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA112">112</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDarr2023">Darr 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HgvYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108">108</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEmilsson1998">Emilsson 1998</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBorgolte2019">Borgolte 2019</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8cy8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA97">97</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSharma1999">Sharma 1999</a>, p. 230</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBartley2020">Bartley 2020</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t28xEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37">37–38, 136</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRanganathan">Ranganathan</a>, § 1a.iii. Puruṣārthas : dharma, artha, kāma and mokṣa</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSharma1999">Sharma 1999</a>, pp. 223–225, 230</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBailey2011">Bailey 2011</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSharma1999">Sharma 1999</a>, p. 230</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWilson2010">Wilson 2010</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLittlejohn">Littlejohn</a>, § 1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEbrey2010">Ebrey 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vr81YoYK0c4C&pg=PA43">43</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSim2015">Sim 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0WLABgAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64, 74</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFRichey">Richey</a>, § 6. Self-cultivation</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLittlejohn">Littlejohn</a>, § 1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChan2018">Chan 2018</a>, Lead section, § 2. Date and Authorship of the <i>Laozi</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAssandri2021">Assandri 2021</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ui5CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70">70–71</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBoydTimpe2021">Boyd & Timpe 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSlingerland2007">Slingerland 2007</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77">77</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFChan2018">Chan 2018</a>, Lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBahm1993">Bahm 1993</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jqSRrmtQ_WoC&pg=PA112">112</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 639</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDarr2023">Darr 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HgvYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA108">108</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 185</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWieland2002">Wieland 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PtLyH02x60MC&pg=PA59">59</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFZagzebski2004a">Zagzebski 2004a</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GbcuCf9TlDgC&pg=PA350">350</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPeterson2008">Peterson 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C6u8kXWTjwwC&pg=PA235">235</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGermann2021">Germann 2021</a>, § 2.1 Happiness and the afterlife</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 19</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcGinnis2010">McGinnis 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M28EjkCdFecC&pg=PA209">209–210</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 175</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDalal2021">Dalal 2021</a>, Lead section</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBerthrong">Berthrong</a>, § 3. The Emergence of Neo-Confucianism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHartman1998">Hartman 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 88</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHardin2009">Hardin 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hud0ZH-heB0C&pg=PA1">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHardin2009">Hardin 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hud0ZH-heB0C&pg=PA1">[2]</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, p. 3</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 105</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEngstrom1992">Engstrom 1992</a>, p. 747</li><li><a href="#CITEREFJohnsonCureton2024">Johnson & Cureton 2024</a>, § 1. Aims and Methods of Moral Philosophy, § 2. Good Will, Moral Worth and Duty</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 373–374</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 132</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 639</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023">Sinnott-Armstrong 2023</a>, § 1. Classic Utilitarianism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFChenneville2017">Chenneville 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yn06DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5">5</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHearn1971">Hearn 1971</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0z_z0RYmr38C&pg=PA2">2</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodward2015">Woodward 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L4dsCQAAQBAJ&pg=PR1">i</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSullivan2023">Sullivan 2023</a>, § 5.3 Value Theory</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, p. 3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSullivan1998">Sullivan 1998</a>, § 4. Metaphysics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMilkov">Milkov</a>, § 3a. Ethics</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 636</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDafermos2018">Dafermos 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uC1bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20">20</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeis2018">Heis 2018</a>, § 3.1 Conception of Philosophy: Philosophy as Theory of Value</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKinzel2024">Kinzel 2024</a>, § 2. From Kant to the Philosophy of Values</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiles2008">Hiles 2008</a>, p. 52</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 636, 639</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLi2014">Li 2014</a>, p. 4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2024">Anderson 2024</a>, § 3. Value Creation</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHiles2008">Hiles 2008</a>, p. 52</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 374, 378</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 52</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, pp. 36–38</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarcum2008">Marcum 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1arGI9NZcAkC&pg=PA192">192</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, pp. 37–38</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 443</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, pp. 2, 37–38, 41</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDancy2004">Dancy 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_78SDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165">165</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, p. 33</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunnan2020">Kunnan 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IwgLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">86</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 1.1 Foundational and Non-foundational Pluralism</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSimpson">Simpson</a>, Lead section, § 6. Ross’s Ethical Theory: Main Components and Principles</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, p. 2</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMason2023">Mason 2023</a>, § 1.1 Foundational and Non-foundational Pluralism</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAnderson2013">Anderson 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SFVhEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA222">222</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTownsend2006">Townsend 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGgAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR16">xvi</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, p. 31</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 637</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEdwardsHartman2023">Edwards & Hartman 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y8rAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA173">173</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEdwards2021">Edwards 2021</a>, pp. 3–4</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHartman2011">Hartman 2011</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1UX7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA105">105–106</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTuboly2021">Tuboly 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, pp. 34–35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBunninYu2009">Bunnin & Yu 2009</a>, p. 406</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSayre-McCord1988">Sayre-McCord 1988</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-msmrkE-67IC&pg=PA11">11–12</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRosenkrantzHoffman2011">Rosenkrantz & Hoffman 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DQW9nyBCClMC&pg=PA332">332</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 637–638</li><li><a href="#CITEREFYliriskuArvola2018">Ylirisku & Arvola 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ed1ODwAAQBAJ&pg=PA53">53</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKriegel2018">Kriegel 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3e9IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">2</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKriegel2018">Kriegel 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3e9IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA10">10–11, 218, 221–222</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKriegel2017">Kriegel 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4kUlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12">12</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_236-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_236-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKuijper2022">Kuijper 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-FZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA298">298</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFZimmer2017">Zimmer 2017</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135">135</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 637</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, pp. 30–31</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 637</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 371–372</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, p. 637</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, p. 32</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 371–372</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLøgstrup2020">Løgstrup 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aurkDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR141">105</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFFrankena2006">Frankena 2006</a>, pp. 637–639</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, p. 2</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHart1971">Hart 1971</a>, p. 32</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 372–373, 384–386</li><li><a href="#CITEREFFindlay1970">Findlay 1970</a>, pp. 2–3</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSullivan2023">Sullivan 2023</a>, § 5.3 Value Theory</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDehsen2013">Dehsen 2013</a>, p. 168</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006">Abelson & Nielsen 2006</a>, pp. 426–428</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDirek2014">Direk 2014</a>, pp. 384–385</li></ul></div></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Value_theory&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006" class="citation book cs1">Abelson, Raziel; Nielsen, Kai (2006). "Ethics, History of". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 3 (2. ed.). Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1"><bdi>978-0-02-866072-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethics%2C+History+of&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=2.&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866072-1&rft.aulast=Abelson&rft.aufirst=Raziel&rft.au=Nielsen%2C+Kai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021" class="citation web cs1">Alexander, Larry; Moore, Michael (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">"Deontological Ethics"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230620084241/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/">Archived</a> from the original on June 20, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Deontological+Ethics&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Alexander&rft.aufirst=Larry&rft.au=Moore%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fethics-deontological%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2013" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Douglas R. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SFVhEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA222">"Peirce: Pragmatism and Nature after Hegel"</a>. In Schrift, Alan D. (ed.). <i>The History of Continental Philosophy</i>. Vol. 2. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74049-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74049-2"><bdi>978-0-226-74049-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Peirce%3A+Pragmatism+and+Nature+after+Hegel&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Continental+Philosophy&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-226-74049-2&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Douglas+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSFVhEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA1-PA222&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2024" class="citation web cs1">Anderson, R. Lanier (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/">"Friedrich Nietzsche"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180904231138/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/nietzsche/">Archived</a> from the original on 4 September 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Friedrich+Nietzsche&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=R.+Lanier&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fnietzsche%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArneson2009" class="citation book cs1">Arneson, Pat (18 August 2009). "Axiology". In Littlejohn, Stephen W.; Foss, Karen A. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2veMwywplPUC"><i>Encyclopedia of Communication Theory</i></a>. SAGE Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5937-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-5937-7"><bdi>978-1-4129-5937-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Axiology&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Communication+Theory&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=2009-08-18&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-5937-7&rft.aulast=Arneson&rft.aufirst=Pat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2veMwywplPUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAssandri2021" class="citation book cs1">Assandri, Friederike (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ui5CEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA70"><i>The Daode Jing Commentary of Cheng Xuanying: Daoism, Buddhism, and the Laozi in the Tang Dynasty</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-087645-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-087645-6"><bdi>978-0-19-087645-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Daode+Jing+Commentary+of+Cheng+Xuanying%3A+Daoism%2C+Buddhism%2C+and+the+Laozi+in+the+Tang+Dynasty&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-087645-6&rft.aulast=Assandri&rft.aufirst=Friederike&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUi5CEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAudi2004" class="citation book cs1">Audi, Robert (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=S_RrKGcgSewC&pg=PA1"><i>The Good in the Right: A Theory of Intuition and Intrinsic Value</i></a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2607-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-2607-0"><bdi>978-1-4008-2607-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Good+in+the+Right%3A+A+Theory+of+Intuition+and+Intrinsic+Value&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-2607-0&rft.aulast=Audi&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DS_RrKGcgSewC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAyres2023" class="citation book cs1">Ayres, Robert U. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399318-0044">10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0044</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922163611/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195399318/obo-9780195399318-0044.xml">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8084-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-8084-9"><bdi>978-0-7486-8084-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indian+Philosophy+A-Z&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-7486-8084-9&rft.aulast=Bartley&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt28xEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerthrong" class="citation web cs1">Berthrong, John H. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/neo-confucian-philosophy/">"Neo-Confucian Philosophy"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240206021859/https://iep.utm.edu/neo-confucian-philosophy/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Pearson Education India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-9967-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-9967-3"><bdi>978-81-317-9967-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+Sociology&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-81-317-9967-3&rft.aulast=Bhushan&rft.aufirst=Vidya&rft.au=Sachdeva%2C+D.+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqgZFB3UOuNkC%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlackHashimzadeMyles2009" class="citation book cs1">Black, John; Hashimzade, Nigar; Myles, Gareth (2009). 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BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41508-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41508-9"><bdi>978-90-04-41508-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+History+as+the+History+of+Foundations%2C+3000+BCE+to+1500+CE&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41508-9&rft.aulast=Borgolte&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8cy8DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoydTimpe2021" class="citation book cs1">Boyd, Craig A.; Timpe, Kevin (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64"><i>The Virtues: A Very Short Introduction</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-258407-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-258407-6"><bdi>978-0-19-258407-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 19,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Virtues%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-19-258407-6&rft.aulast=Boyd&rft.aufirst=Craig+A.&rft.au=Timpe%2C+Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOIskEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley2006" class="citation journal cs1">Bradley, Ben (2006). 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Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-315-43832-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-315-43832-0"><bdi>978-1-315-43832-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+this+Thing+Called+Metaethics%3F&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-315-43832-0&rft.aulast=Chrisman&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJiklDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan2020" class="citation book cs1">Cowan, Steven B. (2020). "Introduction to Part One". In Cowan, Steven B. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">17–</span>27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-14741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-14741-6"><bdi>978-1-350-14741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Part+One&rft.btitle=Problems+in+Value+Theory%3A+An+Introduction+to+Contemporary+Debates&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E27&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-350-14741-6&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=Steven+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_2jDDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrisp2005" class="citation book cs1">Crisp, Roger (2005). 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SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-719-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88706-719-8"><bdi>978-0-88706-719-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Specter+of+the+Absurd%3A+Sources+and+Criticisms+of+Modern+Nihilism&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-88706-719-8&rft.aulast=Crosby&rft.aufirst=Donald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9VnPgFiW0CIC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrosby1998" class="citation book cs1">Crosby, Donald A. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Neutral+and+Relative+Value&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Cullity&rft.aufirst=Garrett&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDabbagh2022" class="citation book cs1">Dabbagh, Hossein (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jwuHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53"><i>The Moral Epistemology of Intuitionism: Neuroethics and Seeming States</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-29758-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-29758-6"><bdi>978-1-350-29758-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Moral+Epistemology+of+Intuitionism%3A+Neuroethics+and+Seeming+States&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-350-29758-6&rft.aulast=Dabbagh&rft.aufirst=Hossein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjwuHEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDafermos2018" class="citation book cs1">Dafermos, Manolis (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uC1bDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA20"><i>Rethinking Cultural-Historical Theory: A Dialectical Perspective to Vygotsky</i></a>. Springer Nature Singapore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-13-0191-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-13-0191-9"><bdi>978-981-13-0191-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Cultural-Historical+Theory%3A+A+Dialectical+Perspective+to+Vygotsky&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Singapore&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-981-13-0191-9&rft.aulast=Dafermos&rft.aufirst=Manolis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuC1bDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalal2021" class="citation web cs1">Dalal, Neil (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/shankara/">"Śaṅkara"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-82999-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-82999-9"><bdi>978-0-226-82999-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Best+Effect%3A+Theology+and+the+Origins+of+Consequentialism&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-0-226-82999-9&rft.aulast=Darr&rft.aufirst=Ryan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHgvYEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA108&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavisSteinbock2024" class="citation web cs1">Davis, Zachary; Steinbock, Anthony (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scheler/">"Max Scheler"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-333-00269-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-333-00269-8"><bdi>978-0-333-00269-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Axiological+Ethics&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1970&rft.isbn=978-0-333-00269-8&rft.aulast=Findlay&rft.aufirst=John+Niemeyer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzPatrick2011" class="citation book cs1">FitzPatrick, William J. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230294899_2">"Ethical Non-Naturalism and Normative Properties"</a>. In Brady, Michael (ed.). <i>New Waves in Metaethics</i>. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. <span class="nowrap">7–</span>35. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1057%2F9780230294899_2">10.1057/9780230294899_2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-29489-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-29489-9"><bdi>978-0-230-29489-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201103435/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230294899_2">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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AltaMira Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2188-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-2188-1"><bdi>978-0-7591-2188-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ethics+and+Anthropology%3A+Ideas+and+Practice&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-2188-1&rft.aulast=Fluehr-Lobban&rft.aufirst=Carolyn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLUJPAQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrankena2006" class="citation book cs1">Frankena, William K. (2006). "Value and Valuation". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 9 (2 ed.). 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920780-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-920780-0"><bdi>978-0-19-920780-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922163703/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095803703">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-009-47674-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-009-47674-4"><bdi>978-1-009-47674-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Human+Perfection%2C+Transfiguration+and+Christian+Ethics&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-009-47674-4&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=Robin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVMcFEQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoffiRoux2011" class="citation journal cs1">Goffi, Jean-Yves; <a href="/wiki/Sophie_Roux" title="Sophie Roux">Roux, Sophie</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">"On the Very Idea of a Thought Experiment"</a>. <i>Thought Experiments in Methodological and Historical Contexts</i>. Brill: <span class="nowrap">165–</span>191. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2Fej.9789004201767.i-233.35">10.1163/ej.9789004201767.i-233.35</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20177-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-20177-4"><bdi>978-90-04-20177-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:260640180">260640180</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030152653/https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Thought+Experiments+in+Methodological+and+Historical+Contexts&rft.atitle=On+the+Very+Idea+of+a+Thought+Experiment&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E165-%3C%2Fspan%3E191&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A260640180%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2Fej.9789004201767.i-233.35&rft.isbn=978-90-04-20177-4&rft.aulast=Goffi&rft.aufirst=Jean-Yves&rft.au=Roux%2C+Sophie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FGOFOTV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrenzGuretzkiNordling2010" class="citation book cs1">Grenz, Stanley J.; Guretzki, David; Nordling, Cherith Fee (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Iv-LCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA18"><i>Pocket Dictionary of Theological Terms</i></a>. InterVarsity Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-6707-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-6707-3"><bdi>978-0-8308-6707-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pocket+Dictionary+of+Theological+Terms&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-6707-3&rft.aulast=Grenz&rft.aufirst=Stanley+J.&rft.au=Guretzki%2C+David&rft.au=Nordling%2C+Cherith+Fee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIv-LCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroothuis2020" class="citation book cs1">Groothuis, Douglas (2020). "The Meaning of Life Is Found in God". In Cowan, Steven B. 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Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. <span class="nowrap">160–</span>170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-350-14741-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-350-14741-6"><bdi>978-1-350-14741-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Meaning+of+Life+Is+Found+in+God&rft.btitle=Problems+in+Value+Theory%3A+An+Introduction+to+Contemporary+Debates&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E160-%3C%2Fspan%3E170&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-350-14741-6&rft.aulast=Groothuis&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_2jDDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrünberg1990" class="citation book cs1">Grünberg, Ludwig (1990). 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Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0670-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-420-0670-6"><bdi>978-90-420-0670-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mystery+of+Values%3A+Studies+in+Axiology&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-420-0670-6&rft.aulast=Gr%C3%BCnberg&rft.aufirst=Ludwig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcFsiNrHfN1AC%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGupta2024" class="citation book cs1">Gupta, Abhik (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U9EEEQAAQBAJ&pg=PA11"><i>Many Layers of Ecocentrism: Revering Life, Revering the Earth</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-040-03034-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-040-03034-9"><bdi>978-1-040-03034-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Many+Layers+of+Ecocentrism%3A+Revering+Life%2C+Revering+the+Earth&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1-040-03034-9&rft.aulast=Gupta&rft.aufirst=Abhik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DU9EEEQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaines" class="citation web cs1">Haines, William. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/consequentialism-utilitarianism/">"Consequentialism and Utilitarianism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231224224334/https://iep.utm.edu/consequentialism-utilitarianism/">Archived</a> from the original on December 24, 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40265-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-40265-7"><bdi>978-1-317-40265-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Well-Being+and+Subject+Dependence&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Well-Being&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-317-40265-7&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Alicia&rft.au=Tiberius%2C+Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzZdGCgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHardin2009" class="citation book cs1">Hardin, Russell (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hud0ZH-heB0C&pg=PA1"><i>David Hume: Moral and Political Theorist</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161013-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-161013-4"><bdi>978-0-19-161013-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=David+Hume%3A+Moral+and+Political+Theorist&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-19-161013-4&rft.aulast=Hardin&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhud0ZH-heB0C%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarperCollins2022" class="citation web cs1">HarperCollins (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=value&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">"Value"</a>. <i>The American Heritage Dictionary entry</i>. 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HarperCollins. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240908165435/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=truth%20value&submit.x=58&submit.y=14">Archived</a> from the original on 8 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+American+Heritage+Dictionary&rft.atitle=Truth+Value&rft.date=2022&rft.au=HarperCollins&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ahdictionary.com%2Fword%2Fsearch.html%3Fq%3Dtruth%2Bvalue%26submit.x%3D58%26submit.y%3D14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHart1971" class="citation journal cs1">Hart, Samuel L. (1971). 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(1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-2608-5_1">"Introduction"</a>. In Hart, James G.; Embree, Lester (eds.). <i>Phenomenology of Values and Valuing</i>. Contributions to Phenomenology. Vol. 28. Springer Netherlands. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-017-2608-5_1">10.1007/978-94-017-2608-5_1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-017-2608-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-017-2608-5"><bdi>978-94-017-2608-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240915091912/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-2608-5_1">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Han Yu (768–824)". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/biographical/han-yu-768-824/v-1"><i>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9780415249126-G034-1">10.4324/9780415249126-G034-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-25069-6"><bdi>978-0-415-25069-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240303091011/https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/biographical/han-yu-768-824/v-1">Archived</a> from the original on 3 March 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7252-3067-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7252-3067-5"><bdi>978-1-7252-3067-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Structure+of+Value%3A+Foundations+of+Scientific+Axiology&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-7252-3067-5&rft.aulast=Hartman&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1UX7DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA104&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHearn1971" class="citation book cs1">Hearn, Thomas K. (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0z_z0RYmr38C&pg=PA2">"Introduction"</a>. <i>Studies in Utilitarianism</i>. Appleton-Century-Crofts. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/149211">149211</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=Studies+in+Utilitarianism&rft.pub=Appleton-Century-Crofts&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F149211&rft.aulast=Hearn&rft.aufirst=Thomas+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0z_z0RYmr38C%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeathwood2015" class="citation book cs1">Heathwood, Chris (2015). 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Monism+and+Pluralism+about+Value&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Heathwood&rft.aufirst=Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeathwood2016" class="citation book cs1">Heathwood, Chris (2016). "11. Desire-fulfillment Theory". In Fletcher, Guy (ed.). <i>The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Well-Being</i>. 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Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-91076-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-91076-7"><bdi>978-1-351-91076-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plato+and+Aristotle%27s+Ethics&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-351-91076-7&rft.aulast=Heinaman&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjEYlDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA123&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeis2018" class="citation web cs1">Heis, Jeremy (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-kantianism/">"Neo-Kantianism"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190806135557/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/neo-kantianism/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Neo-Kantianism&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Heis&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fneo-kantianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiles2008" class="citation book cs1">Hiles, David R. (2008). "Axiology". In Given, Lisa M. (ed.). <i>The Sage Encyclopedia of Qualitative Research Methods: A-L</i>. Vol. 1. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4163-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4129-4163-1"><bdi>978-1-4129-4163-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Axiology&rft.btitle=The+Sage+Encyclopedia+of+Qualitative+Research+Methods%3A+A-L&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-4129-4163-1&rft.aulast=Hiles&rft.aufirst=David+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirose2015" class="citation book cs1">Hirose, Iwao (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m-5jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA25"><i>Moral Aggregation</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993368-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-993368-6"><bdi>978-0-19-993368-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Moral+Aggregation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-993368-6&rft.aulast=Hirose&rft.aufirst=Iwao&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm-5jBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHiroseOlson2015" class="citation book cs1">Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (2015). "Introduction to Value Theory". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Value+Theory&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Hirose&rft.aufirst=Iwao&rft.au=Olson%2C+Jonas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltug2015" class="citation book cs1">Holtug, Nils (2015). "Theories of Value Aggregation: Utilitarianism, Egalitarianism, Prioritarianism". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Theories+of+Value+Aggregation%3A+Utilitarianism%2C+Egalitarianism%2C+Prioritarianism&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Holtug&rft.aufirst=Nils&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHonderich2005" class="citation book cs1">Honderich, Ingrid Coggin (2005). "Good, Form of the". 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201103315/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/consequentialism-rule/">Archived</a> from the original on February 1, 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922164111/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-incommensurable/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Incommensurable+Values&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Hsieh&rft.aufirst=Nien-h%C3%AA&rft.au=Andersson%2C+Henrik&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvalue-incommensurable%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurka2006" class="citation book cs1">Hurka, Thomas (2006). "13. Value Theory". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514779-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-514779-7"><bdi>978-0-19-514779-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=13.+Value+Theory&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Ethical+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-514779-7&rft.aulast=Hurka&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK44RDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurka2006a" class="citation book cs1">Hurka, Thomas (2006a). "Intrinsic Value". In Borchert, Donald M. (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Vol. 4 (2 ed.). Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-02-866072-1"><bdi>978-0-02-866072-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intrinsic+Value&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-02-866072-1&rft.aulast=Hurka&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurka2021" class="citation web cs1">Hurka, Thomas (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore-moral/">"Moore's Moral Philosophy"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230322203953/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moore-moral/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-000-99354-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-000-99354-7"><bdi>978-1-000-99354-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Conservation+Concepts%3A+Rethinking+Human%E2%80%93Nature+Relationships&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-000-99354-7&rft.aulast=Jax&rft.aufirst=Kurt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj57WEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnsonCureton2024" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Robert; Cureton, Adam (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/">"Kant's Moral Philosophy"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240201103437/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-moral/">Archived</a> from the original on 1 February 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Moral+Philosophy&rft.date=2024&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Cureton%2C+Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-moral%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKarp2000" class="citation book cs1">Karp, David R. (2000). "Values Theory and Research". In Borgatta, Edgar F.; Montgomery, Rhonda J. V. 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Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3936-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7391-3936-3"><bdi>978-0-7391-3936-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Desert+and+Virtue%3A+A+Theory+of+Intrinsic+Value&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7391-3936-3&rft.aulast=Kershnar&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvwMN7WRb2fEC%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2002" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Min-Sun (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bsr3h16zrkwC&pg=PA22"><i>Non-Western Perspectives on Human Communication: Implications for Theory and Practice</i></a>. Sage. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2351-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-2351-0"><bdi>978-0-7619-2351-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Non-Western+Perspectives+on+Human+Communication%3A+Implications+for+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-2351-0&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Min-Sun&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBsr3h16zrkwC%26pg%3DPA22&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinneging2011" class="citation book cs1">Kinneging, Andreas (2011). "Hartmann's Platonic Ethics". 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Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025418-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-025418-1"><bdi>978-3-11-025418-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Hartmann%27s+Platonic+Ethics&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Nicolai+Hartmann&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-025418-1&rft.aulast=Kinneging&rft.aufirst=Andreas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1Qya55bssVQC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKinzel2024" class="citation web cs1">Kinzel, Katherina (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-windelband/">"Wilhelm Windelband"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922164047/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-windelband/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-69055-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-69055-9"><bdi>978-1-317-69055-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Franz+Brentano+and+the+Brentano+School&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-317-69055-9&rft.aulast=Kriegel&rft.aufirst=Uriah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4kUlDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKriegel2018" class="citation book cs1">Kriegel, Uriah (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3e9IDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Brentano's Philosophical System: Mind, Being, Value</i></a>. 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Springer Netherlands. pp. <span class="nowrap">33–</span>46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-94-010-2424-2_3">10.1007/978-94-010-2424-2_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2424-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-010-2424-2"><bdi>978-94-010-2424-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240915124611/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-2424-2_3">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-15<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-13210-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-13210-0"><bdi>978-3-031-13210-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Marx%27s+Theory+of+Value+in+Chapter+1+of+Capital%3A+A+Critique+of+Heinrich%27s+Value-Form+Interpretation&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-3-031-13210-0&rft.aulast=Moseley&rft.aufirst=Fred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D43m-EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMukherjeeMukherjeeGhose2013" class="citation book cs1">Mukherjee, Sampat; Mukherjee, Mallinath; Ghose, Amitava (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iVKja7n06iIC&pg=PA17"><i>Microeconomics</i></a>. Prentice-Hall of India. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-203-2318-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-203-2318-6"><bdi>978-81-203-2318-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microeconomics&rft.pub=Prentice-Hall+of+India&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-81-203-2318-6&rft.aulast=Mukherjee&rft.aufirst=Sampat&rft.au=Mukherjee%2C+Mallinath&rft.au=Ghose%2C+Amitava&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiVKja7n06iIC%26pg%3DPA17&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNagel2006" class="citation book cs1">Nagel, Thomas (2006). "Ethics". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Value+and+Desire&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Oddie&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOddie2017" class="citation book cs1">Oddie, Graham (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OTElDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA49">"Desire and the Good: In Search of the Right Fit"</a>. 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Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03303-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03303-0"><bdi>978-1-107-03303-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dimensions+of+Consequentialism%3A+Ethics%2C+Equality+and+Risk&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-03303-0&rft.aulast=Peterson&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKscNwy-F3u8C%26pg%3DPA147&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPigliucci" class="citation web cs1">Pigliucci, Massimo. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iep.utm.edu/stoicism/">"Stoicism"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210624205455/https://iep.utm.edu/stoicism/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 June 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240912171457/https://www.anthroencyclopedia.com/entry/values">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-14</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Open+Encyclopedia+of+Anthropology&rft.atitle=Values&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Robbins&rft.aufirst=Joel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.anthroencyclopedia.com%2Fentry%2Fvalues&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogersCastreeKitchin2013" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Alisdair; Castree, Noel; Kitchin, Rob (2013). "Use Value". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199599868.001.0001/acref-9780199599868-e-1987"><i>A Dictionary of Human Geography</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959986-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959986-8"><bdi>978-0-19-959986-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922164053/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199599868.001.0001/acref-9780199599868-e-1987">Archived</a> from the original on 2024-09-22<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5950-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-5950-0"><bdi>978-0-8108-5950-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Metaphysics&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-5950-0&rft.aulast=Rosenkrantz&rft.aufirst=Gary+S.&rft.au=Hoffman%2C+Joshua&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDQW9nyBCClMC%26pg%3DPA332&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2011" class="citation book cs1">Rønnow-Rasmussen, Toni (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b_O3l9_QgNgC&pg=PA1"><i>Personal Value</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960378-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-960378-7"><bdi>978-0-19-960378-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Personal+Value&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-960378-7&rft.aulast=R%C3%B8nnow-Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Toni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db_O3l9_QgNgC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015" class="citation book cs1">Rønnow-Rasmussen, Toni (2015). "Intrinsic and Extrinsic Value". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Intrinsic+and+Extrinsic+Value&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=R%C3%B8nnow-Rasmussen&rft.aufirst=Toni&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayre-McCord1988" class="citation book cs1">Sayre-McCord, Geoffrey (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-msmrkE-67IC&pg=PA10">"Introduction: The Many Moral Realisms"</a>. 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Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922164202/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-theory/supplement2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 August</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Supplement+to+Value+Theory%3A+Atomism%2FHolism+about+Value&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Schroeder&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fvalue-theory%2Fsupplement2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016" class="citation book cs1">Schwartz, S. H.; Cieciuch, J. (2016). "Values". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Values+and+Emotions&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Tappolet&rft.aufirst=Christine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiberius2015" class="citation book cs1">Tiberius, Valerie (2015). "Prudential Value". 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prudential+Value&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Tiberius&rft.aufirst=Valerie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTormos2019" class="citation book cs1">Tormos, Raül (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u8y8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11"><i>The Rhythm of Modernization: How Values Change over Time</i></a>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41191-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-41191-3"><bdi>978-90-04-41191-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rhythm+of+Modernization%3A+How+Values+Change+over+Time&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-41191-3&rft.aulast=Tormos&rft.aufirst=Ra%C3%BCl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du8y8DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTownsend2006" class="citation book cs1">Townsend, Dabney (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GGgAAwAAQBAJ&pg=PR16"><i>Historical Dictionary of Aesthetics</i></a>. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6483-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6483-2"><bdi>978-0-8108-6483-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Aesthetics&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6483-2&rft.aulast=Townsend&rft.aufirst=Dabney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGGgAAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuboly2021" class="citation book cs1">Tuboly, Adam Tamas (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R-oEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2">"Introduction: From Spying to Canonizing—Ayer and His Language, Truth and Logic"</a>. <i>The Historical and Philosophical Significance of Ayer's Language, Truth and Logic</i>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-50884-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-030-50884-5"><bdi>978-3-030-50884-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+From+Spying+to+Canonizing%E2%80%94Ayer+and+His+Language%2C+Truth+and+Logic&rft.btitle=The+Historical+and+Philosophical+Significance+of+Ayer%27s+Language%2C+Truth+and+Logic&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-3-030-50884-5&rft.aulast=Tuboly&rft.aufirst=Adam+Tamas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR-oEEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnerGeorgiouClarkBrouwer2004" class="citation book cs1">Turner, R. 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73302-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-73302-9"><bdi>978-3-319-73302-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Varieties+of+Good+Design&rft.btitle=Advancements+in+the+Philosophy+of+Design&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-319-73302-9&rft.aulast=Ylirisku&rft.aufirst=Salu&rft.au=Arvola%2C+Mattias&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ded1ODwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoungLoomis2014" class="citation book cs1">Young, Robert A.; Loomis, John B. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-04052-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-04052-9"><bdi>978-1-135-04052-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Determining+the+Economic+Value+of+Water%3A+Concepts+and+Methods&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-135-04052-9&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Robert+A.&rft.au=Loomis%2C+John+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbrDcAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagzebski2004" class="citation book cs1">Zagzebski, Linda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KhqPito92b8C&pg=PA11"><i>Divine Motivation Theory</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53576-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-53576-2"><bdi>978-0-521-53576-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divine+Motivation+Theory&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-53576-2&rft.aulast=Zagzebski&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKhqPito92b8C%26pg%3DPA11&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagzebski2004a" class="citation book cs1">Zagzebski, Linda (2004a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GbcuCf9TlDgC&pg=PA350">"Morality and Religion"</a>. In Wainwright, William (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy of Religion</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803158-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-803158-1"><bdi>978-0-19-803158-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morality+and+Religion&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Religion&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-803158-1&rft.aulast=Zagzebski&rft.aufirst=Linda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGbcuCf9TlDgC%26pg%3DPA350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaibert2018" class="citation book cs1">Zaibert, Leo (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E1FSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37"><i>Rethinking Punishment</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58261-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-58261-2"><bdi>978-1-108-58261-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rethinking+Punishment&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-108-58261-2&rft.aulast=Zaibert&rft.aufirst=Leo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DE1FSDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA37&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2017" class="citation book cs1">Zimmer, Alfred (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQrDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA135">"Christian von Ehrenfels (1859–1932)"</a>. In Albertazzi, Liliana; Jacquette, Dale (eds.). <i>The School of Alexius Meinong</i>. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-88226-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-88226-2"><bdi>978-1-351-88226-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christian+von+Ehrenfels+%281859%E2%80%931932%29&rft.btitle=The+School+of+Alexius+Meinong&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-351-88226-2&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Alfred&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwkQrDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmerman2001" class="citation book cs1">Zimmerman, Michael J. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9pqECJM08rkC&pg=PA1"><i>The Nature of Intrinsic Value</i></a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1263-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-1263-4"><bdi>978-0-7425-1263-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nature+of+Intrinsic+Value&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-1263-4&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9pqECJM08rkC%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmerman2015" class="citation book cs1">Zimmerman, Michael J. (2015). "Value and Normativity". In Hirose, Iwao; Olson, Jonas (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvzVBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>The Oxford Handbook of Value Theory</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-022143-0"><bdi>978-0-19-022143-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Value+and+Normativity&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+Value+Theory&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-022143-0&rft.aulast=Zimmerman&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuvzVBgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AValue+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019" class="citation web cs1">Zimmerman, Michael J.; Bradley, Ben (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-intrinsic-extrinsic/">"Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Value"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240922164656/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/value-intrinsic-extrinsic/">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2024<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era269" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" 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mw-ui-icon-speechBubbleAdd-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-speechBubbleAdd-progressive"></span> <span>Add topic</span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-header-icon-end"> <div class="vector-user-links"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-795cbbc74b-wsdk7","wgBackendResponseTime":139,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.339","walltime":"2.467","ppvisitednodes":{"value":19963,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":716330,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":5435,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":9,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":10,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":691615,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2121.593 1 -total"," 32.39% 687.213 141 Template:Cite_book"," 27.04% 573.717 2 Template:Reflist"," 20.27% 430.024 153 Template:Multiref"," 15.33% 325.257 487 Template:Harvnb"," 9.87% 209.384 49 Template:Cite_web"," 5.49% 116.423 1 Template:Philosophy_topics"," 5.35% 113.516 1 Template:Navbox_with_collapsible_groups"," 5.28% 111.970 1 Template:Sfn"," 5.19% 110.189 2 Template:Lang"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.570","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16084734,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbelsonNielsen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexanderMoore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnderson2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArneson2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAssandri2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAudi2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAyres2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBahm1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBailey2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBartley2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerthrong\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBhushanSachdeva2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlackHashimzadeMyles2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBorgolte2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoydTimpe2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrownFehige2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBunninYu2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChan2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChanGouldPascual2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChang2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChappell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChenneville2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChernissHardy2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChrisman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2005a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrisp2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrosby1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrosby1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCullity2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDabbagh2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDafermos2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDalal2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDancy2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarr2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavisSteinbock2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeLapp\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeNicola2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Haan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDehsen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDevettere2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDirek2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorsey2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDurandShogryBaltzly2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbrey2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwards2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwardsHartman2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmilsson1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngstrom1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFatehiPriestleyTaasoobshirazi2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindlay1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitzPatrick2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFluehr-Lobban2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrankena2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFraser2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaskin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGermann2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGill2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoffiRoux2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrenzGuretzkiNordling2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroothuis2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrünberg1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrünberg2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaines\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallTiberius2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHardin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarperCollins2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarperCollins2022a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHart1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHart1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHearn1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeathwood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeathwood2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeinaman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeis2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiles2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHirose2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiroseOlson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltug2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHonderich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHooker2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHsiehAndersson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurka2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurka2006a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHurka2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJax2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonCureton2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKarp2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKershnar2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinneging2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinzel2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKriegel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKriegel2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKuijper2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKunnan2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKupperman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLandau2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaskowskiFinlay2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLi2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLittlejohn\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLutz2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLøgstrup2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMander2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcum2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMason2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinnis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetz2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilkov\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoritz1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoseley2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjeeMukherjeeGhose2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNebel2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNorman2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOddie2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOddie2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOddie2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOddie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliveira2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOliver1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOllig1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnof\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOrsi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO’Keefe\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPape2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPerrin1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeterson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPigliucci\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPirgmaier2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPowe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPradhan2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPratt\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRanganathan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRescher1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRichey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRidge2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRogersCastreeKitchin2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenkrantzHoffman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRønnow-Rasmussen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSayre-McCord1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScanlon1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchellekens2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroeder2021a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartzCieciuch2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeachris\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSernaMartínez2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharma1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSheaKintz2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverstein2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSim2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinnott-Armstrong2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlingerland2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmithThomas1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStaiti2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteinert2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStratton-Lake2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSutton2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSykes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaliaferro2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTappolet2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTiberius2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTormos2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTownsend2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTuboly2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurnerGeorgiouClarkBrouwer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVilkka2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWall2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelchWelch2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWieland2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilandDriver2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodward2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodworthMarquis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYalom2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYliriskuArvola2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoungLoomis2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZagzebski2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZagzebski2004a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZaibert2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmerman2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmerman2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmermanBradley2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Bres2014\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 98,\n [\"Circa\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 141,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 15,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 49,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Value Theory\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 22,\n [\"Gloss\"] = 4,\n [\"Good and evil\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 487,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 7,\n [\"Multiref\"] = 153,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Other uses\"] = 1,\n [\"Philosophy topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 1,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","22.9"],["dataWrapper 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