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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_theorists_and_related_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theorists_and_related_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Other theorists and related theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theorists_and_related_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_dependency_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_dependency_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Examples of dependency theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_dependency_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aid_dependency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aid_dependency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Aid dependency</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Aid_dependency-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Aid dependency subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Aid_dependency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-History_of_aid_dependence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_aid_dependence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>History of aid dependence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_aid_dependence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Motives_for_giving_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Motives_for_giving_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Motives for giving aid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Motives_for_giving_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Stunted_economic_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Stunted_economic_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Stunted economic growth</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Stunted_economic_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_dependency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_dependency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Political dependency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_dependency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Corruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Efforts_to_end_aid_dependence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Efforts_to_end_aid_dependence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Efforts to end aid dependence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Efforts_to_end_aid_dependence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Countering_political_corruption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Countering_political_corruption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.7</span> <span>Countering political corruption</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Countering_political_corruption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_methods_of_aid" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_methods_of_aid"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.8</span> <span>Other methods of aid</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_methods_of_aid-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> 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class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Dependency theory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/As%C4%B1l%C4%B1l%C4%B1q_n%C9%99z%C9%99riyy%C9%99si" title="Asılılıq nəzəriyyəsi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Asılılıq nəzəriyyəsi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="নির্ভরশীলতা তত্ত্ব – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নির্ভরশীলতা তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Теория на зависимостта – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Теория на зависимостта" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_de_la_depend%C3%A8ncia" title="Teoria de la dependència – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria de la dependència" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorie_z%C3%A1vislosti" title="Teorie závislosti – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Teorie závislosti" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damcaniaeth_dibyniaeth" title="Damcaniaeth dibyniaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Damcaniaeth dibyniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afh%C3%A6ngighedsteori" title="Afhængighedsteori – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Afhængighedsteori" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependenztheorie" title="Dependenztheorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Dependenztheorie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_de_la_dependencia" title="Teoría de la dependencia – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría de la dependencia" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorio_de_dependeco" title="Teorio de dependeco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Teorio de dependeco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%DB%8C" title="نظریه وابستگی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه وابستگی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A9orie_de_la_d%C3%A9pendance" title="Théorie de la dépendance – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Théorie de la dépendance" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A2%85%EC%86%8D_%EC%9D%B4%EB%A1%A0" title="종속 이론 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="종속 이론" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4" title="निर्भरता का सिद्धान्त – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="निर्भरता का सिद्धान्त" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorija_zavisnosti" title="Teorija zavisnosti – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Teorija zavisnosti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teori_ketergantungan" title="Teori ketergantungan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Teori ketergantungan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_della_dipendenza" title="Teoria della dipendenza – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Teoria della dipendenza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA_(%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%94)" title="תאוריית התלות (מדעי החברה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תאוריית התלות (מדעי החברה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dependencia-theorie" title="Dependencia-theorie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Dependencia-theorie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%BE%93%E5%B1%9E%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="従属理論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="従属理論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avhengighetsteori" title="Avhengighetsteori – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Avhengighetsteori" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_zale%C5%BCno%C5%9Bci" title="Teoria zależności – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Teoria zależności" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_da_depend%C3%AAncia" title="Teoria da dependência – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Teoria da dependência" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Теория зависимости – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Теория зависимости" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beroendeteorin" title="Beroendeteorin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Beroendeteorin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teorya_ng_dependensiya" title="Teorya ng dependensiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Teorya ng dependensiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A4%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%8E%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B6%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%87" title="ทฤษฎีภาวะพึ่งพิง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทฤษฎีภาวะพึ่งพิง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ba%C4%9F%C4%B1ml%C4%B1l%C4%B1k_teorisi" title="Bağımlılık teorisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bağımlılık teorisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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For dependency theory in linguistics, see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_granuels&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dependency granuels (page does not exist)">Dependency granuels</a>. For the database theory, see <a href="/wiki/Dependency_theory_(database_theory)" title="Dependency theory (database theory)">Dependency theory (database theory)</a>. 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Imperialism_studies" title="Category:Imperialism studies">a series</a> about</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Imperialism studies</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.7em;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png/101px-Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png" decoding="async" width="101" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png/152px-Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png/202px-Wallerstein%27s_Core-periphery_model.png 2x" 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href="/wiki/Ultra-imperialism" title="Ultra-imperialism">Ultra-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecologically_unequal_exchange" title="Ecologically unequal exchange">Ecologically unequal exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_model" title="North–South model">North–South model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unequal_exchange" title="Unequal exchange">Unequal exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superprofit" title="Superprofit">Superprofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uneven_and_combined_development" title="Uneven and combined development">Uneven and combined development</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Bettelheim" title="Charles Bettelheim">Charles Bettelheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%BDubo%C5%A1_Blaha" title="Ľuboš Blaha">Ľuboš Blaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Bukharin" title="Nikolai Bukharin">Nikolai Bukharin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arghiri_Emmanuel" title="Arghiri Emmanuel">Arghiri Emmanuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bellamy_Foster" title="John Bellamy Foster">John Bellamy Foster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Hardt" title="Michael Hardt">Michael Hardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Hilferding" title="Rudolf Hilferding">Rudolf Hilferding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gowan" title="Peter Gowan">Peter Gowan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._A._Hobson" title="J. A. Hobson">J. A. Hobson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirsaid_Sultan-Galiev" title="Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev">Mirsaid Sultan-Galiev</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Minqi" title="Li Minqi">Li Minqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antonio_Negri" title="Antonio Negri">Antonio Negri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Nkrumah" title="Kwame Nkrumah">Kwame Nkrumah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huey_P._Newton" title="Huey P. Newton">Huey P. Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Paul Sweezy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_Trotsky" title="Leon Trotsky">Leon Trotsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Accumulation_of_Capital" title="The Accumulation of Capital">The Accumulation of Capital</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_(Hardt_and_Negri_book)" title="Empire (Hardt and Negri book)"><i>Empire</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/How_Europe_Underdeveloped_Africa" title="How Europe Underdeveloped Africa">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism_(Hobson_book)" title="Imperialism (Hobson book)"><i>Imperialism</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Imperialism,_the_Highest_Stage_of_Capitalism" title="Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism">Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monopoly_Capital" title="Monopoly Capital">Monopoly Capital</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Multitude:_War_and_Democracy_in_the_Age_of_Empire" title="Multitude: War and Democracy in the Age of Empire">Multitude</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naked_Imperialism" title="Naked Imperialism">Naked Imperialism</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banana_republic" title="Banana republic">Banana republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">Economic development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illicit_financial_flows" title="Illicit financial flows">Illicit financial flows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_North_and_Global_South" title="Global North and Global South">Global North and Global South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenbourgeoisie" title="Lumpenbourgeoisie">Lumpenbourgeoisie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebisch%E2%80%93Singer_hypothesis" title="Prebisch–Singer hypothesis">Prebisch–Singer hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_accumulation_of_capital" title="Primitive accumulation of capital">Primitive accumulation of capital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_worldism" class="mw-redirect" title="Third worldism">Third worldism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="border-top:none;padding-top:1em;font-size:11px;font-weight:normal;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Imperialism_studies" title="Category:Imperialism studies">Category</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Imperialism_Studies_sidebar" title="Template:Imperialism Studies sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Imperialism_Studies_sidebar" title="Template talk:Imperialism Studies sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this 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ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="font-size:125%;"><a href="/wiki/International_relations_theory" title="International relations theory">International relations theory</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">Constructivism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Feminist constructivism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_(international_relations)" title="Liberalism (international relations)">Liberalism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalist_peace" title="Capitalist peace">Capitalist peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Republican liberalism">Republican liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_institutionalism" title="Liberal institutionalism">Liberal institutionalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dependency theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories of imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uneven_and_combined_development" title="Uneven and combined development">Uneven and combined development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">Realism</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_realism_(international_relations)" title="Classical realism (international relations)">Classical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoclassical_realism" title="Neoclassical realism">Neoclassical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">Neorealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_realism" title="Offensive realism">Offensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_realism" title="Defensive realism">Defensive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_peace_theory" title="Territorial peace theory">Territorial peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_peace_theory" title="Democratic peace theory">Democratic peace theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Realpolitik" title="Realpolitik">Realpolitik</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Other theories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_security_studies" title="Critical security studies">Critical security studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_international_relations_theory" title="Critical international relations theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmentalism" title="Intergovernmentalism">Intergovernmentalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_intergovernmentalism" title="Liberal intergovernmentalism">liberal intergovernmentalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_theory" title="Green theory">Green theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_stability_theory" title="Hegemonic stability theory">Hegemonic stability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_School_(international_relations)" title="Copenhagen School (international relations)">Copenhagen School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(international_relations)" title="Functionalism (international relations)">Functionalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neofunctionalism" title="Neofunctionalism">neofunctionalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_school_of_international_relations" title="Chinese school of international relations">Chinese school of international relations</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Classifications</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism_(international_relations)" title="Postpositivism (international relations)">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(international_relations)" title="Rationalism (international relations)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Great Debates</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-paradigm_debate_in_international_relations_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-paradigm debate in international relations theory">Inter-paradigm debate</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Other approaches</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_ethics" title="International ethics">International ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_theory" title="Regime theory">Regime theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_cartel_theory" title="State cartel theory">State cartel theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Scholars</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._Barnett" title="Michael N. Barnett">Michael Barnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Deudney" title="Daniel Deudney">Daniel Deudney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Doyle" title="Michael W. Doyle">Michael W. Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Enloe" title="Cynthia Enloe">Cynthia Enloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fearon" title="James Fearon">James Fearon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Finnemore" title="Martha Finnemore">Martha Finnemore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gilpin" title="Robert Gilpin">Robert Gilpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ikenberry" title="John Ikenberry">John Ikenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jervis" title="Robert Jervis">Robert Jervis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Katzenstein" title="Peter J. Katzenstein">Peter J. Katzenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Krasner" title="Stephen D. Krasner">Stephen D. Krasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Morgenthau" title="Hans Morgenthau">Hans Morgenthau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nye" title="Joseph Nye">Joseph Nye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Sikkink" title="Kathryn Sikkink">Kathryn Sikkink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Ann_Tickner" title="J. Ann Tickner">J. Ann Tickner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Walt" title="Stephen Walt">Stephen Walt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Wendt" title="Alexander Wendt">Alexander Wendt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xuetong" title="Yan Xuetong">Yan Xuetong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qin_Yaqing" title="Qin Yaqing">Qin Yaqing</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:lavender;color: var(--color-base)">Categories</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="div-col"> <div class="CategoryTreeTag" data-ct-options="{"mode":0,"hideprefix":20,"showcount":false,"namespaces":false,"notranslations":false}"><div class="CategoryTreeSection"><div class="CategoryTreeItem"><span class="CategoryTreeBullet"><a class="CategoryTreeToggle" data-ct-title="International_relations" aria-expanded="false"></a> </span> <bdi dir="ltr"><a href="/wiki/Category:International_relations" title="Category:International relations">International relations</a></bdi></div><div class="CategoryTreeChildren" style="display:none"></div></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/16px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/24px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/32px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:International_relations_theory" title="Template:International relations theory"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:International_relations_theory" title="Template talk:International relations theory"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:International_relations_theory" title="Special:EditPage/Template:International relations theory"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Dependency theory</b> is the idea that resources flow from a "<a href="/wiki/Periphery_countries" title="Periphery countries">periphery</a>" of poor and exploited states to a "<a href="/wiki/Core_countries" title="Core countries">core</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">wealthy states</a>, enriching the latter at the expense of the former. A central contention of dependency theory is that poor states are impoverished and rich ones enriched by the way poor states are integrated into the "<a href="/wiki/World_system" class="mw-redirect" title="World system">world system</a>". This theory was officially developed in the late 1960s following World War II, as scholars searched for the root issue in the lack of development in <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory arose as a reaction to <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization theory</a>, an earlier <a href="/wiki/Development_theory" title="Development theory">theory of development</a> which held that all societies progress through similar stages of development, that today's underdeveloped areas are thus in a similar situation to that of today's developed areas at some time in the past, and that, therefore, the task of helping the underdeveloped areas out of <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a> is to accelerate them along this supposed common path of development, by various means such as <a href="/wiki/Investment" title="Investment">investment</a>, <a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">technology transfers</a>, and closer integration into the <a href="/wiki/World_economy" title="World economy">world market</a>. Dependency theory rejected this view, arguing that underdeveloped countries are not merely primitive versions of developed countries, but have unique features and <a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">structures</a> of their own; and, importantly, are in the situation of being the weaker members in a world <a href="/wiki/Market_economy" title="Market economy">market economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some writers have argued for its continuing relevance as a conceptual orientation to the global division of wealth.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dependency theorists can typically be divided into two categories: <a href="/wiki/Liberal_reformist" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal reformist">liberal reformists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Marxist">neo-Marxists</a>. Liberal reformists typically advocate for targeted policy interventions, while the neo-Marxists propose a <a href="/wiki/Planned_economy" title="Planned economy">planned economy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Basics">Basics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Basics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The premises of dependency theory are that:<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li>Poor nations provide natural resources, cheap labour, a destination for obsolete technology, and markets for developed nations, without which the latter could not have the standard of living they enjoy.</li> <li>Wealthy nations actively perpetuate a state of dependence by various means. This influence may be multifaceted, involving <a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">media control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Politics" title="Politics">politics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banking" class="mw-redirect" title="Banking">banking</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finance" title="Finance">finance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">education</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sport</a>.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dependency theory originates with two papers published in 1949, one by <a href="/wiki/Hans_Singer" title="Hans Singer">Hans Singer</a> and one by <a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%BAl_Prebisch" title="Raúl Prebisch">Raúl Prebisch</a>, in which the authors observe that the <a href="/wiki/Terms_of_trade" title="Terms of trade">terms of trade</a> for underdeveloped countries relative to the developed countries had deteriorated over time: the underdeveloped countries were able to purchase fewer and fewer <a href="/wiki/Final_good" title="Final good">manufactured goods</a> from the developed countries in exchange for a given quantity of their raw materials exports. This idea is known as the <a href="/wiki/Prebisch%E2%80%93Singer_thesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prebisch–Singer thesis">Prebisch–Singer thesis</a>. Prebisch, an Argentine economist at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean">United Nations Commission for Latin America</a> (UNCLA), went on to conclude that the underdeveloped nations must employ some degree of <a href="/wiki/Protectionism" title="Protectionism">protectionism</a> in trade if they were to enter a self-sustaining development path. He argued that <a href="/wiki/Import_substitution_industrialization" title="Import substitution industrialization">import-substitution industrialisation</a> (ISI), not a <a href="/wiki/Export-oriented_industrialization" title="Export-oriented industrialization">trade-and-export orientation</a>, was the best strategy for underdeveloped countries.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The theory was developed from a <a href="/wiki/Marxian_economics" title="Marxian economics">Marxian</a> perspective by <a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a> in 1957 with the publication of his <i>The Political Economy of Growth</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dependency theory shares many points with earlier, Marxist, theories of <a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">imperialism</a> by <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Luxemburg" title="Rosa Luxemburg">Rosa Luxemburg</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Lenin" title="Vladimir Lenin">Vladimir Lenin</a>, and has attracted continued interest from Marxists. Some authors identify two main streams in dependency theory: the Latin American <a href="/wiki/Structuralist_economics" title="Structuralist economics">Structuralist</a>, typified by the work of Prebisch, <a href="/wiki/Celso_Furtado" title="Celso Furtado">Celso Furtado</a>, and <a href="/wiki/An%C3%ADbal_Pinto_Santa_Cruz" title="Aníbal Pinto Santa Cruz">Aníbal Pinto</a> at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_Commission_for_Latin_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America">United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America</a> (ECLAC, or, in Spanish, CEPAL); and the American Marxist, developed by <a href="/wiki/Paul_A._Baran" title="Paul A. Baran">Paul A. Baran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Sweezy" title="Paul Sweezy">Paul Sweezy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a>. </p><p>Using the Latin American dependency model, the Guyanese Marxist historian <a href="/wiki/Walter_Rodney" title="Walter Rodney">Walter Rodney</a>, in his book <i><a href="/wiki/How_Europe_Underdeveloped_Africa" title="How Europe Underdeveloped Africa">How Europe Underdeveloped Africa</a></i>, described in 1972 an Africa that had been consciously exploited by European imperialists, leading directly to the modern underdevelopment of most of the continent.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The theory was popular in the 1960s and 1970s as a criticism of modernization theory, which was falling increasingly out of favor because of continued widespread poverty in much of the world. At that time the assumptions of liberal theories of development were under attack.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was used to explain the causes of <a href="/wiki/Overurbanization" title="Overurbanization">overurbanization</a>, a theory that urbanization rates outpaced industrial growth in several developing countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Shandra_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shandra-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> The Latin American Structuralist and the American Marxist schools had significant differences but, according to economist Matias Vernengo, they agreed on some basic points:</p><blockquote><p>[B]oth groups would agree that at the core of the dependency relation between center and periphery lays [lies] the inability of the periphery to develop an autonomous and dynamic process of technological innovation. Technology <span role="presentation">–</span> the Promethean force unleashed by the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a> <span>–</span> is at the center of stage. The Center countries controlled the technology and the systems for generating technology. Foreign <a href="/wiki/Capital_(economics)" title="Capital (economics)">capital</a> could not solve the problem, since it only led to limited transmission of technology, but not the process of innovation itself. Baran and others frequently spoke of the <a href="/wiki/International_division_of_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="International division of labour">international division of labour</a> – skilled workers in the center; unskilled in the periphery – when discussing key features of dependency.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Baran placed surplus extraction and <a href="/wiki/Capital_accumulation" title="Capital accumulation">capital accumulation</a> at the center of his analysis. Development depends on a population's producing more than it needs for bare subsistence (a surplus). Further, some of that surplus must be used for capital accumulation – the purchase of new <a href="/wiki/Means_of_production" title="Means of production">means of production</a> – if development is to occur; spending the surplus on things like luxury consumption does not produce development. Baran noted two predominant kinds of economic activity in poor countries. In the older of the two, plantation agriculture, which originated in <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonial times</a>, most of the surplus goes to the landowners, who use it to emulate the consumption patterns of wealthy people in the developed world; much of it thus goes to purchase foreign-produced luxury items –automobiles, clothes, etc. – and little is accumulated for investing in development. The more recent kind of economic activity in the periphery is industry—but of a particular kind. It is usually carried out by foreigners, although often in conjunction with local interests. It is often under special <a href="/wiki/Tariff" title="Tariff">tariff</a> protection or other government concessions. The surplus from this production mostly goes to two places: part of it is sent back to the foreign <a href="/wiki/Shareholder" title="Shareholder">shareholders</a> as <a href="/wiki/Profit_(economics)" title="Profit (economics)">profit</a>; the other part is spent on conspicuous consumption in a similar fashion to that of the plantation aristocracy. Again, little is used for development. Baran thought that political revolution was necessary to break this pattern. </p><p>In the 1960s, members of the Latin American Structuralist school argued that there is more latitude in the system than the Marxists believed. They argued that it allows for partial development or "dependent development"–development, but still under the control of outside decision makers. They cited the partly successful attempts at <a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">industrialisation</a> in Latin America around that time (Argentina, Brazil, Mexico) as evidence for this hypothesis. They were led to the position that dependency is not a relation between commodity exporters and industrialised countries, but between countries with different degrees of industrialisation. In their approach, there is a distinction made between the economic and political spheres: economically, one may be developed or underdeveloped; but even if (somewhat) economically developed, one may be politically autonomous or dependent.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (December 2019)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Guillermo_O%27Donnell" title="Guillermo O'Donnell">Guillermo O'Donnell</a> has argued that constraints placed on development by <a href="/wiki/Neoliberalism" title="Neoliberalism">neoliberalism</a> were lifted by the military coups in Latin America that came to promote development in authoritarian guise (O'Donnell, 1982).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These positions particularly in regard of Latin America were notably challenged theoretically in the work and teaching of <a href="/wiki/Ruy_Mauro_Marini" title="Ruy Mauro Marini">Ruy Mauro Marini</a> who developed wider recognition for a specifically Marxist Dependency Theory, after close reading of Marx, that <a href="/wiki/Super-exploitation" title="Super-exploitation">super-exploitation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Unequal_exchange" title="Unequal exchange">unequal exchange</a> characteristicly arose out of the specific forms in the capital reproduction of dependency, and the specific class relations particular to that dependency in the periphery .<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The importance of <a href="/wiki/Multinational_corporation" title="Multinational corporation">multinational corporations</a> and state promotion of technology were emphasised by the Latin American Structuralists. </p><p>Fajnzylber has made a distinction between systemic or authentic competitiveness, which is the ability to compete based on higher productivity, and spurious competitiveness, which is based on low wages.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Debt_of_developing_countries" title="Debt of developing countries">third-world debt</a> crisis of the 1980s and continued stagnation in Africa and Latin America in the 1990s caused some doubt as to the feasibility or desirability of "dependent development".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>sine qua non</i> of the dependency relationship is not the difference in technological sophistication, as traditional dependency theorists believe, but rather the difference in financial strength between core and peripheral countries–particularly the inability of peripheral countries to borrow in their own currency. He believes that the <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">hegemonic</a> position of the United States is very strong because of the importance of its financial markets and because it controls the international <a href="/wiki/Reserve_currency" title="Reserve currency">reserve currency</a> – the <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US dollar</a>. He believes that the end of the <a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods international financial agreements</a> in the early 1970s considerably strengthened the United States' position because it removed some constraints on their financial actions. </p><p>"Standard" dependency theory differs from Marxism, in arguing against <a href="/wiki/Internationalism_(politics)" title="Internationalism (politics)">internationalism</a> and any hope of progress in less developed nations towards industrialization and a liberating revolution. Theotonio dos Santos described a "new dependency", which focused on both the internal and external relations of less-developed countries of the periphery, derived from a Marxian analysis. Former Brazilian President <a href="/wiki/Fernando_Henrique_Cardoso" title="Fernando Henrique Cardoso">Fernando Henrique Cardoso</a> (in office 1995–2002) wrote extensively on dependency theory while in political exile during the 1960s, arguing that it was an approach to studying the economic disparities between the centre and periphery. Cardoso summarized his version of dependency theory as follows: </p> <ul><li>there is a financial and technological penetration by the developed capitalist centers of the countries of the periphery and semi-periphery;</li> <li>this produces an unbalanced economic structure both within the peripheral societies and between them and the centers;</li> <li>this leads to limitations on self-sustained growth in the periphery;</li> <li>this favors the appearance of specific patterns of <a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">class</a> relations;</li> <li>these require modifications in the role of the state to guarantee both the functioning of the economy and the political articulation of a society, which contains, within itself, foci of inarticulateness and structural imbalance.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>The analysis of development patterns in the 1990s and beyond is complicated by the fact that capitalism develops not smoothly, but with very strong and self-repeating ups and downs, called cycles. Relevant results are given in studies by Joshua Goldstein, Volker Bornschier, and Luigi Scandella.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>With the economic growth of India and some East Asian economies, dependency theory has lost some of its former influence. It still influences some <a href="/wiki/NGO" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO">NGO</a> campaigns, such as <a href="/wiki/Make_Poverty_History" title="Make Poverty History">Make Poverty History</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Fair_trade" title="Fair trade">fair trade</a> movement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_theorists_and_related_theories">Other theorists and related theories</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Other theorists and related theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Two other early writers relevant to dependency theory were <a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Perroux" title="François Perroux">François Perroux</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kurt_W._Rothschild" title="Kurt W. Rothschild">Kurt Rothschild</a>. Other leading dependency theorists include Herb Addo, <a href="/wiki/Walden_Bello" title="Walden Bello">Walden Bello</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ruy_Mauro_Marini" title="Ruy Mauro Marini">Ruy Mauro Marini</a>, Enzo Faletto, Armando Cordova, Ernest Feder, Pablo González Casanova, <a href="/wiki/Keith_Griffin_(economist)" title="Keith Griffin (economist)">Keith Griffin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kunibert_Raffer" title="Kunibert Raffer">Kunibert Raffer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Singer_(economist)" title="Paul Singer (economist)">Paul Israel Singer</a>, Walter Rodney and Osvaldo Sunkel. Many of these authors focused their attention on Latin America; dependency theory in the Arab world was primarily refined by the Egyptian economist <a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tausch,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> based on works of Amin from 1973 to 1997, lists the following main characteristics of periphery capitalism: </p> <ol><li>Regression in both agriculture and small scale industry characterizes the period after the onslaught of foreign domination and colonialism</li> <li>Unequal international specialization of the periphery leads to the concentration of activities in export-oriented agriculture and or mining. Some industrialization of the periphery is possible under the condition of low wages, which, together with rising productivity, determine that unequal exchange sets in (double factorial terms of trade < 1.0; see Raffer, 1987)<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (December 2019)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>These structures determine in the long run a rapidly growing tertiary sector with hidden unemployment and the rising importance of rent in the overall social and economic system</li> <li>Chronic current account balance deficits, re-exported profits of foreign investments, and deficient business cycles at the periphery that provide important markets for the centers during world economic upswings</li> <li>Structural imbalances in the political and social relationships, inter alia a strong '<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comprador" class="extiw" title="wikt:comprador">compradore</a>' element and the rising importance of state capitalism and an indebted state class<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>The American sociologist <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a> refined the Marxist aspect of the theory and expanded on it, to form <a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">world-systems theory</a>. World Systems Theory is also known as WST and aligns closely with the idea of the "rich get richer and the poor get poorer". <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Wallerstein</a> states that the poor and <a href="/wiki/Periphery_countries" title="Periphery countries">peripheral</a> nations continue to get more poor as the developed core nations use their resources to become richer. Wallerstein developed the World Systems Theory utilizing the Dependence theory along with the ideas of Marx and the <a href="/wiki/Annales_school" title="Annales school">Annales School</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This theory postulates a third category of countries, the <i>semi-periphery</i>, intermediate between the core and periphery. Wallerstein believed in a tri-modal rather than a bi-modal system because he viewed the world-systems as more complicated than a simplistic classification as either core or periphery nations. To Wallerstein, many nations do not fit into one of these two categories, so he proposed the idea of a semi-periphery as an in between state within his model.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this model, the semi-periphery is industrialized, but with less sophistication of technology than in the core; and it does not control finances. The rise of one group of semi-peripheries tends to be at the cost of another group, but the unequal structure of the world economy based on unequal exchange tends to remain stable.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tausch<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> traces the beginnings of world-systems theory to the writings of the Austro-Hungarian socialist <a href="/wiki/Karl_Polanyi" title="Karl Polanyi">Karl Polanyi</a> after the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, but its present form is usually associated with the work of Wallerstein. </p><p>Dependency theorists hold that short-term spurts of growth notwithstanding, long-term growth in the periphery will be imbalanced and unequal, and will tend towards high negative <a href="/wiki/Current_account_(balance_of_payments)" title="Current account (balance of payments)">current account</a> balances.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Cyclical fluctuations also have a profound effect on cross-national comparisons of economic growth and societal development in the medium and long run. What seemed like spectacular long-run growth may in the end turn out to be just a short run cyclical spurt after a long recession. Cycle time plays an important role. <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Arrighi" title="Giovanni Arrighi">Giovanni Arrighi</a> believed that the logic of accumulation on a world scale shifts over time, and that the 1980s and beyond once more showed a deregulated phase of world capitalism with a logic, characterized - in contrast to earlier regulatory cycles - by the dominance of financial capital.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_17-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Economic policies based on dependency theory have been criticized by <a href="/wiki/Free_market" title="Free market">free-market</a> economists such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Thomas_Bauer" title="Peter Thomas Bauer">Peter Bauer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Martin_Wolf" title="Martin Wolf">Martin Wolf</a> and others:<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Paper does not mention Wolf nor Bauer, nor have any strong relationship to the preceding or succeeding statements (August 2024)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>Lack of competition: by subsidizing in-country industries and preventing outside imports, these companies may have less incentive to improve their products, to try to become more efficient in their processes, to please customers, or to research new innovations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Sustainability: industries reliant on government support may not be sustainable for very long, particularly in poorer countries and countries which largely depend on foreign aid from more developed countries.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li>Domestic opportunity costs: subsidies on domestic industries come out of state coffers and therefore represent money not spent in other ways, like development of domestic infrastructure, seed capital or need-based social welfare programs.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2015)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the same time, the higher prices caused by tariffs and restrictions on imports require the people either to forgo these goods altogether or buy them at higher prices, forgoing other goods.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li></ul> <p>Market economists cite a number of examples in their arguments against dependency theory. The improvement of <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_India" title="Economy of India">India's economy</a> after it moved from state-controlled business to open trade is one of the most often cited. India's example seems to contradict dependency theorists' claims concerning comparative advantage and mobility, as much as its economic growth originated from movements such as <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a> – one of the most mobile forms of capital transfer. In Africa, states that have emphasized import-substitution development, such as <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a>, have typically been among the worst performers, while the continent's most successful non-oil based economies, such as <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, have pursued trade-based development.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to economic historian Robert C. Allen, dependency theory's claims are "debatable" due to fact that the protectionism that was implemented in Latin America as a solution ended up failing.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The countries incurred too much debt and Latin America went into a recession.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the problems was that the Latin American countries simply had too small national markets to be able to efficiently produce complex industrialized goods, such as automobiles.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_dependency_theory">Examples of dependency theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Examples of dependency theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many nations have been affected by both the positive and negative effects of the Dependency Theory. The idea of national dependency on another nation is not a relatively new concept even though the dependency theory itself is rather new. Dependency is perpetuated by using <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">capitalism</a> and finance. The dependent nations come to owe the developed nations so much money and capital that it is not possible to escape the debt, continuing the dependency for the foreseeable future.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example of the dependency theory is that during the years of 1650 to 1900 European nations such as Britain and France took over or <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonialized</a> other nations. They used their superior military technology and naval strength at the time to do this. This began an <a href="/wiki/Economic_system" title="Economic system">economic system</a> in the Americas, Africa, and Asia to then export the natural materials from their land to Europe. After shipping the materials to Europe, Britain and the other European countries made products with these materials and then sent them back to colonized parts of the Americas, Africa, and Asia. This resulted in the transfer of wealth from these regions’ products to Europe for taking control of the products.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some scholars and politicians claim that with the decline of colonialism, dependency has been erased.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other scholars counter this approach, and state that our society still has national powerhouses such as the United States, European Nations such as Germany and Britain, China, and rising India that hundreds of other nations rely on for military aid, economic investments, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Aid_dependency">Aid dependency</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Aid dependency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aid dependency is an economic problem described as the reliance of <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">less developed countries</a> (LDCs) on <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">more developed countries</a> (MDCs) for financial aid and other resources. More specifically, aid dependency refers to the proportion of government spending that is given by <a href="/wiki/Foreign_aid" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign aid">foreign donors</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A nation having an aid dependency ratio of about 15%-20% or higher is correlated with negative outcomes for that nation.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What causes dependency is the inhibition of development and economic/political reform that results from trying to use aid as a long-term solution to poverty-ridden countries. Aid dependency arose from long term provisions of aid to countries in need in which the receiving country became accustomed to and developed a dependency syndrome.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aid dependency is most common today in <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>. The top donors as of 2013 were the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> while the top receivers were <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vietnam" title="Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="History_of_aid_dependence">History of aid dependence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History of aid dependence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>International development aid became widely popularized post World-War Two due to first-world countries trying to create a more open economy as well as <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">cold war</a> competition.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1970, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> agreed on 0.7% of <a href="/wiki/Gross_national_income" title="Gross national income">Gross National Income</a> per country as the target for how much should be dedicated for international aid.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his book “Ending Aid Dependence”, <a href="/wiki/Yash_Tandon" title="Yash Tandon">Yash Tondon</a> describes how organizations like the <a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">International Monetary Fund</a> (IMF) and the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> (WB) have driven many African countries into dependency. During the economic crisis in the 1980s and the 1990s, a great deal of Sub-Saharan countries in Africa saw an influx of aid money which in turn resulted in dependency over the next few decades. These countries became so dependent that the President of <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Mkapa" title="Benjamin Mkapa">Benjamin W. Mkapa</a>, stated that “Development aid has taken deep root to the <a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a> of the people, especially in the poorer countries of the South. It is similar to drug addiction.” </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Motives_for_giving_aid">Motives for giving aid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Motives for giving aid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While the widespread belief is that aid is motivated only by assisting poor countries, and this is true in some cases, there is substantial evidence that suggests strategic, political, and welfare interests of the donors are driving forces behind aid. Maizels and Nissanke (MN 1984), and McKinlay and Little (ML, 1977) have conducted studies to analyze donors’ motives. From these studies they found that US aid flows are influenced by military as well as strategic factors. British and French aid is given to countries that were former <a href="/wiki/Colony" title="Colony">colonies</a>, and also to countries in which they have significant investment interest and strong trade relations.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Stunted_economic_growth">Stunted economic growth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Stunted economic growth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A main concern revolving around the issue of foreign aid is that the citizens in the country that is benefiting from aid lose motivation to work after receiving aid. In addition, some citizens will deliberately work less, resulting in a lower income, which in turn qualifies them for aid provision.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aid dependent countries are associated with having a lowly motivated workforce, a result from being accustomed to constant aid, and therefore the country is less likely to make economic progress and the living-standards are less likely to be improved. A country with long-term aid dependency remains unable to be self-sufficient and is less likely to make meaningful GDP growth which would allow for them to rely less on aid from richer countries. Food aid has been criticized heavily along with other aid imports due to its damage to the domestic economy. A higher dependency on aid imports results in a decline in the domestic demand for those products. In the long-run, the agricultural industry in <a href="/wiki/Least_developed_countries" title="Least developed countries">LDC</a> countries grows weaker due to long-term declines in demand as a result from food aid. In the future when aid is decreased, many LDC countries's agricultural markets are under-developed and therefore it is cheaper to import agricultural products.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This occurred in <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>, where 80% of their grain stocks come from the United States even after a large decrease in aid.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In countries where there is a primary-product dependency on an item being imported as aid, such as wheat, economic shocks can occur and push the country further into an economic crisis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_dependency">Political dependency</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Political dependency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political dependency occurs when donors have too much influence in the governance of the receiving country. Many donors maintain a strong say in the government due to the country's reliance on their money, causing a decrease in the effectiveness and democratic-quality of the government.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This results in the receiving country's government making policy that the donor agrees with and supports rather than what the people of the country desire. Government corruptibility increases as a result and inhibits reform of the government and political process in the country.<sup id="cite_ref-CMI_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMI-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These donors can include other countries or organizations with underlying intentions that may not be in favor of the people. Political dependency is an even stronger negative effect of aid dependency in countries where many of the problems stem from already corrupt politics and a lack of civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss102139_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss102139-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> both have extremely high aid dependency ratios and have experienced political turmoil. The <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo">politics of the Democratic Republic of the Congo</a> have involved civil war and changing of regimes in the 21st century and have one of the highest aid dependency ratios in Africa. </p><p>As aid dependence can shift accountability away from the public and to being between state and donors, “presidentialism” can arise. Presidentialism is when the president and the cabinet within a political system have the power in political decision-making. In a <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democracy</a>, budgets and public investment plans are to be approved by parliament. It is common for donors to fund projects outside of this budget and therefore go without parliament review.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss102139_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss102139-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This further reinforces presidentialism and establishes practices that undermine democracy. Disputes over taxation and use of revenues are important in a democracy and can lead to better lives for citizens, but this cannot happen if citizens and parliaments don't know the complete proposed budget and spending priorities. </p><p>Aid dependency also compromises ownership which is marked by the ability of a government to implement its own ideas and policies. In aid dependent countries, the interests and ideas of aid agencies start to become priority and therefore erode ownership. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Corruption">Corruption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aid dependent countries rank worse in terms of level of <a href="/wiki/Corruption" title="Corruption">corruption</a> than in countries that are not dependent. Foreign aid is a potential source of rents, and <a href="/wiki/Rent-seeking" title="Rent-seeking">rent-seeking</a> can manifest as increased public sector employment. As public firms displace private investment, there is less pressure on the government to remain accountable and transparent as a result of the weakened private sector. Aid assists corruption which then fosters more corruption and creates a cycle. Foreign aid provides corrupt governments with free cash flow which further facilitates the corruption. Corruption works against economic growth and development, holding these poor countries down.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Efforts_to_end_aid_dependence">Efforts to end aid dependence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Efforts to end aid dependence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since 2000, aid dependency has decreased by about ⅓.<sup id="cite_ref-Wijntjes101163_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wijntjes101163-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This can be seen in countries like <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>, whose aid dependency decreased from 47% to 27%, as well as in <a href="/wiki/Mozambique" title="Mozambique">Mozambique</a>, where the aid dependency decreased from 74% to 58%.<sup id="cite_ref-Wijntjes101163_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wijntjes101163-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Target areas to decrease aid dependence include job creation, regional integration, and commercial engagement and trade.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Long-term investment in agriculture and infrastructure are key requirements to end aid dependency as it will allow the country to slowly decrease the amount of food aid received and begin to develop its own agricultural economy and solve the <a href="/wiki/Food_security" title="Food security">food insecurity</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Countering_political_corruption">Countering political corruption</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Countering political corruption"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Political corruption has been a strong force associated with maintaining dependency and being unable to see economic growth. During the Obama administration, congress claimed that the anti-corruption criteria The <a href="/wiki/Millennium_Challenge_Corporation" title="Millennium Challenge Corporation">Millennium Challenge Corporation</a> (MCC) used was not strict enough and was one of the obstacles to decreasing aid dependence.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often, in countries with a high <a href="/wiki/Corruption_Perceptions_Index" title="Corruption Perceptions Index">corruption perception index</a> the aid money is taken from government officials in the <a href="/wiki/Public_sector" title="Public sector">public sector</a> or taken from other corrupt individuals in the <a href="/wiki/Private_sector" title="Private sector">private sector</a>. Efforts to disapprove aid to countries where corruption is very prevalent have been a common tool used by organizations and governments to ensure funding is used properly but also to encourage other countries to fix the corruption. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_methods_of_aid">Other methods of aid</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Other methods of aid"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It has been proven that foreign aid can prove useful in the long-run when directed towards the appropriate sector and managed accordingly. Specific pairing between organizations and donors with similar goals has produced more success in decreasing dependency than the tradition form of international aid which involves government to government communication. <a href="/wiki/Botswana" title="Botswana">Botswana</a> is a successful example of this. Botswana first began receiving aid in 1966.<sup id="cite_ref-CMI_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CMI-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this case, Botswana decided which areas needed aid and found donors accordingly rather than simply accepting aid from other countries whose governments had a say in where the money would be distributed towards. Recipient-led cases such as Botswana are more effective partially because it negates the donor's desirability to report numbers on the efficiency of their programs (that often include short-term figures such as food distributed) and instead focuses more on long-term growth and development that may be directed more towards infrastructure, education, and job development.<sup id="cite_ref-Moss102139_39-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moss102139-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_poverty" title="Causes of poverty">Causes of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Boys" title="Chicago Boys">Chicago Boys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporatocracy" title="Corporatocracy">Corporatocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cycle_of_poverty" title="Cycle of poverty">Cycle of poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distribution_of_wealth" title="Distribution of wealth">Distribution of wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_billion" title="Golden billion">Golden billion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_theory" title="Hierarchy theory">Hierarchy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North%E2%80%93South_model" title="North–South model">North–South model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_adjustment" title="Structural adjustment">Structural adjustment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralist_economics" title="Structuralist economics">Structuralist economics</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Shock_Doctrine" title="The Shock Doctrine">The Shock Doctrine</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Klein" title="Naomi Klein">Naomi Klein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Space_Theory" title="Third Space Theory">Third Space Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uneven_and_combined_development" title="Uneven and combined development">Uneven and combined development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Hemisphere_Institute_for_Security_Cooperation" title="Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation">Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output 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.cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAhiakpor1985" class="citation journal cs1">Ahiakpor, James C. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alternativesjournal.net/article/view/5000159492/5000143927">the original</a> on 27 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Alternatives%3A+Turkish+Journal+of+International+Relations&rft.atitle=Social+Cohesion%2C+Sustainable+Development+and+Turkey%27s+Accession+to+the+European+Union%3A+Implications+from+a+Global+Model&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D977367%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Tausch&rft.aufirst=Arno&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falternativesjournal.net%2Farticle%2Fview%2F5000159492%2F5000143927&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.mit.edu/esd.83/www/notebook/WorldSystem.pdf">"World Systems Theory"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=World+Systems+Theory&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fweb.mit.edu%2Fesd.83%2Fwww%2Fnotebook%2FWorldSystem.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSo1990">So 1990</a>, pp. 169–199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g.:<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorotayevZinkina2014" class="citation journal cs1">Korotayev, Andrey; Zinkina, Julia (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140811115017/http://cliodynamics.ru/download/Korotayev&Zinkina_Present-day%20convergence_CWIS_31_%202-3_2014.pdf">"On the structure of the present-day convergence"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Campus-Wide Information Systems</i>. <b>31</b> (2/3): 139–152. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2FCWIS-11-2013-0064">10.1108/CWIS-11-2013-0064</a>. 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Newbury Park, London: <a href="/wiki/SAGE_Publications" class="mw-redirect" title="SAGE Publications">SAGE Publications</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Social+Change+and+Development%3A+Modernization%2C+Dependency%2C+and+World-Systems+Theory&rft.place=Newbury+Park%2C+London&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=So&rft.aufirst=Alvin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernengo2004" class="citation web cs1">Vernengo, Matias (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120317085658/http://www.econ.utah.edu/activities/papers/2004_06.pdf">"Technology, Finance and Dependency: Latin American Radical Political Economy in Retrospect"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.econ.utah.edu/activities/papers/2004_06.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 17 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Technology%2C+Finance+and+Dependency%3A+Latin+American+Radical+Political+Economy+in+Retrospect&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Vernengo&rft.aufirst=Matias&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.econ.utah.edu%2Factivities%2Fpapers%2F2004_06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span> Working Paper No. 2004-06, University of Utah Dept. of Economics. Later published as:<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVernengo2006" class="citation journal cs1">Vernengo, Matias (2006). "Technology, Finance, and Dependency: Latin American Radical Political Economy in Retrospect". <i>Review of Radical Political Economics</i>. <b>38</b> (4): 551–568. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0486613406293220">10.1177/0486613406293220</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:55837218">55837218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Radical+Political+Economics&rft.atitle=Technology%2C+Finance%2C+and+Dependency%3A+Latin+American+Radical+Political+Economy+in+Retrospect&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=551-568&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0486613406293220&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A55837218%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vernengo&rft.aufirst=Matias&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dependency_theory&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Amin S.</a> (1976), 'Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism' New York: Monthly Review Press.</li> <li>Amin S. (1994c), 'Re-reading the postwar period: an intellectual itinerary' Translated by Michael Wolfers. New York: Monthly Review Press.</li> <li>Amin S. (1997b), 'Die Zukunft des Weltsystems. Herausforderungen der Globalisierung. Herausgegeben und aus dem Franzoesischen uebersetzt von Joachim Wilke' Hamburg: VSA.</li> <li>Amadi, Luke. 2012. “Africa, Beyond the New Dependency: A Political Economy.” African Journal of Political Science and International Relations 6(8):191–203.</li> <li>Andrade, Rogerio P. and Renata Carvalho Silva. n.d. “<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171030223140/http://www.hetecon.net/documents/ConferencePapers/2009Non-Refereed/Andrade.pdf">Doing Dissenting Economics in the Periphery: The Political Economy of Maria Da Conceição Tavares.</a>”</li> <li>Bornschier V. (1996), 'Western society in transition' New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers.</li> <li>Bornschier V. and Chase - Dunn C. (1985), 'Transnational Corporations and Underdevelopment' N.Y., N.Y.: Praeger.</li> <li>Boianovsky, Mauro and Ricaedo Solis. 2014. “The Origins and Development of the Latin American Structuralist Approach to the Balance of Payments, 1944–1964.” Review of Political Economy 26(1):23–59.</li> <li>Cardoso, F. H. and Faletto, E. (1979), 'Dependency and development in Latin América'. University of California Press.</li> <li>Cesaratto, Sergio. 2015. “Balance of Payments or Monetary Sovereignty? In Search of the EMU’s Original Sin.” <a href="/wiki/International_Journal_of_Political_Economy" title="International Journal of Political Economy">International Journal of Political Economy</a> 44(2):142–56.</li> <li>Chilcote, Ronald H. 2009. “Trotsky and Development Theory in Latin America.” Critical Sociology 35(6):719–41.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCypher2013" class="citation journal cs1">Cypher, James M. (2013). "Neodevelopmentalism vs. Neoliberalism: Differential Evolutionary Institutional Structures and Policy Response in Brazil and Mexico". <i>Journal of Economic Issues</i>. <b>47</b> (2): 391–400. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2753%2FJEI0021-3624470212">10.2753/JEI0021-3624470212</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153406707">153406707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Economic+Issues&rft.atitle=Neodevelopmentalism+vs.+Neoliberalism%3A+Differential+Evolutionary+Institutional+Structures+and+Policy+Response+in+Brazil+and+Mexico&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=391-400&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2753%2FJEI0021-3624470212&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A153406707%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Cypher&rft.aufirst=James+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dávila-Fernández, Marwil and Adrianna Amado. n.d. “Conciliating Prebisch-Singer and Thirlwall: An Assessment of the Dynamics of Terms-of-Trade in a Balance-of-Payments-Constraint Growth Model.” <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220510222231/http://www.sseg.uniparthenope.it/Program_files/Davila-paper.pdf">https://web.archive.org/web/20220510222231/http://www.sseg.uniparthenope.it/Program_files/Davila-paper.pdf</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcia-AriasFernandez-HuergaSalvador2013" class="citation journal cs1">Garcia-Arias, Jorge; Fernandez-Huerga, Eduardo; Salvador, Ana (2013). "European Periphery Crises, International Financial Markets, and Democracy". <i>American Journal of Economics and Sociology</i>. <b>72</b> (4): 826–850. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fajes.12031">10.1111/ajes.12031</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Economics+and+Sociology&rft.atitle=European+Periphery+Crises%2C+International+Financial+Markets%2C+and+Democracy&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=826-850&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fajes.12031&rft.aulast=Garcia-Arias&rft.aufirst=Jorge&rft.au=Fernandez-Huerga%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Salvador%2C+Ana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrininKorotayevTausch2016" class="citation book cs1">Grinin, Leonid; Korotayev, Andrey; Tausch, Arno (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/GRIECC-2"><i>Economic Cycles, Crises, and the Global Periphery</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-41262-7">10.1007/978-3-319-41262-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-41260-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-41260-3"><bdi>978-3-319-41260-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economic+Cycles%2C+Crises%2C+and+the+Global+Periphery&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-41262-7&rft.isbn=978-3-319-41260-3&rft.aulast=Grinin&rft.aufirst=Leonid&rft.au=Korotayev%2C+Andrey&rft.au=Tausch%2C+Arno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FGRIECC-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADependency+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kufakurinani, U. Kvangraven, IH., Santanta, F., Styve, MD. (eds) (2017), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/38253/6/McKenzie-R-38253-VoR.pdf">Dialogues on Development. Volume 1: Dependency</a></i>, New York: Institute for New Economic Thinking.</li> <li>Henke, Holger (2000), 'Between Self-Determination and Dependency: Jamaica's Foreign Relations, 1972-1989' Kingston: University of the West Indies Press.</li> <li>Jalata, Asafa. 2013. “Colonial Terrorism, Global Capitalism and African Underdevelopment: 500 Years of Crimes Against African Peoples.” The Journal of Pan-African Studies 5(9):1–43.</li> <li>Kay, Cristóbal. 2005. “André Gunder Frank: From the ‘Development of Underdevelopment’ to the ‘World System.’” Development and Change 36(6):1177–83.</li> <li>Kay, Cristóbal. 2011. “Andre Gunder Frank: ‘Unity in Diversity’ from the Development of Underdevelopment to the World System.” New Political Economy 16(4):523–38.</li> <li>Kohler, Gernot, et al. Globalization : Critical Perspectives. Nova Science Publishers, New York, 2003. With contributions by <a href="/wiki/Samir_Amin" title="Samir Amin">Samir Amin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Wallerstein" title="Immanuel Wallerstein">Immanuel Wallerstein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Chase-Dunn" title="Christopher Chase-Dunn">Christopher Chase-Dunn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kimmo_Kiljunen" title="Kimmo Kiljunen">Kimmo Kiljunen</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arno_Tausch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arno Tausch (page does not exist)">Arno Tausch</a>, <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bond" title="Patrick Bond">Patrick Bond</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andre_Gunder_Frank" title="Andre Gunder Frank">Andre Gunder Frank</a>, <a href="/wiki/Robert_J._S._Ross" title="Robert J. S. Ross">Robert J. S. Ross</a>, et al. Pre-publication download of Chapter 5: The European Union: global challenge or global governance? 14 world system hypotheses and two scenarios on the future of the Union, pages 93 - 196 <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arno_Tausch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arno Tausch (page does not exist)">Arno Tausch</a> at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2012/3587/pdf/049.pdf">http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2012/3587/pdf/049.pdf</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210911204204/http://edoc.vifapol.de/opus/volltexte/2012/3587/pdf/049.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-09-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</li> <li>Kohler G. and Tausch A. (2002) Global Keynesianism: Unequal exchange and global exploitation. Huntington NY, Nova Science.</li> <li>Lavoie, Marc. 2015. “The Eurozone Crisis: A Balance-of-Payments Problem or a Crisis Due to a Flawed Monetary Design?” International Journal of Political Economy 44(2):157–60.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruy_Mauro_Marini" title="Ruy Mauro Marini">Marini, Ruy Mauro</a> (2022) <i>The Dialectics of Dependency</i> Monthly Review Press, New York.</li> <li>Olutayo, Akinpelu O. and Ayokunle O. Omobowale. 2007. “Capitalism, Globalisation and the Underdevelopment Process in Africa: History in Perpetuity.” Africa Development 32(2).</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jaime_Osorio&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jaime Osorio (page does not exist)">Osorio, Jaime</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cristobal_Reyes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cristobal Reyes (page does not exist)">Reyes, Cristobal</a> (2024) <i>Labour Super-Exploitation, Unequal Exchange and Capital Reproduction: Writings on Marxist Dependency Theory</i> ibidem Verlag, Hannover, Stuttgart.</li> <li>Puntigliano, Andrés Rivarola and Örjan Appelqvist. 2011. “Prebisch and Myrdal: Development Economics in the Core and on the Periphery.” Journal of Global History 6(01):29–52.</li> <li>Sunkel O. (1966), 'The Structural Background of Development Problems in Latin America' Weltwirtschaftliches Archiv, 97, 1: pp. 22 ff.</li> <li>Sunkel O. (1973), 'El subdesarrollo latinoamericano y la teoria del desarrollo' Mexico: Siglo Veintiuno Editores, 6a edicion.</li> <li><cite id="Citerefyotopoulossawada1999">Yotopoulos P. and Sawada Y. (1999), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-siepr.stanford.edu/Papers/pdf/99-4.pdf">Free Currency Markets, Financial Crises And The Growth Debacle: Is There A Causal Relationship?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100718121651/http://www-siepr.stanford.edu/papers/pdf/99-4.pdf">Archived</a> 2010-07-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Revised November 1999, Stanford University, USA, and University of Tokyo.</cite></li> <li><cite id="Citerefyotopoulossawada2005">Yotopoulos P. and Sawada Y. 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style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marxist_international_relations_theory" title="Marxist international relations theory">Marxism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Dependency theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories of imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uneven_and_combined_development" title="Uneven and combined development">Uneven and combined development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Realism_(international_relations)" title="Realism (international relations)">Realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Gramscianism" title="Neo-Gramscianism">Neo-Gramscianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_security_studies" title="Critical security studies">Critical security studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_international_relations_theory" title="Critical international relations theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_school_of_international_relations_theory" title="English school of international relations theory">English School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmentalism" title="Intergovernmentalism">Intergovernmentalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Liberal_intergovernmentalism" title="Liberal intergovernmentalism">liberal intergovernmentalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_political_economy" title="International political economy">International political economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_theory" title="Green theory">Green theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegemonic_stability_theory" title="Hegemonic stability theory">Hegemonic stability theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_School_(international_relations)" title="Copenhagen School (international relations)">Copenhagen School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(international_relations)" title="Functionalism (international relations)">Functionalism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neofunctionalism" title="Neofunctionalism">neofunctionalism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodernism_(international_relations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Postmodernism (international relations)">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_international_relations" title="Postcolonial international relations">Postcolonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunalism" title="Intercommunalism">Intercommunalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_school_of_international_relations" title="Chinese school of international relations">Chinese school of international relations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism_(international_relations)" title="Postpositivism (international relations)">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism_(international_relations)" title="Rationalism (international relations)">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflectivism" title="Reflectivism">Reflectivism</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Great_Debates_(international_relations)" title="Great Debates (international relations)">Great Debates</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inter-paradigm_debate_in_international_relations_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Inter-paradigm debate in international relations theory">Inter-paradigm debate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other approaches</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_ethics" title="International ethics">International ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_sociology" title="Historical sociology">Historical sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_theory" title="Regime theory">Regime theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_cartel_theory" title="State cartel theory">State cartel theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geopolitics" title="Geopolitics">Geopolitics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scholars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_N._Barnett" title="Michael N. Barnett">Michael Barnett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zbigniew_Brzezinski" title="Zbigniew Brzezinski">Zbigniew Brzezinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedley_Bull" title="Hedley Bull">Hedley Bull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._H._Carr" title="E. H. Carr">E. H. Carr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Deudney" title="Daniel Deudney">Daniel Deudney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_W._Doyle" title="Michael W. Doyle">Michael W. Doyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynthia_Enloe" title="Cynthia Enloe">Cynthia Enloe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Fearon" title="James Fearon">James Fearon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Finnemore" title="Martha Finnemore">Martha Finnemore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Gilpin" title="Robert Gilpin">Robert Gilpin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_P._Huntington" title="Samuel P. Huntington">Samuel P. Huntington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ikenberry" title="John Ikenberry">John Ikenberry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Jervis" title="Robert Jervis">Robert Jervis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_J._Katzenstein" title="Peter J. Katzenstein">Peter J. Katzenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Keohane" title="Robert Keohane">Robert Keohane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Kissinger" title="Henry Kissinger">Henry Kissinger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_D._Krasner" title="Stephen D. Krasner">Stephen D. Krasner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mearsheimer" title="John Mearsheimer">John Mearsheimer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Morgenthau" title="Hans Morgenthau">Hans Morgenthau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Nye" title="Joseph Nye">Joseph Nye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Sikkink" title="Kathryn Sikkink">Kathryn Sikkink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Strange" title="Susan Strange">Susan Strange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Ann_Tickner" title="J. 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