CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-not-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Glossary of ancient Roman religion - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-not-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat": "dmy","wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"4a62b745-d12c-40f3-82d3-f9a3630cbd78","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion","wgTitle":"Glossary of ancient Roman religion","wgCurRevisionId":1250454159,"wgRevisionId":1250454159,"wgArticleId":26130884,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010","CS1 maint: others","Webarchive template wayback links","Articles containing Latin-language text","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010","All articles with incomplete citations","Articles with incomplete citations from November 2012","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from May 2024", "Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010","Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from February 2013","Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012","Articles to be expanded from July 2010","All articles to be expanded","Articles with empty sections from July 2010","All articles with empty sections","Wikipedia glossaries using subheadings","Ancient Roman religion","Glossaries of religion","Ancient Rome-related lists"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion","wgRelevantArticleId":26130884,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom": "Capite_velato","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":300000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#capite_velato","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q3373229","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true, "wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin", "mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.5"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Glossary of ancient Roman religion - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#capite_velato"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#capite_velato"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion rootpage-Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Glossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Glossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Glossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Glossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Glossary of ancient Roman religion</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 1 language" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-1" aria-hidden="true" > 1 language </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%98%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%87_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%85_%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86" title="واژه‌نامه دین روم باستان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="واژه‌نامه دین روم باستان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3373229#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&oldid=1250454159" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&id=1250454159&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGlossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion%23capite_velato">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FGlossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion%23capite_velato">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3373229" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Capite_velato&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Capite velato">Capite velato</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;background:ivory; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; width:190px; text-align:center"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#b23938; color:white"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Marcus Aurelius sacrificing"><img alt="Marcus Aurelius sacrificing" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/150px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/225px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/300px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2181" data-file-height="2898" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> (<a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#capite_velato">head covered</a>) sacrificing at the Temple of Jupiter</div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F0ACAC"> Practices and beliefs</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libation#Ancient_Rome" title="Libation">libation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">votum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">temples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">ludi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_funerary_practices" title="Roman funerary practices">funerary practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">mystery religions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F0ACAC"> <a href="/wiki/Template:Priesthoods_of_ancient_Rome" title="Template:Priesthoods of ancient Rome">Priesthoods</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">Pontifices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">Augures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fetial" title="Fetial">Fetiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epulones" title="Epulones">Epulones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arval_Brethren" title="Arval Brethren">Fratres Arvales</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F0ACAC"> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 6em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dii_Consentes" title="Dii Consentes">Dii Consentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Triad" title="Capitoline Triad">Capitoline Triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aventine_Triad" title="Aventine Triad">Aventine Triad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigitamenta" title="Indigitamenta">Indigitamenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_inferi" title="Di inferi">underworld gods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_agricultural_deities" title="List of Roman agricultural deities">agricultural gods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_birth_and_childhood_deities" title="List of Roman birth and childhood deities">childhood gods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult#Divus,_deus_and_the_numen" title="Roman imperial cult">divine emperors</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#F0ACAC"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glossary of ancient Roman religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">Roman mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Ancient Greek religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_Graeca" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretatio Graeca">Interpretatio Graeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire">Decline</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Roman_religion_sidebar" title="Template:Ancient Roman religion sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Roman_religion_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ancient Roman religion sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Roman_religion_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Roman religion sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The vocabulary of <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman religion">ancient Roman religion</a> was highly specialized. Its study affords important information about the religion, traditions and beliefs of the ancient Romans. This legacy is conspicuous in European cultural history in its influence on later juridical and religious vocabulary in Europe, particularly of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> This glossary provides explanations of concepts as they were expressed in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religious practices and beliefs</a>, with links to articles on major topics such as priesthoods, forms of divination, and rituals. For <a href="/wiki/Theonym" title="Theonym">theonyms</a>, or the names and <a href="/wiki/Epithets" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithets">epithets</a> of gods, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">List of Roman deities</a>. For public religious holidays, see <a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Roman festivals</a>. For temples see the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Ancient_Roman_temples" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Ancient Roman temples">List of Ancient Roman temples</a>. Individual landmarks of religious <a href="/wiki/Topography_of_ancient_Rome" title="Topography of ancient Rome">topography in ancient Rome</a> are not included in this list; see <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a>. <div class="noprint"><div role="navigation" id="toc" class="toc plainlinks" aria-labelledby="tocheading" style="text-align:left;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><div class="hlist"> <div id="toctitle" class="toctitle" style="text-align:center;">Contents</div> <div style="margin:auto;"> <ul><li><a href="#A">A</a></li> <li><a href="#B">B</a></li> <li><a href="#C">C</a></li> <li><a href="#D">D</a></li> <li><a href="#E">E</a></li> <li><a href="#F">F</a></li> <li><a href="#G">G</a></li> <li><a href="#H">H</a></li> <li><a href="#I">I</a></li> <li><a href="#K">K</a></li> <li><a href="#L">L</a></li> <li><a href="#M">M</a></li> <li><a href="#N">N</a></li> <li><a href="#O">O</a></li> <li><a href="#P">P</a></li> <li><a href="#Q">Q</a></li> <li><a href="#R">R</a></li> <li><a href="#S">S</a></li> <li><a href="#T">T</a></li> <li><a href="#U">U</a></li> <li><a href="#V">V</a> </li></ul> </div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Glossary">Glossary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Glossary">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A">A</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: A">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="abominari">abominari</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: abominari">edit</a>]</div> The verb abominari ("to avert an omen", from ab-, "away, off," and ominari, "to pronounce on an omen") was a term of <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augury</a> for an action that rejects or averts an unfavourable omen indicated by a <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#signum" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocabulary of ancient Roman religion">signum</a>, "sign". The noun is abominatio, from which English "<a href="/wiki/Abomination_(Bible)" title="Abomination (Bible)">abomination</a>" derives. At the taking of formally solicited auspices (<a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">auspicia impetrativa</a>), the observer was required to acknowledge any potentially bad sign occurring within the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> he was observing, regardless of the interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> He might, however, take certain actions in order to ignore the signa, including avoiding the sight of them, and interpreting them as favourable. The latter tactic required promptness, wit and skill based on discipline and learning.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Thus the omen had no validity apart from the observation of it.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="aedes"> aedes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: aedes">edit</a>]</div> The aedes was the dwelling place of a god.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> It was thus a structure that housed the deity's image, distinguished from the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> or sacred district.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Aedes is one of several Latin words that can be translated as "shrine" or "temple"; see also <a href="/wiki/Delubrum" class="mw-redirect" title="Delubrum">delubrum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fanum">fanum</a>. For instance, the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">Temple of Vesta</a>, as it is called in English, was in Latin an aedes.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> See also the <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> <a href="/wiki/Aedicula" title="Aedicula">aedicula</a>, a small shrine. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Forum_temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e1/Forum_temple.jpg/170px-Forum_temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e1/Forum_temple.jpg/255px-Forum_temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e1/Forum_temple.jpg/340px-Forum_temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="1325" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Vesta" title="Temple of Vesta">aedes of Vesta</a></figcaption></figure> In his work <a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">On Architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> always uses the word templum in the technical sense of a space defined through <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augury</a>, with aedes the usual word for the building itself.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> The design of a deity's aedes, he writes, should be appropriate to the characteristics of the deity. For a celestial deity such as <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caelus" title="Caelus">Coelus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a> or <a href="/wiki/Luna_(Roman_goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luna (Roman goddess)">Luna</a>, the building should be open to the sky; an aedes for a god embodying <a href="/wiki/Virtus_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtus (virtue)">virtus</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/valor" class="extiw" title="wikt:valor">valour</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>, should be <a href="/wiki/Doric_order" title="Doric order">Doric</a> and without frills; the <a href="/wiki/Corinthian_order" title="Corinthian order">Corinthian order</a> is suited for goddesses such as <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flora_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (goddess)">Flora</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proserpina" title="Proserpina">Proserpina</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lympha" title="Lympha">Lymphae</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Ionic_order" title="Ionic order">Ionic</a> is a middle ground between the two for <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liber" title="Liber">Father Liber</a>. Thus in theory, though not always in practice, architectural aesthetics had a theological dimension.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The word <a href="/wiki/Aedile" title="Aedile">aedilis (aedile)</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">public official</a>, is related by <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a>; among the duties of the aediles was the overseeing of <a href="/wiki/Public_works" title="Public works">public works</a>, including the building and maintenance of temples.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The temple (aedes) of Flora, for instance, was built in 241 BC by two aediles acting on <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline oracles</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeian</a> aediles had their headquarters at the aedes of <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ager">ager</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: ager">edit</a>]</div> In religious usage, ager (territory, country, land, region) was terrestrial space defined for the purposes of augury in relation to <a href="#auspicia">auspicia</a>. There were five kinds of ager: Romanus, Gabinus, peregrinus, hosticus and incertus. The <a href="/wiki/Ager_Romanus" title="Ager Romanus">ager Romanus</a> originally included the urban space outside the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a> and the surrounding countryside.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, the ager Gabinus pertained to the special circumstances of the <a href="/wiki/Oppidum" title="Oppidum">oppidum</a> of <a href="/wiki/Gabii" title="Gabii">Gabii</a>, which was the first to sign a sacred treaty (pax) with Rome.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> The ager peregrinus<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> was other territory that had been brought under treaty (pacatus). Ager hosticus meant foreign territory; incertus, "uncertain" or "undetermined," that is, not falling into one of the four defined categories.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> The powers and actions of <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> were based on and constrained by the nature of the ager on which they stood, and ager in more general usage meant a territory as defined legally or politically. The ager Romanus could not be extended outside Italy (terra Italia).<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg/170px-Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg/255px-Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg/340px-Ara_Lucius_Iunius_Paetus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="650" data-file-height="971" /></a><figcaption>Altar (ara) from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Spain" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Spain">Roman Spain</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ara">ara</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: ara">edit</a>]</div> The focal point of sacrifice was the <a href="/wiki/Altar" title="Altar">altar</a> (ara, plural arae). Most altars throughout the city of Rome and in the countryside would have been simple, open-air structures; they may have been located within a sacred precinct (<a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a>), but often without an <a href="/wiki/Aedes_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aedes (Roman)">aedes</a> housing a cult image.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> An altar that received food offerings might also be called a mensa, "table."<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> Perhaps the best-known Roman altar is the elaborate and Greek-influenced <a href="/wiki/Ara_Pacis" title="Ara Pacis">Ara Pacis</a>, which has been called "the most representative work of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> art."<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> Other major public altars included the <a href="/wiki/Great_Altar_of_Hercules" title="Great Altar of Hercules">Ara Maxima</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="arbor_felix">arbor felix</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: arbor felix">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ficus_Ruminalis" title="Ficus Ruminalis">Ficus Ruminalis</a></div> Some trees were <a href="#felix">felix</a> and others infelix. A tree (arbor) was categorized as felix if it was under the protection of the heavenly gods (di superi). The adjective felix here means not only literally "fruitful" but more broadly "auspicious". <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> lists arbores felices (plural) as the oak (four species thereof), the birch, the hazelnut, the sorbus, the white fig, the pear, the apple, the grape, the plum, the cornus and the lotus. The oak was sacred to <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, and twigs of oak were used by the <a href="/wiki/Vestals" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestals">Vestals</a> to ignite the sacred fire in March every year. Also among the felices were the olive tree, a twig of which was affixed to the hat of the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">Flamen Dialis</a>, and the laurel and the poplar, which crowned the <a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salian priests</a>.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Arbores infelices were those under the protection of <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonic</a> gods or those gods who had the power of turning away misfortune (avertentium). As listed by <a href="/wiki/Tarquitius_Priscus" title="Tarquitius Priscus">Tarquitius Priscus</a> in his lost <a href="#ostentarium">ostentarium</a> on trees,<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> these were <a href="/wiki/Buckthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Buckthorn">buckthorn</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Cornel" class="mw-redirect" title="European Cornel">red cornel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ficus" title="Ficus">black fig</a>, "those that bear a black berry and black fruit," <a href="/wiki/Holly" title="Holly">holly</a>, <a href="/wiki/European_Pear" class="mw-redirect" title="European Pear">woodland pear</a>, <a href="/wiki/Butcher%27s_broom" class="mw-redirect" title="Butcher's broom">butcher's broom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rubus" title="Rubus">briar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bramble" class="mw-redirect" title="Bramble">brambles</a>."<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="attrectare">attrectare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: attrectare">edit</a>]</div> The verb attrectare ("to touch, handle, lay hands on") referred in specialized religious usage to touching sacred objects while performing cultic actions. Attrectare had a positive meaning only in reference to the actions of the <a href="#sacerdos">sacerdotes</a> populi Romani ("priests of the Roman people"). It had the negative meaning of "contaminate" (= contaminare) or pollute when referring to the handling of sacred objects by those not authorized, ordained, or ritually purified.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="augur">augur</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: augur">edit</a>]</div> An augur (Latin plural augures) was an official and priest who solicited and interpreted the will of the gods regarding a proposed action. The augur ritually defined a <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocabulary of ancient Roman religion">templum</a>, or sacred space, declared the purpose of his consultation, offered sacrifice, and observed the signs that were sent in return, particularly the actions and flight of birds. If the augur received unfavourable signs, he could suspend, postpone or cancel the undertaking (<a href="#obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</a>). "Taking the auspices" was an important part of all major official business, including inaugurations, senatorial debates, legislation, elections and war, and was held to be an ancient prerogative of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rome">Regal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a>. Under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, this right was extended to other magistrates. After 300 BC, <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a> could become augurs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auguraculum">auguraculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: auguraculum">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">solicitation of formal auspices</a> required the marking out of ritual space (auguraculum) from within which the <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> observed the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a>, including the construction of an augural tent or hut (tabernaculum). There were three such sites in Rome: on the citadel (<a href="/wiki/Arx_(Roman)" title="Arx (Roman)">arx</a>), on the <a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Hill" title="Quirinal Hill">Quirinal Hill</a>, and on the <a href="/wiki/Palatine_Hill" title="Palatine Hill">Palatine Hill</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> said that originally the auguraculum was in fact the arx. It faced east, situating the north on the augur's left or lucky side.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> who was serving as a military commander also took daily auspices, and thus a part of <a href="/wiki/Castra" title="Castra">camp-building</a> while on <a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">campaign</a> was the creation of a tabernaculum augurale. This augural tent was the center of religious and legal proceedings within the camp.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="augurium">augurium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: augurium">edit</a>]</div> Augurium (plural auguria) is an abstract noun that pertains to the <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a>. It seems to mean variously: the "sacral investiture" of the augur;<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> the ritual acts and actions of the augurs;<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> augural law (ius augurale);<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> and recorded signs whose meaning had already been established.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The word is rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">IE</a> stem *aug-, "to increase," and possibly an archaic Latin neuter noun *augus, meaning "that which is full of mystic force." As the sign that manifests the divine will,<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> the augurium for a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> was valid for a year; a priest's, for his lifetime; for a temple, it was perpetual.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> The distinction between augurium and <a href="#auspicia">auspicium</a> is often unclear. Auspicia is the observation of birds as signs of divine will, a practice held to have been established by <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, first <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king of Rome</a>, while the institution of augury was attributed to his successor <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> For <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, an augurium is the same thing as <a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">auspicia impetrativa</a>, a body of signs sought through prescribed ritual means.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Some scholars think auspicia would belong more broadly to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistracies</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate#Senate_of_the_Roman_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">patres</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> while the augurium would be limited to the <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a> and the major priesthoods.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Ancient sources record three auguria: the augurium salutis in which every year the gods were asked whether it was <a href="#fas">fas</a> (permissible, right) to ask for the safety of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Roman people</a> (August 5); the augurium canarium, a dog sacrifice (see also <a href="/wiki/Supplicia_canum" title="Supplicia canum">supplicia canum</a>) to promote the maturation of grain crops, held in the presence of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontiffs</a> as well as the augurs "when ears of wheat have already formed but are still in the sheaths";<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> and the vernisera auguria mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, which should have been a springtime propitiary rite held at the time of the harvest (auguria messalia). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspex">auspex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: auspex">edit</a>]</div> The auspex, plural auspices, is a diviner who reads <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a> from the observed flight of birds (avi-, from avis, "bird", with -spex, "observer", from spicere). See <a href="#auspicia">auspicia</a> following and <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspice</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspicia">auspicia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: auspicia">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Auspice" class="mw-redirect" title="Auspice">auspicia</a> (au- = avis, "bird"; -spic-, "watch") were originally signs derived from observing the flight of birds within the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> of the sky. Auspices are taken by an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a>. Originally they were the prerogative of the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> but the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">college</a> of augurs was opened to <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a> in 300 BC.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Only <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman magistrates">magistrates</a> were in possession of the auspicia publica, with the right and duty to take the auspices pertaining to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman State">Roman state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Favorable auspices marked a time or location as auspicious, and were required for important ceremonies or events, including elections, military campaigns and pitched battles. According to <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, there were five kinds of auspicia to which augurs paid heed: ex caelo, celestial signs such as thunder and lightning; ex avibus, signs offered by birds; ex tripudiis, signs produced by the actions of certain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sacred_chickens&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sacred chickens (page does not exist)">sacred chickens</a>; ex quadrupedibus, signs from the behavior of four-legged animals; and <a href="/wiki/Dirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirus">ex diris</a>, threatening portents.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> In official state augury at Rome, only the auspicia ex caelo and ex avibus were employed. The taking of the auspices required ritual silence (silentium). Watching for auspices was called <a href="#spectio">spectio</a> or <a href="#servare_de_caelo">servare de caelo</a>. The appearance of expected signs resulted in <a href="#nuntiatio">nuntiatio</a>, or if they were unfavourable <a href="#obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</a>. If unfavourable auspices were observed, the business at hand was stopped by the official observer, who declared alio die ("on another day").<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The practice of observing bird omens was common to many ancient peoples predating and contemporaneous with Rome, including the Greeks,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Celts,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and Germans.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspicia_impetrativa">auspicia impetrativa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: auspicia impetrativa">edit</a>]</div> Auspicia impetrativa were signs that were solicited under highly regulated ritual conditions (see <a href="#spectio">spectio</a> and <a href="#servare_de_caelo">servare de caelo</a>) within the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:1-45">[45]</a> The type of auspices required for convening public assemblies were impetrativa,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated127-46">[46]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> had the "right and duty" to seek these omens actively.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> These auspices could only be sought from an <a href="#auguraculum">auguraculum</a>, a ritually constructed augural tent or "tabernacle" (tabernaculum).<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Contrast <a href="#auspicia_oblativa">auspicia oblativa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspicia_maiora">auspicia maiora</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: auspicia maiora">edit</a>]</div> The right of observing the "greater auspices" was conferred on a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">Roman magistrate</a> holding <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, perhaps by a <a href="/wiki/Lex_curiata_de_imperio" title="Lex curiata de imperio">Lex curiata de imperio</a>, although scholars are not agreed on the finer points of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a> had <a href="/wiki/Maxima_auspicia" title="Maxima auspicia">auspicia maxima</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> It is also thought that the flamines maiores were distinguished from the minores by their right to take the auspicia maiora; see <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">Flamen</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspicia_oblativa">auspicia oblativa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: auspicia oblativa">edit</a>]</div> Signs that occurred without deliberately being sought through formal <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augural</a> procedure were auspicia oblativa. These unsolicited signs were regarded as sent by a deity or deities to express either approval or disapproval for a particular undertaking. The prodigy (<a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigium</a>) was one form of unfavourable oblativa.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Contrast <a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">auspicia impetrativa</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="auspicia_privata">auspicia privata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: auspicia privata">edit</a>]</div> Private and domestic religion was linked to divine signs as state religion was. It was customary in <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> families to take the <a href="#auspicia">auspices</a> for any matter of consequence such as marriages, travel, and important business.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> The scant information about auspicia privata in ancient authors<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> suggests that the taking of private auspices was not different in essence from that of public auspices: absolute silence was required,<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> and the person taking the auspices could ignore unfavourable or disruptive events by feigning not to have perceived them.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> In matters pertaining to the family or individual, both lightning<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> and <a href="#exta">exta</a> (entrails)<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> might yield signs for <a href="/wiki/Privati" class="mw-redirect" title="Privati">privati</a>, private citizens not authorized to take official auspices. Among his other duties, the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a> advised privati as well as the official priests about prodigies and their forestalling.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> By the time of Cicero, the taking of private auspices was falling into disuse.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="averruncare">averruncare</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: averruncare">edit</a>]</div> In pontifical usage, the verb averruncare, "to avert," denotes a ritual action aimed at averting a misfortune intimated by an omen. Bad omens (<a href="#portentum">portentaque</a> <a href="#prodigium">prodigiaque</a> mala) are to be burnt, using trees that are in the <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">tutelage</a> of underworld or "averting" gods (see <a href="#arbor_felix">arbores infelices</a> above).<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> says that the god who presides over the action of averting is <a href="/wiki/Averruncus" title="Averruncus">Averruncus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="B">B</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: B">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="bellum_iustum">bellum iustum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: bellum iustum">edit</a>]</div> A "<a href="/wiki/Just_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Just War">just war</a>" was a war considered justifiable by the principles of <a href="/wiki/Fetial" title="Fetial">fetial law</a> (ius fetiale).<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Because war could bring about religious pollution, it was in itself <a href="/wiki/Nefas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nefas">nefas</a>, "wrong," and could incur the wrath of gods unless iustum, "just".<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The requirements for a just war were both formal and substantive. As a formal matter, the <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war" title="Declaration of war">war had to be declared</a> according to the procedures of the ius fetiale. On substantive grounds, a war required a "just cause," which might include rerum repetitio, retaliation against another people for pillaging, or a breach of or unilateral recession from a treaty; or necessity, as in the case of repelling an invasion.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Jus_ad_bellum" title="Jus ad bellum">Jus ad bellum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="C">C</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: C">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="caerimonia">caerimonia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: caerimonia">edit</a>]</div> The English word "ceremony" derives from the Latin caerimonia or caeremonia, a word of obscure <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> first found in literature and inscriptions from the time of <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> (mid-1st century BC), but thought to be of much greater antiquity. Its meaning varied over time. Cicero used caerimonia at least 40 times, in three or four different senses: "inviolability" or "sanctity", a usage also of <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>; "punctilious veneration", in company with cura (carefulness, concern); more commonly in the plural caerimoniae, to mean "ritual prescriptions" or "ritual acts." The plural form is endorsed by Roman grammarians. <a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Wagenvoort" title="Hendrik Wagenvoort">Hendrik Wagenvoort</a> maintained that caerimoniae were originally the secret ritual instructions laid down by <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa</a>, which are described as statae et sollemnes, "established and solemn."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> These were interpreted and supervised by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vestals" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestals">Vestals</a>. Later, caerimoniae might refer also to other rituals, including foreign <a href="/wiki/Cult_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult (religion)">cults</a>.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> These prescribed rites "unite the inner subject with the external religious object", binding human and divine realms. The historian <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a> makes clear that the caerimoniae require those performing them to attain a particular mental-spiritual state (animus, "intention"), and emphasizes the importance of caerimoniae in the dedication and first sentence of his work. In Valerius's version of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Gallic siege of Rome</a>, the Vestals and the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Quirinalis" title="Flamen Quirinalis">Flamen Quirinalis</a> rescue Rome's sacred objects (sacra) by taking them to <a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a>; thus preserved, the rites take their name from the place.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Although this etymology makes a meaningful narrative connection for Valerius,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> it is unlikely to be correct in terms of modern scientific <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan origin</a> has sometimes been proposed. Wagenvoort thought that caerimonia derived from caerus, "dark" in the sense of "hidden", hence meaning "darknesses, secrets."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In his <a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Etymologiae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> says that the Greek equivalent is <a href="/wiki/Orgia" title="Orgia">orgia</a>, but derives the word from carendo, "lacking", and says that some think caerimoniae should be used of <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Jewish observances</a>, specifically the <a href="/wiki/Kashrut" title="Kashrut">dietary law</a> that requires abstaining from or "lacking" certain foods.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="calator">calator</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: calator">edit</a>]</div> The calatores were assistants who carried out day-to-day business on behalf of the senior priests of the state such as the <a href="/wiki/Flamines_maiores" class="mw-redirect" title="Flamines maiores">flamines maiores</a>. A calator was a <a href="/wiki/Servus_publicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Servus publicus">public slave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> derives the word from the Greek verb kalein, "to call." <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg/170px-Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg/255px-Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg/340px-Augustus_as_pontifex_maximus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="781" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, capite velato</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="capite_velato">capite velato</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: capite velato">edit</a>]</div> At the traditional public rituals of ancient Rome, officiants prayed, sacrificed, offered <a href="/wiki/Libation" title="Libation">libations</a>, and practiced <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augury</a> capite velato,<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> "with the head covered" by a fold of the <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> drawn up from the back. This covering of the head is a distinctive feature of Roman rite in contrast with <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">Etruscan</a> practice<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> or <a href="#ritus_graecus">ritus graecus</a>, "Greek rite."<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In Roman art, the covered head is a symbol of <a href="/wiki/Pietas_(virtue)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pietas (virtue)">pietas</a> and the individual's status as a <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontifex</a>, <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a> or other priest.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> It has been argued that the Roman expression of piety capite velato influenced <a href="/wiki/St._Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Paul">Paul</a>'s prohibition against Christian men praying with covered heads: "Any man who prays or prophesies with his head covered dishonors his head."<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="carmen">carmen</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: carmen">edit</a>]</div> In classical Latin, <a href="/wiki/Carmen_(verse)" title="Carmen (verse)">carmen</a> usually means "song, poem, ode." In <a href="/wiki/Magico-religious" class="mw-redirect" title="Magico-religious">magico-religious</a> usage, a carmen (plural carmina) is a chant, <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spell_(paranormal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spell (paranormal)">spell</a>, or charm. In essence "a verbal utterance sung for ritualistic purposes", the carmen is characterized by formulaic expression, redundancy, and rhythm.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Fragments from two archaic priestly hymns are preserved, the <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Arvale" title="Carmen Arvale">Carmen Arvale</a> of the Arval Brethren and the <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Saliare" title="Carmen Saliare">Carmina Saliaria</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salii</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Carmen_Saeculare" title="Carmen Saeculare">Carmen Saeculare</a> of <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, though self-consciously literary in technique, was also a hymn, performed by a chorus at the <a href="/wiki/Saecular_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Saecular Games">Saecular Games</a> of 17 BC and expressing the Apollonian ideology of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> A carmen malum or maleficum is a potentially harmful magic spell. A fragment of the <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> reading si malum carmen incantassit ("if anyone should chant an evil spell") shows that it was a longstanding concern of Roman law to suppress malevolent magic.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> A carmen sepulchrale is a spell that evokes the dead from their tombs; a carmen veneficum, a "poisonous" charm.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Through magical practice, the word carmen comes to mean also the object on which a spell is inscribed, hence a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/charm" class="extiw" title="wikt:charm">charm</a> in the physical sense.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="castus,_castitas">castus, castitas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: castus, castitas">edit</a>]</div> Castus is an adjective meaning morally pure or guiltless (English "chaste"), hence pious or ritually pure in a religious sense. Castitas is the abstract noun. Various etymologies have been proposed, among them two IE stems: *k'(e)stos<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> meaning "he who conforms to the prescriptions of rite"; or *kas-, from which derives the verb careo, "I defice, am deprived of, have none..." i.e. vitia.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> In Roman religion, the purity of ritual and those who perform it is paramount: one who is correctly cleansed and castus in religious preparation and performance is likely to please the gods. Ritual error is a pollutant; it <a href="#vitium">vitiates</a> the performance and risks the gods' anger. Castus and castitas are attributes of the <a href="#sacerdos">sacerdos</a> (priest),<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> but substances and objects can also be ritually castus.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="cinctus_Gabinus">cinctus Gabinus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: cinctus Gabinus">edit</a>]</div> The cinctus Gabinus ("Gabine cinch") was a way of wearing the <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a> thought to have originated in the <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latin</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Gabii" title="Gabii">Gabii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> It was also later claimed[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] to have been part of <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan priestly dress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> The cinch allowed free use of both arms,<a href="#cite_note-Roman_World_1935,_p._409-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> essential when the toga was still worn during combat and later important in some <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Roman religion">religious contexts</a>, particularly those involving use of the toga to cover the head (<a href="#capite_velato">capite velato</a>).<a href="#cite_note-catty-91">[91]</a> The style's ancient martial associations caused it to be worn during Roman <a href="/wiki/Declarations_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarations of war">declarations of war</a>. It was also used by the priest or official charged with guiding the plow creating the <a href="/wiki/Sulcus_primigenius" title="Sulcus primigenius">sulcus primigenius</a> during the rituals attending the foundation of new <a href="/wiki/Roman_colonia" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman colonia">colonies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-catty-91">[91]</a> In Latin, cinctus Gabinus could refer to the cinch itself or to the entire toga thus worn. In religious contexts, such a toga was also said to be worn ritu Gabino ("in the Gabine rite"). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="clavum_figere">clavum figere</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: clavum figere">edit</a>]</div> Clavum figere ("to nail in, to fasten or fix the nail") was an expression that referred to the fixing or "sealing" of fate.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> A nail was one of the attributes of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Necessitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Necessitas">Necessitas</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> and of the Etruscan goddess Athrpa (Greek <a href="/wiki/Atropos" title="Atropos">Atropos</a>). According to <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, every year in the temple of <a href="/wiki/Nortia" title="Nortia">Nortia</a>, the Etruscan counterpart of <a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a>, a nail was driven in to mark the time. In Rome, the senior magistrate<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> on the Ides of September drove a nail called the clavus annalis ("year-nail")<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> into the wall of the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus</a>. The ceremony occurred on the dies natalis ("birthday" or anniversary of dedication) of the temple, when a banquet for Jupiter (<a href="/wiki/Epulum_Jovis" title="Epulum Jovis">Epulum Jovis</a>) was also held. The nail-driving ceremony, however, took place in a <a href="#templum">templum</a> devoted to <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a>, on the right side of the <a href="#aedes">aedes</a> of Jupiter, because the concept of "number" was invented by Minerva and the ritual predated the common use of written letters.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> The importance of this ritual is lost in obscurity, but in the early Republic it is associated with the appointment of a dictator clavi figendi causa, "<a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a> for the purpose of driving the nail,"<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> one of whom was appointed for the years 363, 331, 313, and 263 BC.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Livy attributes this practice to <a href="#religio">religio</a>, religious scruple or obligation. It may be that in addition to an annual ritual, there was a "fixing" during times of pestilence or civil discord that served as a <a href="#piaculum">piaculum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> Livy says that in 363, a plague had been ravaging Rome for two years. It was recalled that a plague had once been broken when a dictator drove a ritual nail, and the senate appointed one for that purpose.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The ritual of "driving the nail" was among those revived and reformed by Augustus, who in 1 AD transferred it to the new <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mars_Ultor" title="Temple of Mars Ultor">Temple of Mars Ultor</a>. Henceforth a <a href="/wiki/Roman_censor" title="Roman censor">censor</a> fixed the nail at the end of his term.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="collegium">collegium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: collegium">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegium</a> ("joined by law"), plural collegia, was any association with a <a href="/wiki/Legal_personality" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal personality">legal personality</a>. The priestly colleges oversaw religious traditions, and until 300 BC only <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> were eligible for membership. When <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeians</a> began to be admitted, the size of the colleges was expanded. By the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic#Late_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Late Republic</a>, three collegia wielded greater authority than the others, with a fourth coming to prominence during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. The four great religious corporations (quattuor amplissima collegia) were: <ul><li>Pontifices, the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a> headed by the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">Augures</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quindecimviri_sacris_faciundis" title="Quindecimviri sacris faciundis">Quindecimviri sacris faciundis</a>, the fifteen priests in charge of the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a>;</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epulones" title="Epulones">Septemviri epulonum</a>, the board of seven priests who organized public banquets for religious holidays.</li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> was a member of all four collegia, but limited membership for any other <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senator</a> to one.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In Roman society, a collegium might also be a trade guild or neighborhood association; see <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">Collegium (ancient Rome)</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="comitia_calata">comitia calata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: comitia calata">edit</a>]</div> The comitia calata ("calate assemblies") were non-voting <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">assemblies (comitia)</a> called for religious purposes. The verb calare, originally meaning "to call," was a technical term of pontifical usage, found also in calendae (<a href="/wiki/Calends" title="Calends">Calends</a>) and <a href="#calator">calator</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a>,<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> these comitia were held in the presence of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_pontiffs" class="mw-redirect" title="College of pontiffs">college of pontiffs</a> in order to inaugurate the rex (the <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Regal Period</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>)<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamines</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_maximus" title="Pontifex maximus">pontifex maximus</a> auspiciated and presided; assemblies over which <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">annually elected magistrates</a> presided are never calata, nor are meetings for secular purposes or other elections even with a pontiff presiding.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> The comitia calata were organized by <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">curiae</a> or <a href="/wiki/Century_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="Century Assembly">centuriae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The people were summoned to comitia calata to witness the reading of wills, or the oath by which sacra were renounced (<a href="#detestatio_sacrorum">detestatio sacrorum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> They took no active role and were only present to observe as witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodor_Mommsen" title="Theodor Mommsen">Mommsen</a> thought the calendar abbreviation QRCF, given once as Q. Rex C. F.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> and taken as Quando Rex Comitiavit <a href="#fas">Fas</a>, designated a day when it was religiously permissible for the rex to "call" for a comitium, hence the comitia calata.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="commentarii_augurales">commentarii augurales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: commentarii augurales">edit</a>]</div> The Commentaries of the Augurs were written collections probably of the <a href="#decretum">decreta</a> and <a href="#responsum">responsa</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">college</a> of <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a>. Some scholarship, however, maintains that the commentarii were precisely not the decreta and responsa.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> The commentaries are to be distinguished from the augurs' libri reconditi, texts not for public use.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The books are mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>,<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>,<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Servius_Danielis" class="mw-redirect" title="Servius Danielis">Servius Danielis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> includes several examples of the augurs' decreta and responsa in his history, presumably taken from the commentarii.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="commentarii_pontificum">commentarii pontificum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: commentarii pontificum">edit</a>]</div> The Commentaries of the Pontiffs contained a record of decrees and official proceedings of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>. Priestly literature was one of the earliest written forms of <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin prose</a>, and included rosters, acts (acta), and chronicles kept by the various <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> as well as religious procedure.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> It was often occultum genus litterarum,<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> an arcane form of literature to which by definition only priests had access. The commentarii, however, may have been available for public consultation, at least by <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senators</a>,<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> because the rulings on points of law might be cited as precedent.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> The public nature of the commentarii is asserted by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a> in contrast to libri reconditi, the secret priestly books.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> The commentarii survive only through quotation or references in ancient authors.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> These records are not readily distinguishable from the <a href="#libri_pontificales">libri pontificales</a>; some scholars maintain that the terms commentarii and libri for the pontifical writings are interchangeable. Those who make a distinction hold that the libri were the secret archive containing rules and precepts of the ius sacrum (holy law), texts of spoken formulae, and instructions on how to perform ritual acts, while the commentarii were the <a href="#responsum">responsa</a> (opinions and arguments) and decreta (binding explications of doctrine) that were available for consultation. Whether or not the terms can be used to distinguish two types of material, the priestly documents would have been divided into those reserved for internal use by the priests themselves, and those that served as reference works on matters external to the college.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Collectively, these titles would have comprised all matters of pontifical law, ritual, and cult maintenance, along with <a href="#prex">prayer formularies</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> and temple statutes.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> See also <a href="#libri_pontificales">libri pontificales</a> and <a href="#libri_augurales">libri augurales</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="coniectura">coniectura</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: coniectura">edit</a>]</div> Coniectura is the reasoned but speculative interpretation of signs presented unexpectedly, that is, of novae res, "novel information." These "new signs" are omens or portents not previously observed, or not observed under the particular set of circumstances at hand. Coniectura is thus the kind of interpretation used for <a href="#ostentum">ostenta</a> and <a href="#portentum">portenta</a> as constituting one branch of the "<a href="#disciplina_Etrusca">Etruscan discipline</a>"; contrast <a href="#observatio">observatio</a> as applied to the interpretation of fulgura (thunder and lightning) and <a href="#exta">exta</a> (entrails). It was considered an ars, a "method" or "art" as distinguished from disciplina, a formal body of teachings which required study or training.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">origin</a> of the Latin word coniectura suggests the process of making connections, from the verb conicio, <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> coniectum (con-, "with, together", and iacio, "throw, put"). Coniectura was also a rhetorical term applied to forms of argumentation, including court cases.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> The English word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conjecture" class="extiw" title="wikt:conjecture">conjecture</a>" derives from coniectura. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="consecratio">consecratio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: consecratio">edit</a>]</div> Consecratio was the ritual act that resulted in the creation of an <a href="/wiki/Aedes_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aedes (Roman)">aedes</a>, a shrine that housed a cult image, or an <a href="#ara">ara</a>, an altar. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a> insists that the consecratio should be distinguished from the <a href="#inauguratio">inauguratio</a>, that is, the ritual by which the <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> established a sacred place (locus) or <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> (sacred precinct).<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The consecration was performed by a pontiff reciting a formula from the <a href="#libri_pontificales">libri pontificales</a>, the pontifical books.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> One component of consecration was the dedicatio, or dedication, a form of <a href="/wiki/Ius_publicum" title="Ius publicum">ius publicum</a> (public law) carried out by a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> representing the will of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Roman people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The pontiff was responsible for the consecration proper.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="cultus">cultus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: cultus">edit</a>]</div> Cicero defined <a href="#religio">religio</a> as cultus deorum, "the cultivation of the gods."<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> The "cultivation" necessary to maintain a specific deity was that god's cultus, "cult," and required "the knowledge of giving the gods their due" (scientia colendorum deorum).<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> The noun cultus originates from the <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> of the verb colo, colere, colui, cultus, "to tend, take care of, cultivate," originally meaning "to dwell in, inhabit" and thus "to tend, cultivate <a href="#ager">land (ager)</a>; to practice agriculture," an activity fundamental to Roman identity even when Rome as a political center had become fully urbanized. Cultus is often translated as "<a href="/wiki/Cult_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cult (religion)">cult</a>", without the negative connotations the word may have in English, or with the <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Anglo-Saxon</a> word "<a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">worship</a>", but it implies the necessity of active maintenance beyond passive adoration. Cultus was expected to matter to the gods as a demonstration of respect, honor, and reverence; it was an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion (<a href="/wiki/Do_ut_des" class="mw-redirect" title="Do ut des">do ut des</a>).<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> echoes Cicero's formulation when he declares that "religio is nothing other than the cultus of <a href="/wiki/Christian_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian God">God</a>."<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="D">D</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: D">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="decretum">decretum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: decretum">edit</a>]</div> Decreta (plural) were the binding explications of doctrine issued by the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. They were preserved in written form and archived.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated218-137">[137]</a> Compare <a href="#responsum">responsum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="delubrum">delubrum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: delubrum">edit</a>]</div> A delubrum was a shrine. <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> says it was a building that housed the image of a deus, "god",<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> and emphasizes the human role in dedicating the statue.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> According to Varro,<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> the delubrum was the oldest form of an <a href="/wiki/Aedes_(Roman)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aedes (Roman)">aedes</a>, a structure that housed a god. It is an ambiguous term for both the building and the surrounding area ubi aqua currit ("where water runs"), according to the etymology of the antiquarian <a href="/wiki/Cincius" title="Cincius">Cincius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> gives the etymology of delubrum as fustem delibratum, "stripped stake," that is, a tree deprived of its bark (liber) by a lightning bolt, as such trees in archaic times were venerated as gods. The meaning of the term later extended to denote the shrine built to house the stake.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Compare <a href="#aedes">aedes</a>, <a href="#fanum">fanum</a>, and <a href="#templum">templum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore</a> connected the delubrum with the verb diluere, "to wash", describing it as a "spring-shrine", sometimes with annexed pool, where people would wash before entering, thus comparable to a Christian <a href="/wiki/Baptismal_font" title="Baptismal font">baptismal font</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="detestatio_sacrorum">detestatio sacrorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: detestatio sacrorum">edit</a>]</div> When a person passed from one <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a> to another, as for instance by <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adoption</a>, he renounced the religious duties (<a href="#sacra">sacra</a>) he had previously held in order to assume those of the family he was entering.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> The ritual procedure of detestatio sacrorum was enacted before a <a href="#comitia_calata">calate assembly</a>.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="deus,_dea,_di,_dii">deus, dea, di, dii</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: deus, dea, di, dii">edit</a>]</div> Deus, "god"; dea, "goddess", plural deae; di or dii, "gods", plural, or "deities", of mixed gender. The Greek equivalent is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%CE%B8%CE%B5%CF%8C%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:θεός">theos</a>, which the Romans translated with deus. <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> says<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> that deus or dea is a "generic term" (generale nomen) for all gods.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In his lost work Antiquitates rerum divinarum, assumed to have been based on pontifical doctrine,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> classified dii as certi, incerti, praecipui or selecti, i.e. "deities whose function could be ascertained",<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> those whose function was unknown or indeterminate, main or selected gods.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Divus" class="mw-redirect" title="Divus">divus</a>. For etymological discussion, see <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">Deus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dyeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dyeus">Dyeus</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">List of Roman deities</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="devotio">devotio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: devotio">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Devotio" title="Devotio">devotio</a> was an extreme form of <a href="#votum">votum</a> in which a Roman general vowed to sacrifice his own life in battle along with the enemy to <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonic</a> deities in exchange for a victory. The most extended description of the ritual is given by <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, regarding the self-sacrifice of <a href="/wiki/Publius_Decius_Mus_(consul_340_BC)" title="Publius Decius Mus (consul 340 BC)">Decius Mus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> The English word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/devotion" class="extiw" title="wikt:devotion">devotion</a>" derives from the Latin. For another votum that might be made in the field by a general, see <a href="/wiki/Evocatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Evocatio">evocatio</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dies_imperii">dies imperii</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: dies imperii">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">Roman emperor</a>'s dies imperii was the date on which he assumed <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>, that is, the anniversary of his accession as emperor. The date was observed annually with renewed oaths of loyalty and <a href="/wiki/Vota_pro_salute_imperatoris" class="mw-redirect" title="Vota pro salute imperatoris">vota pro salute imperatoris</a>, vows and offerings for the wellbeing (<a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">salus</a>) of the emperor. Observances resembled those on January 3, which had replaced the traditional vows made for the salus of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">republic</a> after the transition to one-man rule under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>. The dies imperii was a recognition that succession during the Empire might take place irregularly through the death or overthrow of an emperor, in contrast to the annual magistracies of the Republic when the year was designated by the names of <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> serving their one-year term.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The dies Augusti or dies Augustus was more generally any anniversary pertaining to the imperial family, such as birthdays or weddings, appearing on official calendars as part of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a>.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> References to a dies Caesaris are also found, but it is unclear whether or how it differed from the dies Augusti.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dies_lustricus">dies lustricus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: dies lustricus">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Dies_lustricus" title="Dies lustricus">dies lustricus</a> ("day of purification") was a rite carried out for the newborn on the eighth day of life for girls and the ninth day for boys. Little is known of the ritual procedure, but the child must have received its name on that day; funerary inscriptions for infants who died before their dies lustricus are nameless.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The youngest person found commemorated on a Roman tombstone by name was a male infant nine days old (or 10 days in Roman <a href="/wiki/Inclusive_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Inclusive counting">inclusive counting</a>).<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Because of the rate of <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a>, perhaps as high as 40 percent,<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> the newborn in its first few days of life was held as in a <a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">liminal</a> phase, vulnerable to malignant forces (see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_birth_and_childhood_deities" title="List of Roman birth and childhood deities">List of Roman birth and childhood deities</a>). Socially, the child did not exist.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> The dies lustricus may have been when the child received the <a href="/wiki/Bulla_(amulet)" title="Bulla (amulet)">bulla</a>, the protective amulet that was put aside when a <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome#Rites_of_passage" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">boy passed into adulthood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dies_natalis">dies natalis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: dies natalis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:03_natales.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/03_natales.png/240px-03_natales.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/03_natales.png/360px-03_natales.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/03_natales.png/480px-03_natales.png 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Page listing imperial natales by month from the 17th-century Codex Vaticanus Barberini latinus, based on the <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_Filocalus" class="mw-redirect" title="Calendar of Filocalus">Calendar of Filocalus</a> (354 AD)</figcaption></figure> A dies natalis was a birthday ("natal day"; see also <a href="#dies_lustricus">dies lustricus</a> above) or more generally the anniversary of a founding event. The Romans celebrated an individual's birthday annually, in contrast to the Greek practice of marking the date each month with a simple <a href="/wiki/Libation#Ancient_Greece" title="Libation">libation</a>. The Roman dies natalis was connected with the <a href="#cultus">cult</a> owed to the <a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> A public figure might schedule a major event on his birthday: <a href="/wiki/Pompey_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompey the Great">Pompeius Magnus ("Pompey the Great")</a> waited seven months after he returned from his military campaigns in the East before he staged his <a href="/wiki/Roman_triumph" title="Roman triumph">triumph</a>, so he could celebrate it on his birthday.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> The coincidence of birthdays and anniversaries could have a positive or negative significance: news of <a href="/wiki/Decimus_Junius_Brutus_Albinus" title="Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus">Decimus Brutus</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mutina" title="Battle of Mutina">victory at Mutina</a> was announced at Rome on his birthday, while <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Julius_Caesar" title="Assassination of Julius Caesar">Caesar's assassin</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Cassius_Longinus" title="Gaius Cassius Longinus">Cassius</a> suffered <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Philippi" title="Battle of Philippi">defeat at Philippi</a> on his birthday and committed suicide.<a href="#cite_note-Feeney,_p._149-162">[162]</a> Birthdays were one of the dates on which the dead were commemorated.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> The date when a temple was founded, or when it was rededicated after a major renovation or rebuilding, was also a dies natalis, and might be felt as the "birthday" of the deity it housed as well. The date of such ceremonies was therefore chosen by the pontiffs with regard to its position on the religious calendar. The "birthday" or <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">foundation date of Rome</a> was celebrated April 21, the day of the <a href="/wiki/Parilia" title="Parilia">Parilia</a>, an archaic pastoral festival.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> As part of a flurry of religious reforms and restorations in the period from 38 BC to 17 AD, no fewer than fourteen temples had their dies natalis moved to another date, sometimes with the clear purpose of aligning them with new Imperial theology after the collapse of the Republic.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> The birthdays of emperors were observed with public ceremonies as an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Feriale_Duranum" title="Feriale Duranum">Feriale Duranum</a>, a military calendar of religious observances, features a large number of imperial birthdays. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> shared his birthday (September 23) with the anniversary of the Temple of Apollo in the <a href="/wiki/Campus_Martius" title="Campus Martius">Campus Martius</a>, and elaborated on his connection with <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> in developing his special religious status.<a href="#cite_note-Feeney,_p._149-162">[162]</a> A birthday commemoration was also called a natalicium, which could take the form of a poem. Early Christian poets such as <a href="/wiki/Paulinus_of_Nola" title="Paulinus of Nola">Paulinus of Nola</a> adopted the natalicium poem for commemorating saints.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> The day on which <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyr" title="Christian martyr">Christian martyrs</a> died is regarded as their dies natalis; see <a href="/wiki/Calendar_of_saints" title="Calendar of saints">Calendar of saints</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dies_religiosus">dies religiosus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: dies religiosus">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, it was wrong (<a href="#nefas">nefas</a>) to undertake any action beyond attending to basic necessities on a day that was <a href="#religiosus">religiosus</a> on the calendar. On these days, there were to be no <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">marriages</a>, political assemblies, or battles. Soldiers were not to be enlisted, nor journeys started. Nothing new was to be started, and no religious acts (<a href="/wiki/Res_divinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Res divinae">res divinae</a>) performed. <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> said that dies religiosi were to be distinguished from those that were <a href="#nefastus">nefasti</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dies_vitiosus">dies vitiosus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: dies vitiosus">edit</a>]</div> The phrase diem vitiare ("to vitiate a day") in augural practice meant that the normal activities of public business were prohibited on a given day, presumably by <a href="#obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</a>, because of observed signs that indicated defect (morbus; see <a href="#vitium">vitium</a>).<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> Unlike a <a href="#dies_religiosus">dies religiosus</a> or a dies ater ("black day," typically the anniversary of a calamity), a particular date did not become permanently vitiosus, with one exception. Some Roman calendars (<a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">fasti</a>) produced under <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> and up to the time of <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> mark January 14 as a dies vitiosus, a day that was inherently "vitiated". January 14 is the only day to be marked annually and officially by decree of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">Roman senate</a> (<a href="/wiki/Senatus_consultum" title="Senatus consultum">senatus consultum</a>) as vitiosus. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Linderski</a> calls this "a very remarkable innovation."<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> One calendar, the Fasti Verulani (c. 17–37 AD), explains the designation by noting it was the <a href="#dies_natalis">dies natalis</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>, which the Greek historian and Roman senator <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> says had been declared ἡμέρα μιαρά (hēmera miara) (= dies vitiosus) by Augustus.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> The emperor Claudius, who was the grandson of Antony, rehabilitated the day.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="dirae">dirae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: dirae">edit</a>]</div> The adjective dirus as applied to an omen meant "dire, awful." It often appears in the <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">feminine</a> plural as a <a href="/wiki/Substantive" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantive">substantive</a> meaning "evil omens." Dirae were the worst of the five kinds of signs recognized by the <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a>, and were a type of <a href="#auspicia_oblativa">oblative</a> or unsought sign that foretold disastrous consequences. The ill-fated departure of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Licinius_Crassus" title="Marcus Licinius Crassus">Marcus Crassus</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carrhae" title="Battle of Carrhae">invasion of Parthia</a> was notably attended by dirae (see <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Ateius_Capito_(tribune)#Omens_and_curses" title="Gaius Ateius Capito (tribune)">Ateius Capito</a>). In the interpretive <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of ancient writers,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> dirae was thought to derive from dei irae, the grudges or anger of a god, that is, <a href="/wiki/Divine_wrath" class="mw-redirect" title="Divine wrath">divine wrath</a>. Dirae is an <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Furies" class="mw-redirect" title="Furies">Furies</a>, and can also mean curses or imprecations,<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> particularly in the context of <a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">magic</a> and related to defixiones (<a href="/wiki/Curse_tablet" title="Curse tablet">curse tablets</a>).<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> In explaining why <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> felt compelled to ban the religion of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> speaks of it as dirus, alluding to the practice of <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="disciplina_Etrusca">disciplina Etrusca</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: disciplina Etrusca">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg/220px-Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg/330px-Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg/440px-Piacenza_Bronzeleber.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1914" data-file-height="1266" /></a><figcaption>Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">liver of Piacenza</a></figcaption></figure> The collective body of knowledge pertaining to the doctrine, ritual practices, laws, and science of <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a> was known as the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology#Etrusca_Disciplina" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">disciplina Etrusca</a>.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Divination was a particular feature of the disciplina. The Etruscan texts on the disciplina that were known to the Romans are of three kinds: the libri haruspicini (on <a href="/wiki/Haruspicy" class="mw-redirect" title="Haruspicy">haruspicy</a>), the libri fulgurales (lightning), and the libri rituales (ritual).<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic#Late_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Late Republican</a> scholar and <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> of 58 BC, was noted for his expertise in the disciplina.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Extant ancient sources on the Etrusca disciplina include <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Lydus" class="mw-redirect" title="Johannes Lydus">Johannes Lydus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="divus">divus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: divus">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)#Divus,_deus_and_the_numen" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult (ancient Rome) § Divus, deus and the numen</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> divus, feminine diva, is usually translated as "divine." As a <a href="/wiki/Substantive" class="mw-redirect" title="Substantive">substantive</a>, divus refers to a "deified" or divinized mortal. Both <a href="/wiki/Deus" title="Deus">deus</a> and divus derive from <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European</a> *deywos, <a href="/wiki/Old_Latin" title="Old Latin">Old Latin</a> deivos. <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> confirms<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> that deus is used for "perpetual deities" (deos perpetuos), but divus for people who become divine (divos ex hominibus factos = gods who once were men). While this distinction is useful in considering the theological foundations of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a>, it sometimes vanishes in practice, particularly in Latin poetry; <a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a>, for instance, mostly uses deus and divus interchangeably. <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> and Ateius,<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> however, maintained that the definitions should be reversed.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="do_ut_des">do ut des</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: do ut des">edit</a>]</div> The formula do ut des ("I give that you might give") expresses the reciprocity of exchange between human being and deity, reflecting the importance of gift-giving as a mutual obligation in ancient society and the contractual nature of Roman religion. The gifts offered by the human being take the form of sacrifice, with the expectation that the god will return something of value, prompting gratitude and further sacrifices in a perpetuating cycle.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> The do ut des principle is particularly active in magic and private ritual.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Do ut des was also a judicial concept of <a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">contract law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline theology</a>, do ut des was viewed as a reductive form of piety, merely a "business transaction", in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Christian_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian God">God's</a> unilateral <a href="/wiki/Grace_in_Christianity" title="Grace in Christianity">grace</a> (χάρις, charis).<a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_Religion_(book)" title="Sociology of Religion (book)">The Sociology of Religion</a>, saw it as "a purely formalistic ethic."<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a> In <a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_The_Religious_Life" class="mw-redirect" title="The Elementary Forms of The Religious Life">The Elementary Forms of Religious Life</a>, however, <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a> regarded the concept as not merely <a href="/wiki/Utilitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Utilitarian">utilitarian</a>, but an expression of "the mechanism of the sacrificial system itself" as "an exchange of mutually invigorating good deeds between the divinity and his faithful."<a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="E">E</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: E">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="effatio">effatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: effatio">edit</a>]</div> The verb effari, <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> effatus, means "to create boundaries (<a href="#finis">fines</a>) by means of <a href="#verba_certa">fixed verbal formulas</a>."<a href="#cite_note-190">[190]</a> Effatio is the <a href="/wiki/Abstract_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract noun">abstract noun</a>. It was one of the three parts of the <a href="#inauguratio">ceremony inaugurating</a> a <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> (sacred space), preceded by the consulting of <a href="#signum">signs</a> and the <a href="#liberatio">liberatio</a> which "freed" the space from malign or competing spiritual influences and human effects.<a href="#cite_note-191">[191]</a> A site liberatus et effatus was thus "exorcized and available."<a href="#cite_note-:0-31">[31]</a> The result was a locus inauguratus ("inaugurated site"), the most common form of which was the templum.<a href="#cite_note-192">[192]</a> The boundaries had permanent markers (<a href="/wiki/Cippus" title="Cippus">cippi</a> or <a href="/wiki/Terminus_(god)" title="Terminus (god)">termini</a>), and when these were damaged or removed, their effatio had to be renewed.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="evocatio">evocatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: evocatio">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg/220px-Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg/330px-Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg/440px-Nike_warrior_Louvre_Ma969.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2470" data-file-height="2245" /></a><figcaption>Relief (1st century AD) depicting the Palladium atop a column entwined by a snake, to which <a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victory</a> presents an egg as a warrior attends in a pose of peace</figcaption></figure> The "calling forth" or "summoning away" of a deity was an evocatio, from evoco, evocare, "summon." The ritual was conducted in a military setting either as a threat during a <a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">siege</a> or as a result of surrender, and aimed at diverting the favor of a <a href="/wiki/Tutelary_deity" title="Tutelary deity">tutelary deity</a> from the opposing city to the Roman side, customarily with a promise of a better-endowed cult or a more lavish temple.<a href="#cite_note-194">[194]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/Military_tactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Military tactic">tactic</a> of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">psychological warfare</a>, evocatio undermined the enemy's sense of security by threatening the sanctity of its city walls (see <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>) and other forms of divine protection. In practice, evocatio was a way to mitigate otherwise sacrilegious looting of religious images from shrines.<a href="#cite_note-195">[195]</a> Recorded examples of evocations include the transferral of <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno Regina</a> ("Juno the Queen", originally <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Uni_(mythology)" title="Uni (mythology)">Uni</a>) from <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a> in 396 BC;<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> the ritual performed by <a href="/wiki/Scipio_Aemilianus" title="Scipio Aemilianus">Scipio Aemilianus</a> in 146 BC at the defeat of Carthage, involving <a href="/wiki/Tanit" title="Tanit">Tanit</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dougga#Temple_of_Juno_Caelestis" title="Dougga">Juno Caelestis</a>);<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> and the dedication of a temple to an unnamed, gender-indeterminate deity at <a href="/wiki/Isauria" title="Isauria">Isaura Vetus</a> in <a href="/wiki/Asia_(Roman_province)" title="Asia (Roman province)">Asia Minor</a> in 75 BC.<a href="#cite_note-198">[198]</a> Some scholars think that <a href="/wiki/Vortumnus" class="mw-redirect" title="Vortumnus">Vortumnus</a> (Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Voltumna" title="Voltumna">Voltumna</a>) was brought by evocation to Rome in 264 BC as a result of <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Fulvius_Flaccus_(consul_264_BC)" title="Marcus Fulvius Flaccus (consul 264 BC)">M. Fulvius Flaccus</a>'s defeat of the <a href="/wiki/Volsinii" title="Volsinii">Volsinii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> In Roman myth, a similar concept motivates the transferral of the <a href="/wiki/Palladium_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Palladium (mythology)">Palladium</a> from <a href="/wiki/Trojan_War" title="Trojan War">Troy</a> to Rome, where it served as one of the <a href="/wiki/Pignora_imperii" title="Pignora imperii">pignora imperii</a>, sacred tokens of Roman sovereignty.<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Compare <a href="#invocatio">invocatio</a>, the "calling on" of a deity. Formal evocations are known only during the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> Other forms of religious assimilation appear from the time of <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a>, often in connection with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">provinces</a>.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Evocatio, "<a href="/wiki/Summons" title="Summons">summons</a>", was also a term of <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> without evident reference to its magico-religious sense.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="exauguratio">exauguratio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: exauguratio">edit</a>]</div> A site that had been inaugurated (locus inauguratus), that is, marked out through augural procedure, could not have its purpose changed without a ceremony of reversal.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> Removing a god from the premises required the correct ceremonial invocations.<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> When <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Tarquin</a> rebuilt the temple district on the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitoline">Capitoline</a>, a number of deities were dislodged by exauguratio, though <a href="/wiki/Terminus_(god)" title="Terminus (god)">Terminus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Juventas" title="Juventas">Juventas</a> "refused" and were incorporated into the new structure.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a> A distinction between the exauguratio of a deity and an <a href="/wiki/Evocatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Evocatio">evocatio</a> can be unclear.<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> The procedure was in either case rare, and was required only when a deity had to yield place to another, or when the site was secularized. It was not required when a site was upgraded, for instance, if an open-air altar were to be replaced with a temple building to the same god.<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> The term could also be used for removing someone from a priestly office (sacerdotium).<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> Compare <a href="#inauguratio">inauguratio</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="eximius">eximius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: eximius">edit</a>]</div> An <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a>, "choice, select," used to denote the high quality required of sacrificial victims: "Victims (<a href="#hostia">hostiae</a>) are called 'select' (eximiae) because they are selected (eximantur) from the herd and designated for sacrifice, or because they are chosen on account of their choice (eximia) appearance as offerings to divine entities (<a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">numinibus</a>)."<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> The adjective here is synonymous with egregius, "chosen from the herd (grex, gregis)."<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> says it is specifically a <a href="#sacerdos">sacerdotal</a> term and not a "poetic <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a>" (poeticum ἐπίθετον). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="exta">exta</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: exta">edit</a>]</div> The exta were the entrails of a <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrificed animal</a>, comprising in <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>'s enumeration the gall bladder (fel), liver (iecur), heart (cor), and lungs (pulmones).<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a> The exta were exposed for <a href="#litatio">litation</a> (divine approval) as part of Roman liturgy, but were "read" in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology#Etrusca_Disciplina" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">disciplina Etrusca</a>. As a product of Roman sacrifice, the exta and blood are reserved for the gods, while the meat (viscera) is shared among human beings in a communal meal. The exta of bovine victims were usually stewed in a pot (<a href="/wiki/Olla_(Roman_pot)" title="Olla (Roman pot)">olla</a> or aula), while those of sheep or pigs were grilled on skewers. When the deity's portion was cooked, it was sprinkled with <a href="/wiki/Mola_salsa" title="Mola salsa">mola salsa</a> (ritually prepared salted flour) and wine, then placed in the fire on the altar for the offering; the technical verb for this action was <a href="#porricere">porricere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="F">F</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: F">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fanaticus">fanaticus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: fanaticus">edit</a>]</div> Fanaticus means "belonging to a <a href="/wiki/Fanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fanum">fanum</a>," a shrine or sacred precinct.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> Fanatici as applied to people refers to temple attendants or devotees of a cult, usually one of the <a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">ecstatic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Orgia" title="Orgia">orgiastic</a> religions such as that of <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a> (in reference to the <a href="/wiki/Galli" title="Galli">Galli</a>),<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bellona_(goddess)" title="Bellona (goddess)">Bellona-Ma</a>,<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> or perhaps <a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a> Inscriptions indicate that a person making a dedication might label himself fanaticus, in the neutral sense of "devotee".<a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> uses fanaticus to describe the troop of <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> who attended on the <a href="/wiki/Iceni" title="Iceni">Icenian</a> queen <a href="/wiki/Boudica" title="Boudica">Boudica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> The word was often used disparagingly by ancient Romans in contrasting these more emotive rites to the highly scripted procedures of public religion,<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> and later by early Christians to deprecate religions other than their own; hence the negative connotation of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/fanatic" class="extiw" title="wikt:fanatic">fanatic</a>" in English. <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> says that a tree struck by lightning is called fanaticus,<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> a reference to the Romano-Etruscan belief in lightning as a form of divine sign.<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Gaul" title="Christianity in Gaul">Gallic</a> <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Diocese_of_Arles" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Diocese of Arles">bishop</a> <a href="/wiki/Caesarius_of_Arles" title="Caesarius of Arles">Caesarius of Arles</a>, writing in the 5th century, indicates that such trees retained their sanctity even up to his own time,<a href="#cite_note-223">[223]</a> and urged the Christian faithful to burn down the arbores fanaticae. These trees either were located in and marked a fanum or were themselves considered a fanum. Caesarius is somewhat unclear as to whether the devotees regarded the tree itself as divine or whether they thought its destruction would kill the <a href="/wiki/Numen" title="Numen">numen</a> housed within it. Either way, even scarcity of firewood would not persuade them to use the sacred wood for fuel, a scruple for which he mocked them.<a href="#cite_note-224">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fanum">fanum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: fanum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fanum" redirects here. For the streamer, see <a href="/wiki/Fanum_(streamer)" title="Fanum (streamer)">Fanum (streamer)</a>.</div> A fanum is a plot of consecrated ground, a sanctuary,<a href="#cite_note-225">[225]</a> and from that a temple or shrine built there.<a href="#cite_note-226">[226]</a> A fanum may be a traditional sacred space such as the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">grove</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lucus" title="Lucus">lucus</a>) of <a href="/wiki/Diana_Nemorensis" title="Diana Nemorensis">Diana Nemorensis</a>, or a sacred space or structure for non-Roman religions, such as an Iseum (temple of <a href="/wiki/Isis" title="Isis">Isis</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Mithraeum" title="Mithraeum">Mithraeum</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">Cognates</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a> fíísnú,<a href="#cite_note-227">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a> fesnaf-e,<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paeligni" title="Paeligni">Paelignian</a> fesn indicate that the concept is shared by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_peoples_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient peoples of Italy">Italic peoples</a>.<a href="#cite_note-229">[229]</a> The Greek <a href="/wiki/Temenos" title="Temenos">temenos</a> was the same concept. By the <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> period, fanum, <a href="#aedes">aedes</a>, <a href="#templum">templum</a>, and <a href="#delubrum">delubrum</a> are scarcely distinguishable in usage,<a href="#cite_note-230">[230]</a> but fanum was a more inclusive and general term.<a href="#cite_note-231">[231]</a> The <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/fanum" class="extiw" title="fr:fanum">fanum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Ambulatory" title="Ambulatory">ambulatory</a> temple of <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a> was often built over an originally <a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Celtic</a> religious site, and its plan was influenced by the ritual architecture of earlier Celtic sanctuaries. The masonry temple building of the <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_culture" title="Gallo-Roman culture">Gallo-Roman period</a> had a central space (<a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>) and a peripheral gallery structure, both square.<a href="#cite_note-232">[232]</a> Romano-Celtic fana of this type are found also in <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-233">[233]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>] The English word "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/profane" class="extiw" title="wikt:profane">profane</a>" ultimately derives from Latin pro fano,<a href="#cite_note-234">[234]</a> "before, i.e. outside, the temple", "In front of the sanctuary," hence not within sacred ground. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fata_deorum">fata deorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: fata deorum">edit</a>]</div> Fata deorum or the contracted form fata deum are the utterances of the gods; that is, prophecies.<a href="#cite_note-235">[235]</a> These were recorded in written form, and conserved by the state priests of Rome for consultation. The fata are both "fate" as known and determined by the gods, or the expression of the divine will in the form of verbal oracles.<a href="#cite_note-236">[236]</a> Fata deum is a theme of the <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>'s national epic of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-237">[237]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a> (Fata Sibyllina or Libri Fatales), composed in Greek hexameters, are an example of written fata. These were not Roman in origin but were believed to have been acquired in only partial form by <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a>. They were guarded by the priesthood of the decemviri sacris faciundis "ten men for carrying out sacred rites", later fifteen in number: <a href="/wiki/Quindecimviri_sacris_faciundis" title="Quindecimviri sacris faciundis">quindecimviri sacris faciundis</a>. No one read the books in their entirety; they were consulted only when needed. A passage was selected at random and its relevance to the current situation was a matter of expert interpretation.<a href="#cite_note-238">[238]</a> They were thought to contain fata rei publicae aeterna, "prophecies eternally valid for Rome".<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> They continued to be consulted throughout the Imperial period until the time of Christian hegemony. <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustus</a> installed the Sibylline books in a special golden storage case under the statue of Apollo in the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Apollo_Palatinus" title="Temple of Apollo Palatinus">Temple of Apollo Palatinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a> The emperor <a href="/wiki/Aurelian" title="Aurelian">Aurelian</a> chastised the senate for succumbing to Christian influence and not consulting the books.<a href="#cite_note-241">[241]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julian_(emperor)" title="Julian (emperor)">Julian</a> consulted the books regarding his campaign against Persia, but departed before he received the unfavorable response of the college; Julian was killed and the Temple of Apollo Palatinus burned.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fas">fas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: fas">edit</a>]</div> Fas is a central concept in Roman religion. Although translated in some contexts as "divine law,"<a href="#cite_note-243">[243]</a> fas is more precisely that which is "religiously legitimate,"<a href="#cite_note-244">[244]</a> or an action that is lawful in the eyes of the gods.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> In public religion, fas est is declared before announcing an action required or allowed by Roman religious custom and by divine law.<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a> Fas is thus both distinguished from and linked to <a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">ius</a> (plural iura), "law, lawfulness, justice," as indicated by <a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a>'s often-cited phrase fas et iura sinunt, "fas and iura allow (it)," which <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> explains as "divine and human laws permit (it), for fas pertains to religion, iura to the human being."<a href="#cite_note-247">[247]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman-calendar.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Roman-calendar.png/220px-Roman-calendar.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Roman-calendar.png/330px-Roman-calendar.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Roman-calendar.png/440px-Roman-calendar.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>The Fasti Antiates Maiores, a pre-<a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a> in a reconstructed drawing</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendars</a>, days marked F are <a href="#fasti">dies fasti</a>, when it is fas to attend to the concerns of everyday life.<a href="#cite_note-248">[248]</a> In non-specialized usage, fas est may mean generally "it is permissible, it is right." The <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of fas is debated. It is more commonly associated with the <a href="/wiki/Semantic_field" title="Semantic field">semantic field</a> of the verb for, fari, "to speak,"<a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> an origin pressed by <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> In other sources, both ancient and modern, fas is thought to have its origin in an <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_root" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European root">Indo-European root</a> meaning "to establish," along with <a href="/wiki/Fanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Fanum">fanum</a> and <a href="#feria">feriae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">Fasti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nefas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nefas">nefas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fasti">fasti</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: fasti">edit</a>]</div> A record or plan of official and religiously sanctioned events. All state and societal business must be transacted on dies fasti, "allowed days". The <a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">fasti</a> were the records of all details pertaining to these events. The word was used alone in a general sense or qualified by an adjective to mean a specific type of record. Closely associated with the fasti and used to mark time in them were the divisions of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Fasti_(Ovid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasti (Ovid)">Fasti</a> is also the title of a six-book poem by <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> based on the Roman religious calendar. It is a major source for Roman religious practice, and was translated into English by <a href="/wiki/J._G._Frazer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. G. Frazer">J. G. Frazer</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="felix">felix</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: felix">edit</a>]</div> In its religious sense, felix means "blessed, under the protection or favour of the gods; happy." That which is felix has achieved the <a href="#pax_deorum">pax divom</a>, a state of harmony or peace with the divine world.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> It is rooted in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Indo-European</a> *dhe(i)l, meaning "happy, fruitful, productive, full of nourishment." Related Latin words include femina, "woman" (a person who provides nourishment or suckles); felo, "to suckle"; and filius, "son" (a person suckled).<a href="#cite_note-253">[253]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Felicitas" title="Felicitas">Felicitas</a>, both an abstraction that expressed the quality of being felix and a deity of Roman state religion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="feria">feria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: feria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Roman festivals</a></div> A feria on the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a> is a "free day", that is, a day in which no work was done. No court sessions were held, nor was any public business conducted. Employees were entitled to a day off, and even slaves were not obliged to work. These days were codified into a system of legal public holidays, the feriae publicae, which could be <ul><li>stativae, "stationary, fixed", holidays which recurred on the same date each year;</li> <li>conceptivae, recurring holidays for which the date depended on some other factor, usually the agrarian cycle. They included <a href="/wiki/Compitalia" title="Compitalia">Compitalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paganalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Paganalia">Paganalia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sementivae" title="Sementivae">Sementivae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feriae_Latinae" title="Feriae Latinae">Latinae</a> (compare the moveable Christian holiday of <a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a>);</li> <li>imperativae, one-off holidays ordered to mark a special occasion, established with an act of authority of a magistrate.</li></ul> In the Christian <a href="/wiki/Roman_Rite" title="Roman Rite">Roman Rite</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Feria" title="Feria">feria</a> is a day of the week other than Saturday or Sunday.<a href="#cite_note-254">[254]</a> The custom throughout Europe of holding markets on the same day gave rise to the word "<a href="/wiki/Fair" title="Fair">fair</a>" (Spanish Feria, Italian Fiera, Catalan Fira). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="festus">festus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: festus">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a>, a dies festus is a festive or holy day, that is, a day dedicated to a deity or deities. On such days it was forbidden to undertake any profane activity, especially official or public business. All dies festi were thus <a href="#nefastus">nefasti</a>. Some days, however, were not festi and yet might not be permissible as business days (<a href="/wiki/Fasti" title="Fasti">fasti</a>) for other reasons. The days on which profane activities were permitted are profesti.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="fetial">fetial</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: fetial">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Fetial" title="Fetial">fetiales</a>, or fetial priests. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="finis">finis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: finis">edit</a>]</div> The finis (limit, border, boundary), plural fines, was an essential concept in <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augural</a> practice, which was concerned with the definition of the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a>. Establishing fines was an important part of a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a>'s duties.<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> Most scholars regard the finis as having been defined physically by ropes, trees, stones, or other markers, as were fields and property boundaries in general. It was connected with the god <a href="/wiki/Terminus_(god)" title="Terminus (god)">Terminus</a> and his cult.<a href="#cite_note-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="flamen">flamen</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: flamen">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_flamen,_Louvre_museum,_Paris,_Ma431.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_a_flamen%2C_Louvre_museum%2C_Paris%2C_Ma431.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="1784" /></a><figcaption>Flamen wearing the distinctive hat of his office, with the top point missing (3rd century AD)</figcaption></figure> The fifteen <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamines</a> formed part of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>. Each flamen served as the high priest to one of the official deities of Roman religion, and led the rituals relating to that deity. The flamines were regarded as the most ancient among the sacerdotes, as many of them were assigned to deities who dated back to the prehistory of Latium and whose significance had already become obscure by classical times. The archaic nature of the flamens is indicated by their presence among <a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latin tribes</a>. They officiated at ceremonies with their head covered by a velum and always wore a filamen, thread, in contrast to public rituals conducted by Greek rite (<a href="#ritus_graecus">ritus graecus</a>) which were established later. Ancient authors derive the word flamen from the custom of covering the head with the filamen, but it may be <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> to <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic</a> <a href="/wiki/Brahmin" title="Brahmin">brahmin</a>. The distinctive headgear of the flamen was the <a href="/wiki/Apex_(headdress)" title="Apex (headdress)">apex</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fratres_Arvales">Fratres Arvales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Fratres Arvales">edit</a>]</div> The "Brothers of the Field" were a <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">college</a> of priests whose duties were concerned with agriculture and farming. They were the most ancient religious <a href="/wiki/Sodales" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodales">sodalitas</a>: according to tradition they were created by <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, but probably predated the <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">foundation of Rome</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="G">G</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: G">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gabinus">Gabinus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Gabinus">edit</a>]</div> The adjective gabinus describes an element of religion that the Romans attributed to practices from <a href="/wiki/Gabii" title="Gabii">Gabii</a>, a town of <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> with <a href="/wiki/Municipium" title="Municipium">municipal status</a> about 12 miles from Rome. The incorporation of Gabinian traditions indicates their special status under treaty with Rome. See <a href="#cinctus_gabinus">cinctus gabinus</a> and <a href="#ager">ager gabinus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Roman_World_1935,_p._409-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="H">H</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: H">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="hostia">hostia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: hostia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG/170px-Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG/255px-Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG/340px-Kastell_Koblenz_Niederberg_Altastein_3-_Jh.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2672" data-file-height="4073" /></a><figcaption>Ritual implements</figcaption></figure> The hostia was the offering, usually an <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal</a>, in a sacrifice. The word is used interchangeably with <a href="#victima">victima</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> and others, but some ancient authors attempt to distinguish between the two.<a href="#cite_note-google159-258">[258]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> says<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> that the hostia is sacrificed before battle, the victima afterward, which accords with Ovid's <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> in relating the "host" to the "hostiles" or enemy (hostis), and the "victim" to the "victor."<a href="#cite_note-260">[260]</a> The difference between the victima and hostia is elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with the hostia smaller (minor).<a href="#cite_note-Char403.38-261">[261]</a> Hostiae were also classified by age: lactentes were young enough to be still taking milk, but had reached the age to be purae; bidentes had reached two years of age<a href="#cite_note-262">[262]</a> or had the two longer (bi-) <a href="/wiki/Incisor" title="Incisor">incisor</a> teeth (dentes) that are an indication of age.<a href="#cite_note-263">[263]</a> Hostiae could be classified in various ways. A hostia consultatoria was an offering for the purpose of consulting with a deity, that is, in order to know the will of a deity; the hostia animalis, to increase the force (mactare) of the deity.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> The victim might also be classified by occasion and timing. The hostia praecidanea was an "anticipatory offering" made the day before a sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-265">[265]</a> It was an advance atonement "to implore divine indulgence" should an error be committed on the day of the formal sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-266">[266]</a> A preliminary pig was offered as a praecidanea the day before the harvest began.<a href="#cite_note-267">[267]</a> The hostia praecidanea was offered to <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a> a day in advance of a religious festival (sacrum, before the beginning of the harvest) in expiation for negligences in the duties of piety towards the deceased.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>] The hostia praesentanaea was a pig offered to Ceres during a part of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerals_and_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman funerals and burial">funeral rites</a> conducted within sight of the deceased, whose family was thereby ritually absolved.<a href="#cite_note-268">[268]</a> A hostia succidanea was offered at any rite after the first sacrifice had failed owing to a ritual impropriety (<a href="#vitium">vitium</a>).<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Piaculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Piaculum">piaculum</a>, an expiatory offering. Hostia is the origin of the word "host" for the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharistic</a> sacrament of the <a href="/wiki/Western_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Church">Western Church</a>; see <a href="/wiki/Sacramental_bread#Catholic_Church" title="Sacramental bread">Sacramental bread: Catholic Church</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">votum</a>, a dedication or a vow of an offering to a deity as well as that which fulfilled the vow. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="I">I</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: I">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="inauguratio">inauguratio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: inauguratio">edit</a>]</div> A rite performed by <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> by which the concerned person received the approval of the gods for his appointment or their investiture. The augur would ask for the appearance of certain signs (<a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">auspicia impetrativa</a>) while standing beside the appointee on the <a href="#auguraculum">auguraculum</a>. In the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rome">Regal period</a>, inauguratio concerned the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Kings of Rome">king</a> and the major <a href="#sacerdos">sacerdotes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-270">[270]</a> After the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a>,<a href="#cite_note-271">[271]</a> the three <a href="/wiki/Flamines_maiores" class="mw-redirect" title="Flamines maiores">flamines maiores</a>,<a href="#cite_note-272">[272]</a> the augurs, and the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontiffs</a><a href="#cite_note-273">[273]</a> all had to be inaugurated. The term may also refer to the ritual establishing of the augural <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> and the tracing of the wall of a new city.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="indigitamenta">indigitamenta</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: indigitamenta">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Indigitamenta" title="Indigitamenta">indigitamenta</a> were lists of gods maintained by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a> to assure that the correct <a href="/wiki/Theonym" title="Theonym">divine names</a> were invoked for public prayers. It is sometimes unclear whether these names represent distinct minor entities, or <a href="/wiki/Epithets" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithets">epithets</a> pertaining to an aspect of a major deity's sphere of influence, that is, an <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/indigitation" class="extiw" title="wikt:indigitation">indigitation</a>, or name intended to "fix" or focalize the local action of the god so invoked.<a href="#cite_note-274">[274]</a> <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> is assumed to have drawn on direct knowledge of the lists in writing his theological books, as evidenced by the catalogues of minor deities mocked by the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> who used his work<a href="#cite_note-275">[275]</a> as a reference.<a href="#cite_note-276">[276]</a> Another source is likely to have been the non-extant work De indigitamentis of <a href="/wiki/Granius_Flaccus" title="Granius Flaccus">Granius Flaccus</a>, Varro's contemporary.<a href="#cite_note-277">[277]</a> Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Di_indigetes" title="Di indigetes">di indigetes</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="invocatio">invocatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: invocatio">edit</a>]</div> The addressing of a deity in a <a href="#prex">prayer</a> or magic spell is the invocatio, from invoco, invocare, "to call upon" the gods or spirits of the dead.<a href="#cite_note-278">[278]</a> The efficacy of the invocatio depends on the correct naming of the deity, which may include <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithets</a>, descriptive phrases, honorifics or titles, and arcane names. The list of names (nomina) is often extensive, particularly in magic spells; many prayers and <a href="/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> are composed largely of invocations.<a href="#cite_note-279">[279]</a> The name is invoked in either the <a href="/wiki/Vocative" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocative">vocative</a><a href="#cite_note-280">[280]</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a> <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>.<a href="#cite_note-281">[281]</a> In specialized usage pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augural</a> procedure, invocatio is a synonym for precatio, but specifically aimed at averting mala, evil occurrences.<a href="#cite_note-282">[282]</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Evocatio" class="mw-redirect" title="Evocatio">evocatio</a>. The equivalent term in <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in ancient Greece">ancient Greek religion</a> is epiklesis.<a href="#cite_note-283">[283]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pausanias_(geographer)" title="Pausanias (geographer)">Pausanias</a> distinguished among the categories of <a href="/wiki/Theonym" title="Theonym">theonym</a> proper, poetic <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a>, the epiclesis of local cult, and an epiclesis that might be used universally among the Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-284">[284]</a> <a href="/wiki/Epiclesis" title="Epiclesis">Epiclesis</a> remains in use by some Christian churches for the <a href="/wiki/Invocation" title="Invocation">invocation</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Anaphora_(liturgy)" title="Anaphora (liturgy)">Eucharistic prayer</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ius">ius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: ius">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ius" title="Ius">Ius</a> is the Latin word for justice, right, equity, fairness and all which came to be understood as the sphere of law. It is defined in the opening words of the <a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digesta</a> with the words of Celsus as "the art of that which is good and fair" and similarly by Paulus as "that which is always just and fair".<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> The polymath <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> and the jurist <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a><a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> consider the distinction between divine and human ius essential<a href="#cite_note-287">[287]</a> but divine order is the source of all laws, whether natural or human, so the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex">pontifex</a> is considered the final judge (iudex) and arbiter.<a href="#cite_note-288">[288]</a> The jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> defines <a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a> as "the knowledge of human and divine affairs, of what is just and unjust".<a href="#cite_note-289">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ius_divinum">ius divinum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: ius divinum">edit</a>]</div> "Sacred law"<a href="#cite_note-290">[290]</a> or "divine law", particularly in regard to the gods' rights pertaining to their "property", that which is rightfully theirs.<a href="#cite_note-291">[291]</a> Recognition of the ius divinum was fundamental to maintaining right relations between human beings and their deities. The concern for law and legal procedure that was characteristic of ancient Roman society was also inherent in Roman religion.<a href="#cite_note-292">[292]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Pax_deorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pax deorum">pax deorum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ius_pontificum">ius pontificum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: ius pontificum">edit</a>]</div> Pontifical law governing Roman religion covered <a href="#sacra">sacra</a>, rites; <a href="#votum">vota</a>, pledges; <a href="/wiki/Feriae" class="mw-redirect" title="Feriae">feriae</a>, holy days; and sepulchra, graves.<a href="#cite_note-293">[293]</a> Cicero describes it as absconditum, secret.<a href="#cite_note-294">[294]</a> A book on pontifical law, probably the one written in the mid-2nd century BC by <a href="/wiki/Numerius_Fabius_Pictor_(antiquarian)" title="Numerius Fabius Pictor (antiquarian)">Fabius Pictor</a>, was consulted by <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> in the 2nd century AD as a source on the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">flamen and flaminica Dialis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="L">L</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: L">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lavatio">lavatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: lavatio">edit</a>]</div> The bathing of the cult image of a deity, particularly goddesses, might be prescribed in an annual ritual. A lavatio was an especial part of the imported cult of <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a>, whose statue and associated objects were carried in procession for bathing in the river <a href="/wiki/Almone" title="Almone">Almo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-296">[296]</a> Ovid says that the statue of <a href="/wiki/Venus_Verticordia" title="Venus Verticordia">Venus Verticordia</a> was bathed as part of the <a href="/wiki/Veneralia" title="Veneralia">Veneralia</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Aprilis" title="Aprilis">first of April</a>, but the absence of this lavatio in any other source may indicate that since it was meant to be conducted by women, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> did not attend.<a href="#cite_note-297">[297]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lectisternium">lectisternium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: lectisternium">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Lectisternium" title="Lectisternium">lectisternium</a> was a propitiatory ceremony that took the form of a meal offered to divinities, as if seated for banqueting on a couch (lectus). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lex">lex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: lex">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a></div> The word lex (plural leges) derives from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Indo-European</a> root *leg, as do the Latin verbs lego, legare, ligo, ligare ("to appoint, bequeath") and lego, legere (" to gather, choose, select, discern, read": cf. also Greek verb legein "to collect, tell, speak"), and the abstract noun <a href="#religio">religio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Parties to legal proceedings and contracts bound themselves to observance by the offer of sacrifice to witnessing deities.<a href="#cite_note-299">[299]</a> Even though the word lex underwent the frequent semantic shift in Latin towards the legal area, its original meaning of set, formulaic words was preserved in some instances. Some cult formulae are leges: an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a>'s request for particular signs that would betoken divine approval in an augural rite (<a href="#augurium">augurium</a>), or in the <a href="/wiki/Inauguration" title="Inauguration">inauguration</a> of magistrates and some sacerdotes is named legum dictio.<a href="#cite_note-300">[300]</a> The formula quaqua lege volet ("by whatever lex, i.e. wording he wishes") allowed a cult performer discretion in his choice of ritual words.<a href="#cite_note-301">[301]</a> The leges templi regulated cult actions at various temples.<a href="#cite_note-302">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-303">[303]</a> In civil law, ritualised sets of words and gestures known as legis actiones were in use as a legal procedure in civil cases; they were regulated by custom and tradition (<a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a>) and were thought to involve protection of the performers from malign or occult influences.<a href="#cite_note-304">[304]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus,_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg/220px-Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg/330px-Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg/440px-Ancient_Roman_sarcophagus%2C_Saint_Petersburg_-_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B3_%D0%A6%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2784" data-file-height="1904" /></a><figcaption>Libation preceding a sacrifice, depicted on a 3rd-century sarcophagus</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="libatio">libatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: libatio">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Libation" title="Libation">Libation</a> (Latin libatio, Greek spondai) was one of the simplest religious acts, regularly performed in daily life. At home, a Roman who was about to drink wine would pour the first few drops onto the household altar.<a href="#cite_note-305">[305]</a> The drink offering might also be poured on the ground or at a public altar. Milk and honey, water, and oil were also used.<a href="#cite_note-306">[306]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="liberatio">liberatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: liberatio">edit</a>]</div> The liberatio (from the verb liberare, "to free") was the "liberating" of a place (locus) from "all unwanted or hostile spirits and of all human influences," as part of the <a href="#inauguratio">ceremony inaugurating</a> the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> (sacred space). It was preceded by the consulting of <a href="#signum">signs</a> and followed by the <a href="#effatio">effatio</a>, the creation of boundaries (<a href="#finis">fines</a>).<a href="#cite_note-307">[307]</a> A site liberatus et effatus was "exorcized and available" for its sacred purpose.<a href="#cite_note-:1-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="libri_augurales">libri augurales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: libri augurales">edit</a>]</div> The augural books (libri augurales) represented the collective, core knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augural college</a>. Some scholars<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> consider them distinct from the <a href="#commentarii_augurales">commentarii augurum</a> (commentaries of the augurs) which recorded the collegial acts of the augurs, including the <a href="#decretum">decreta</a> and <a href="#responsum">responsa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> The books were central to the practice of augury. They have not survived, but <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, who was an augur himself, offers a summary in <a href="/wiki/De_Legibus" title="De Legibus">De Legibus</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[310]</a> that represents "precise dispositions based certainly on an official collection edited in a professional fashion."<a href="#cite_note-311">[311]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="libri_pontificales">libri pontificales</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: libri pontificales">edit</a>]</div> The libri pontificales (pontifical books) are core texts in Roman religion, which survive as fragmentary transcripts and commentaries. They may have been partly annalistic, part priestly; different Roman authors refer to them as libri and commentarii (commentaries), described by Livy as incomplete "owing to the long time elapsed and the rare use of writing" and by <a href="/wiki/Quintillian" class="mw-redirect" title="Quintillian">Quintillian</a> as unintelligibly archaic and obscure. The earliest were credited to <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa</a>, second <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king of Rome</a>, who was thought to have codified the core texts and principles of Rome's religious and civil law (ius divinum and ius civile).<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> See also <a href="#commentarii_pontificum">commentarii pontificum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="litatio">litatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: litatio">edit</a>]</div> In <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal sacrifice</a>, the litatio followed the opening up of the body cavity for the <a href="#exta">inspection of the entrails (inspicere exta)</a>. Litatio was not a part of divinatory practice as derived from the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscans</a> (see <a href="/wiki/Extispicy" class="mw-redirect" title="Extispicy">extispicy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">Liver of Piacenza</a>), but rather a certification according to Roman liturgy of the gods' approval. The point was not that those sacrificing had to make sure that the victim was perfect inside and out; rather, the good internal condition of the animal was evidence of divine acceptance of the offering. The need for the deity to approve and accept (litare) underscores that the reciprocity of sacrifice (<a href="#do_ut_des">do ut des</a>) was not to be taken for granted.<a href="#cite_note-313">[313]</a> If the organs were diseased or defective, the procedure had to be restarted with a new victim (<a href="#hostia">hostia</a>). In 176 BC<a href="#cite_note-314">[314]</a> the presiding <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consuls</a> attempted to sacrifice an ox, only to find that its liver had been consumed by a wasting disease. After three more oxen failed to pass the test, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senate</a>'s instructions were to keep sacrificing bigger victims until litatio could be obtained.<a href="#cite_note-:2-315">[315]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augur_Vespasianus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Augur_Vespasianus.JPG/220px-Augur_Vespasianus.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="211" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Augur_Vespasianus.JPG/330px-Augur_Vespasianus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Augur_Vespasianus.JPG/440px-Augur_Vespasianus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1287" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lituus" title="Lituus">Lituus</a> (at right) and other priestly implements under the title augur</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lituus">lituus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: lituus">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Lituus#Roman_ritual_wand" title="Lituus">lituus</a> is the distinctively curved staff of an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a>, frequently depicted on <a href="/wiki/Roman_currency" title="Roman currency">Roman coins</a> and most often accompanied by a ritual jug or pitcher. The presence of the lituus indicates that either the <a href="/wiki/Moneyer" title="Moneyer">moneyer</a> or person honored on the <a href="/wiki/Obverse" class="mw-redirect" title="Obverse">obverse</a> was an augur. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lucus">lucus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: lucus">edit</a>]</div> In religious usage, a <a href="/wiki/Lucus" title="Lucus">lucus</a> was a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">grove</a> or small wooded area considered sacred to a divinity. Entrance might be severely restricted: Paulus<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> explains that a capitalis lucus was protected from human access under penalty of death. Leges sacratae (laws for the violation of which the offender is outlawed)<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a> concerning sacred groves have been found on <a href="/wiki/Cippus" title="Cippus">cippi</a> at <a href="/wiki/Spoleto" title="Spoleto">Spoleto</a> in <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lucera" title="Lucera">Lucera</a> in <a href="/wiki/Apulia" title="Apulia">Apulia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-318">[318]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Nemus" class="mw-redirect" title="Nemus">nemus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ludi">ludi</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: ludi">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ludi" title="Ludi">Ludi</a> were games held as part of <a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">religious festivals</a>, and some were originally <a href="#sacer">sacral</a> in nature. These included <a href="/wiki/Chariot_racing" title="Chariot racing">chariot racing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Venatio" title="Venatio">venatio</a>, or staged animal-human <a href="/wiki/Blood_sport" title="Blood sport">blood sport</a> that may have had a <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">sacrificial</a> element. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Luperci">Luperci</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Luperci">edit</a>]</div> The "wolf priests", organized into two <a href="/wiki/Collegium" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium">colleges</a> and later three, who participated in the <a href="/wiki/Lupercalia" title="Lupercalia">Lupercalia</a>. The most famous person to serve as a lupercus was <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="lustratio">lustratio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: lustratio">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Lustratio" title="Lustratio">lustratio</a> is a ritual of purification that was held every five years under the jurisdiction of censors in Rome. Its original meaning was purifying by washing in water (Lat. lustrum from verb luo, "I wash in water"). The time elapsing between two subsequent lustrations being of five years the term lustrum took up the meaning of a period of five year.<a href="#cite_note-319">[319]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="M">M</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: M">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="manubia">manubia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: manubia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg/220px-Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg/330px-Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg/440px-Calyx-krater_olympian_assembly_MAN.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3325" data-file-height="2217" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a> (Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Tinia" title="Tinia">Tinia</a>, Roman <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>) holding a three-pronged lightning bolt, between Apollo and <a href="/wiki/Hera" title="Hera">Hera</a>/<a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red-figure_pottery" title="Red-figure pottery">red-figure</a> <a href="/wiki/Krater" title="Krater">calyx-krater</a> from Etruria, 420-400 BC)</figcaption></figure> Manubia is a technical term of the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology#Etrusca_Disciplina" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">Etruscan discipline</a>, and refers to the power of a deity to wield lightning, represented in divine icons by a lightning bolt in the hand. It may be either a <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinisation (literature)">Latinized</a> word from <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> or less likely a formation from manus, "hand," and habere, "to have, hold."<a href="#cite_note-320">[320]</a> It is not apparently related to the more common Latin word manubiae meaning "booty (taken by a general in war)."<a href="#cite_note-321">[321]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> uses the term in an extended discussion of <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>.<a href="#cite_note-322">[322]</a> <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretatio romana">identified with</a> <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a> <a href="/wiki/Tinia" title="Tinia">Tinia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-323">[323]</a> held three types of manubiae<a href="#cite_note-324">[324]</a> sent from three different celestial regions.<a href="#cite_note-325">[325]</a> Stefan Weinstock describes these as: <ol><li>mild, or "perforating" lightning;</li> <li>harmful or "crushing" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the twelve <a href="/wiki/Di_Consentes" class="mw-redirect" title="Di Consentes">Di Consentes</a> and occasionally does some good;</li> <li>destructive or "burning" lightning, which is sent on the advice of the <a href="/wiki/Dii_involuti" title="Dii involuti">di superiores et involuti</a> (hidden gods of the "higher" sphere) and changes the state of public and private affairs.<a href="#cite_note-326">[326]</a></li></ol> Jupiter makes use of the first type of beneficial lightning to persuade or dissuade.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> Books on how to read lightning were one of the three main forms of Etruscan learning on the subject of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>.<a href="#cite_note-328">[328]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="miraculum">miraculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: miraculum">edit</a>]</div> One of several words for portent or sign, miraculum is a non-technical term that places emphasis on the observer's response (mirum, "a wonder, marvel").<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> uses the word miraculum, for instance, to describe the sign visited upon <a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a> as a child, when divine flames burst forth from his head and the royal household witnessed the event.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> Compare <a href="#monstrum">monstrum</a>, <a href="#ostentum">ostentum</a>, <a href="#portentum">portentum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigium</a>. Miraculum is the origin of the English word "miracle." Christian writers later developed a distinction between miracula, the true forms of which were evidence of divine power in the world, and mere mirabilia, things to be marveled at but not resulting from <a href="/wiki/Christian_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian God">God</a>'s intervention. "Pagan" marvels were relegated to the category of mirabilia and attributed to the work of demons.<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Usdaemmer1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Usdaemmer1.jpg/170px-Usdaemmer1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Usdaemmer1.jpg/255px-Usdaemmer1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Usdaemmer1.jpg/340px-Usdaemmer1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="581" data-file-height="666" /></a><figcaption>Emmer wheat, used for mola salsa</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="mola_salsa">mola salsa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: mola salsa">edit</a>]</div> Flour mixed with salt was sprinkled on the forehead and between the horns of sacrificial victims, as well as on the altar and in the sacred fire. This <a href="/wiki/Mola_salsa" title="Mola salsa">mola salsa</a> ('salted flour') was prepared ritually from toasted <a href="/wiki/Triticum_dicoccum" class="mw-redirect" title="Triticum dicoccum">wheat or emmer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spelt" title="Spelt">spelt</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Barley" title="Barley">barley</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Vestal_Virgin" title="Vestal Virgin">Vestals</a>, who thus contributed to every official sacrifice in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> uses the words <a href="#pius">pius</a> and <a href="#castus,_castitas">castus</a> to describe the product.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> The mola was so fundamental to sacrifice that "to put on the mola" (Latin immolare) came to mean "to sacrifice." Its use was one of the numerous religious traditions ascribed to <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sabine" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabine">Sabine</a> second <a href="/wiki/King_of_Rome" title="King of Rome">king of Rome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="monstrum">monstrum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: monstrum">edit</a>]</div> A monstrum is a sign or portent that disrupts the natural order as evidence of divine displeasure.<a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> The word monstrum is usually assumed to derive, as <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> says, from the verb monstro, "show" (compare English "demonstrate"), but according to <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> it comes from moneo, "warn."<a href="#cite_note-336">[336]</a> Because a sign must be startling or deviant to have an impact, monstrum came to mean "unnatural event"<a href="#cite_note-337">[337]</a> or "a malfunctioning of nature."<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> said that "a monstrum is contrary to nature (or exceeds the nature) we are familiar with, like a snake with feet or a bird with four wings."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated330-339">[339]</a> The Greek equivalent was <a href="/wiki/Teratology" title="Teratology">teras</a>.<a href="#cite_note-340">[340]</a> The English word "monster" derived from the negative sense of the word. Compare <a href="#miraculum">miraculum</a>, <a href="#ostentum">ostentum</a>, <a href="#portentum">portentum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigium</a>. In one of the most famous uses of the word in <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan</a> poet <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a> calls <a href="/wiki/Cleopatra" title="Cleopatra">Cleopatra</a> a fatale monstrum, something deadly and outside normal human bounds.<a href="#cite_note-341">[341]</a> Cicero calls <a href="/wiki/Catiline" title="Catiline">Catiline</a> monstrum atque prodigium<a href="#cite_note-342">[342]</a> and uses the phrase several times to insult various objects of his attacks as depraved and beyond the human pale. For <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, the monstrum is, like tragedy, "a visual and horrific revelation of the truth."<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="mundus">mundus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: mundus">edit</a>]</div> Literally "the world", also a pit supposedly dug and sealed by Romulus as part of Rome's foundation rites. Its interpretation is problematic; it was normally sealed, and was ritually opened only on three occasions during the year. Still, in the most ancient Fasti, these days were marked C(omitiales)<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> (days when the <a href="/wiki/Comitia" class="mw-redirect" title="Comitia">Comitia</a> met) suggesting the idea that the whole ritual was a later Greek import.<a href="#cite_note-345">[345]</a> However <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> as quoted by <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> considered them <a href="#religiosus">religiosi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> When opened, the pit served as a cache for offerings to underworld deities, particularly <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a>, goddess of the fruitful earth. It offered a portal between the upper and lower worlds; its shape was said to be an inversion of the dome of the upper heavens.<a href="#cite_note-347">[347]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="N">N</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: N">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="nefandum">nefandum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: nefandum">edit</a>]</div> An adjective derived from nefas (following). The gerund of verb fari, to speak, is commonly used to form derivate or inflected forms of fas. See Vergil's fandi as genitive of fas. This use has been invoked to support the derivation of fas from IE root *bha, Latin fari. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="nefas">nefas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=103" title="Edit section: nefas">edit</a>]</div> Any thing or action contrary to divine law and will is nefas (in archaic legalese, ne (not) ... <a href="#fas">fas</a>).<a href="#cite_note-348">[348]</a> Nefas forbids a thing as religiously and morally offensive, or indicates a failure to fulfill a religious duty.<a href="#cite_note-349">[349]</a> It might be nuanced as "a religious duty not to", as in <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>' statement that "a man condemned by the people for a heinous action is <a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">sacer</a>" — that is, given over to the gods for judgment and disposal — "it is not a religious duty to execute him, but whoever kills him will not be prosecuted".<a href="#cite_note-350">[350]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> records that the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> opposed <a href="/wiki/Lex_Canuleia" title="Lex Canuleia">legislation that would allow</a> a <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeian</a> to hold the office of <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consul</a> on the grounds that it was nefas: a plebeian, they claimed, would lack the arcane knowledge of religious matters that <a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">by tradition</a> was a patrician prerogative. The <a href="/wiki/Tribune" title="Tribune">plebeian tribune</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Canuleius" title="Gaius Canuleius">Gaius Canuleius</a>, whose <a href="#lex">lex</a> it was, retorted that it was arcane because the patricians kept it secret.<a href="#cite_note-351">[351]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="nefastus">nefastus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: nefastus">edit</a>]</div> Usually found with dies (singular or plural), as dies nefasti, days on which official transactions were forbidden on religious grounds. See also <a href="/wiki/Nefas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nefas">nefas</a>, <a href="#fasti">fasti</a> and <a href="#fas">fas</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="nemus">nemus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: nemus">edit</a>]</div> Nemus, plural nemora, was one of four Latin words that meant "forest, woodland, woods." <a href="/wiki/Lucus" title="Lucus">Lucus</a> is more strictly a <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred grove</a>,<a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> as defined by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> as "a large number of trees with a <a href="#religio">religious significance</a>",<a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> and distinguished from the silva, a natural forest; saltus, territory that is wilderness; and a nemus, an <a href="/wiki/Arboretum" title="Arboretum">arboretum</a> that is not consecrated (but compare Celtic <a href="/wiki/Nemeton" title="Nemeton">nemeton</a>).<a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> In Latin poetry, a nemus is often a place conducive to poetic inspiration, and particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> period takes on a sacral aura.<a href="#cite_note-355">[355]</a> Named nemora include: <ul><li>The nemus of <a href="/wiki/Anna_Perenna" title="Anna Perenna">Anna Perenna</a>.<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a></li> <li>Nemus Caesarum, dedicated to the memory of Augustus's grandsons Gaius and Lucius.<a href="#cite_note-357">[357]</a></li> <li>The nemus Aricinum sacred to <a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egeria_(mythology)" title="Egeria (mythology)">Egeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virbius" class="mw-redirect" title="Virbius">Virbius</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="nuntiatio">nuntiatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=106" title="Edit section: nuntiatio">edit</a>]</div> The chief responsibility of an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a> was to observe signs (<a href="#observatio">observatio</a>) and to report the results (nuntiatio).<a href="#cite_note-358">[358]</a> The announcement was made before an <a href="/wiki/Roman_assemblies" title="Roman assemblies">assembly</a>. A passage in <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> states that the augur was entitled to report on the signs observed before or during an assembly and that the <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> had the right to watch for signs (<a href="#spectio">spectio</a>) as well as make the announcement (nuntiatio) prior to the conducting of public business, but the exact significance of Cicero's distinction is a matter of scholarly debate.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="O">O</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=107" title="Edit section: O">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=108" title="Edit section: obnuntiatio">edit</a>]</div> Obnuntiatio was a declaration of unfavourable signs by an <a href="#augur">augur</a> in order to suspend, cancel or postpone a proposed course of public action. The procedure could be carried out only by an official who had the right to observe omens (<a href="#spectio">spectio</a>).<a href="#cite_note-360">[360]</a> The only source for the term is <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, himself an augur, who refers to it in several speeches as a religious bulwark against <a href="/wiki/Populares" class="mw-redirect" title="Populares">popularist</a> politicians and tribunes. The <a href="/wiki/Lex_Aelia_et_Fufia" title="Lex Aelia et Fufia">Lex Aelia Fufia</a> (ca. 150 BC) may have extended the right of obnuntiatio beyond the augural college to all magistrates. Legislation by <a href="/wiki/Publius_Clodius_Pulcher" title="Publius Clodius Pulcher">Clodius</a> as <a href="/wiki/Tribune_of_the_plebs" title="Tribune of the plebs">tribune of the plebs</a> in 58 BC was aimed at ending the practice,<a href="#cite_note-361">[361]</a> or at least curtailing its potential for abuse; obnuntiatio had been exploited the previous year as an obstructionist tactic by <a href="/wiki/Julius_Caesar" title="Julius Caesar">Julius Caesar</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consular</a> colleague <a href="/wiki/Bibulus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibulus">Bibulus</a>. That the Clodian law had not deprived all augurs or <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> of the privilege is indicated by <a href="/wiki/Mark_Antony" title="Mark Antony">Mark Antony</a>'s use of obnuntatio in early 44 BC to halt the consular election.<a href="#cite_note-362">[362]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="observatio">observatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=109" title="Edit section: observatio">edit</a>]</div> Observatio was the interpretation of signs according to the tradition of the "<a href="#disciplina_Etrusca">Etruscan discipline</a>", or as preserved in books such as the <a href="#libri_augurales">libri augurales</a>. A <a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">haruspex</a> interpreted fulgura (thunder and lightning) and <a href="#exta">exta</a> (entrails) by observatio. The word has three closely related meanings in augury: the observing of signs by an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a> or other diviner; the process of observing, recording, and establishing the meaning of signs over time; and the codified body of knowledge accumulated by systematic observation, that is, "unbending rules" regarded as objective, or external to an individual's observation on a given occasion. <a href="#auspicia_impetrativa">Impetrative signs</a>, or those sought by standard augural procedure, were interpreted according to observatio; the observer had little or no latitude in how they might be interpreted. Observatio might also be applicable to many <a href="#auspicia_oblativa">oblative</a> or unexpected signs. Observatio was considered a kind of scientia, or "scientific" knowledge, in contrast to <a href="#coniectura">coniectura</a>, a more speculative "art" or "method" (ars) as required by novel signs.<a href="#cite_note-363">[363]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="omen">omen</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=110" title="Edit section: omen">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Omen_(ancient_Rome)" title="Omen (ancient Rome)">Omen (ancient Rome)</a></div> An omen, plural omina, was a <a href="#signum">sign</a> intimating the future, considered less important to the community than a <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigium</a> but of great importance to the person who heard or saw it.<a href="#cite_note-364">[364]</a> Omens could be good or bad. Unlike prodigia, bad omens were never expiated by public rites but could be reinterpreted, redirected or otherwise averted (see <a href="#abominari">abominari</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ostentarium">ostentarium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=111" title="Edit section: ostentarium">edit</a>]</div> One form of arcane literature was the ostentarium, a written collection describing and interpreting signs (<a href="#ostentum">ostenta</a>).<a href="#cite_note-365">[365]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tarquitius_Priscus" title="Tarquitius Priscus">Tarquitius Priscus</a> wrote an Ostentarium arborarium, a book on signs pertaining to trees, and an Ostentarium Tuscum, presumably translations of Etruscan works.<a href="#cite_note-366">[366]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> cites his contemporary <a href="/w/index.php?title=Umbricius_Melior&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Umbricius Melior (page does not exist)">Umbricius Melior</a> for an ostentarium aviarium, concerning birds.<a href="#cite_note-367">[367]</a> They were consulted until late antiquity; in the 4th century, for instance, the <a href="/wiki/Haruspices" class="mw-redirect" title="Haruspices">haruspices</a> consulted the books of Tarquitius before the battle that proved fatal to the emperor <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian</a> — according to <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, because he failed to heed them.<a href="#cite_note-368">[368]</a> Fragments of ostentaria survive as quotations in other literary works.<a href="#cite_note-369">[369]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ostentum">ostentum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=112" title="Edit section: ostentum">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, an ostentum is a sign so called because it shows (ostendit) something to a person.<a href="#cite_note-370">[370]</a> <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a> specified that "an ostentum shows itself to us without possessing a solid body and affects both our eyes and ears, like darkness or a light at night."<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated330-339">[339]</a> In his classic work on Roman divination, <a href="/wiki/Auguste_Bouch%C3%A9-Leclercq" title="Auguste Bouché-Leclercq">Auguste Bouché-Leclercq</a> thus tried to distinguish theoretical usage of ostenta and <a href="#portentum">portenta</a> as applying to inanimate objects, <a href="#monstrum">monstra</a> to biological signs, and <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigia</a> for human acts or movements, but in non-technical writing the words tend to be used more loosely as synonyms.<a href="#cite_note-371">[371]</a> The theory of ostenta, portenta and monstra constituted one of the three branches of interpretation within the <a href="#disciplina_Etrusca">disciplina Etrusca</a>, the other two being the more specific fulgura (thunder and lightning) and <a href="#exta">exta</a> (entrails). Ostenta and portenta are not the signs that <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> are trained to solicit and interpret, but rather "new signs", the meaning of which had to be figured out through ratio (the application of analytical principles) and <a href="#coniectura">coniectura</a> (more speculative reasoning, in contrast to augural <a href="#observatio">observatio</a>).<a href="#cite_note-372">[372]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ordo_sacerdotum">ordo sacerdotum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=113" title="Edit section: ordo sacerdotum">edit</a>]</div> A religious hierarchy implied by the seating arrangements of priests (sacerdotes) at sacrificial banquets. As "the most powerful", the <a href="#rex_sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a> was positioned next to the gods, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Dialis" title="Flamen Dialis">Flamen Dialis</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Martialis" title="Flamen Martialis">Flamen Martialis</a>, then the <a href="/wiki/Flamen_Quirinalis" title="Flamen Quirinalis">Flamen Quirinalis</a> and lastly, the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> The ordo sacerdotum observed and preserved ritual distinctions between divine and human power. In the human world, the Pontifex Maximus was the most influential and powerful of all sacerdotes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="P">P</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=114" title="Edit section: P">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="paludatus">paludatus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=115" title="Edit section: paludatus">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg/170px-Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg/255px-Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg/340px-Mars_Pyrrhus_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1849" data-file-height="3598" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a> wearing the <a href="/wiki/Paludamentum" title="Paludamentum">paludamentum</a></figcaption></figure> Paludatus (<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">masculine</a> singular, plural paludati) is an <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjective</a> meaning "wearing the <a href="/wiki/Paludamentum" title="Paludamentum">paludamentum</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-374">[374]</a> the distinctive attire of the Roman military commander. <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a><a href="#cite_note-375">[375]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> say that any military ornament could be called a paludamentum, but other sources indicate that the cloak was primarily meant. According to Festus, paludati in the <a href="#libri_augurales">augural books</a> meant "armed and adorned" (armati, ornati).<a href="#cite_note-376">[376]</a> As the commander crossed from the sacred boundary of Rome (<a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>), he was paludatus, adorned with the attire he would wear to lead a battle and for official business.<a href="#cite_note-377">[377]</a> This adornment was thus part of the commander's ritual investiture with <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-378">[378]</a> It followed upon the sacrifices and <a href="#votum">vows</a> the commander offered up on the Capitol, and was concomitant with his possession of the auspices for war.<a href="#cite_note-379">[379]</a> Festus notes elsewhere that the "<a href="/wiki/Saliae_virgines" class="mw-redirect" title="Saliae virgines">Salian virgins</a>", whose relation to the <a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salian priests</a> is unclear, performed their rituals paludatae,<a href="#cite_note-380">[380]</a> dressed in military garb.<a href="#cite_note-381">[381]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pax_deorum">pax deorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=116" title="Edit section: pax deorum">edit</a>]</div> Pax, though usually translated into English as "peace," was a compact, bargain, or agreement.<a href="#cite_note-382">[382]</a> In religious usage, the harmony or accord between the divine and human was the pax deorum or pax divom ("the peace of the gods" or "divine peace").<a href="#cite_note-383">[383]</a> Pax deorum was only given in return for correct <a href="#religio">religious practice</a>. Religious error (<a href="#vitium">vitium</a>) and impiety led to divine disharmony and ira deorum (the anger of the gods). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="piaculum">piaculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=117" title="Edit section: piaculum">edit</a>]</div> A <a href="/wiki/Piaculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Piaculum">piaculum</a> is an expiatory sacrifice, or the <a href="#victima">victim</a> used in the sacrifice; also, an act requiring <a href="/wiki/Expiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Expiation">expiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-384">[384]</a> Because Roman religion was contractual (<a href="#do_ut_des">do ut des</a>), a piaculum might be offered as a sort of advance payment; the Arval Brethren, for instance, offered a piaculum before entering their <a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">sacred grove</a> with an iron implement, which was forbidden, as well as after.<a href="#cite_note-385">[385]</a> The pig was a common victim for a piaculum.<a href="#cite_note-386">[386]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> says <a href="/wiki/Publius_Decius_Mus_(consul_340_BC)" title="Publius Decius Mus (consul 340 BC)">P. Decius Mus</a> is "like" a piaculum when he makes his vow to sacrifice himself in battle (see <a href="#devotio">devotio</a>).<a href="#cite_note-387">[387]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pietas">pietas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=118" title="Edit section: pietas">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></div> Pietas, from which English "piety" derives, was the devotion that bound a person to the gods, to the Roman state, and to his family. It was the outstanding quality of the Roman hero <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a>, to whom the <a href="/wiki/Epithet" title="Epithet">epithet</a> <a href="#pius">pius</a> is applied regularly throughout the <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pius">pius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=119" title="Edit section: pius">edit</a>]</div> In Latin and other <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a>,<a href="#cite_note-388">[388]</a> pius seems to have meant "that which is in accord with divine law." Later it was used to designate actions respectful of divine law and even people who acted with respect towards gods and godly rules. The pius person "strictly conforms his life to the <a href="#ius_divinum">ius divinum</a>."<a href="#cite_note-389">[389]</a> "Dutiful" is often a better translation of the adjective than the English derivative "pious."<a href="#cite_note-390">[390]</a> Pius is a regular epithet of the Roman <a href="/wiki/Founding_myth" class="mw-redirect" title="Founding myth">founding hero</a> <a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a> in <a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, along with pater, "father."<a href="#cite_note-391">[391]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">pietas</a>, the related <a href="/wiki/Abstract_noun" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract noun">abstract noun</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pollucere">pollucere</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=120" title="Edit section: pollucere">edit</a>]</div> A verb of unknown etymology meaning "to consecrate."<a href="#cite_note-392">[392]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pontifex">pontifex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=121" title="Edit section: pontifex">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontifex</a> was a priest of the highest-ranking <a href="/wiki/Collegium" class="mw-redirect" title="Collegium">college</a>. The chief among the pontifices was the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a>. The word has been considered as related to pons, bridge, either because of the religious meaning of the <a href="/wiki/Pons_Sublicius" title="Pons Sublicius">pons Sublicius</a> and its ritual use<a href="#cite_note-393">[393]</a> (which has a parallel in Thebae and in its gephiarioi) or in the original IE meaning of way.<a href="#cite_note-394">[394]</a> Pontifex in this case would be the "opener of the way" corresponding to the Vedic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adharvayu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adharvayu (page does not exist)">adharvayu</a>, the only active and moving sacerdos in the sacrificial group who takes his title from the figurative designation of liturgy as a way. Another hypothesis<a href="#cite_note-395">[395]</a> considers the word as a loan from the Sabine language, in which it would mean a member of a college of five people, from Osco-Umbrian ponte, five. This explanation takes into account that the college was established by Sabine king Numa Pompilius and the institution is Italic: the expressions pontis and pomperias found in the <a href="/wiki/Iguvine_Tablets" title="Iguvine Tablets">Iguvine Tablets</a> may denote a group or division of five or by five. The pontifex would thus be a member of a sacrificial college known as pomperia (Latin quinio).<a href="#cite_note-396">[396]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG/150px-Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG" decoding="async" width="150" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG/225px-Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG/300px-Roman_priest_w_axe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1559" data-file-height="2961" /></a><figcaption>Attendant at a sacrifice with ax</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="popa">popa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=122" title="Edit section: popa">edit</a>]</div> The popa was one of the lesser-rank officiants at a sacrifice. In depictions of sacrificial processions, he carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the animal <a href="#victima">victim</a>. Literary sources in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> say that the popa was a <a href="/wiki/Servus_publicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Servus publicus">public slave</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated332-397">[397]</a> See also <a href="#victimarius">victimarius</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="porricere">porricere</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=123" title="Edit section: porricere">edit</a>]</div> The verb porricere had the specialized religious meaning "to offer as a sacrifice," especially to offer the sacrificial entrails (<a href="#exta">exta</a>) to the gods.<a href="#cite_note-398">[398]</a> Both exta porricere and exta dare referred to the process by which the entrails were cooked, cut into pieces, and burnt on the altar. The <a href="/wiki/Arval_Brethren" title="Arval Brethren">Arval Brethren</a> used the term exta reddere, "to return the entrails," that is, to render unto the deity what has already been given as due.<a href="#cite_note-:2-315">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="portentum">portentum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=124" title="Edit section: portentum">edit</a>]</div> A portentum is a kind of sign interpreted by a <a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">haruspex</a>, not an <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augur</a>, and by means of <a href="#coniectura">coniectura</a> rather than <a href="#observatio">observatio</a>. Portentum is a close but not always exact synonym of <a href="#ostentum">ostentum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigium</a>, and <a href="#monstrum">monstrum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-399">[399]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> uses portentum frequently in his treatise <a href="/wiki/De_divinatione" class="mw-redirect" title="De divinatione">De divinatione</a>, where it seems to be a generic word for prodigies.<a href="#cite_note-400">[400]</a> The word could also refer in non-technical usage to an unnatural occurrence without specific religious significance; for instance, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> calls an Egyptian with a pair of non-functional eyes on the back of his head a portentum.<a href="#cite_note-401">[401]</a> <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> derives portentum from the verb portendere because it <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/portend" class="extiw" title="wikt:portend">portends</a> something that is going to happen.<a href="#cite_note-402">[402]</a> In the schema of <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Bouch%C3%A9-Leclercq" class="extiw" title="fr:Auguste Bouché-Leclercq">A. Bouché-Leclercq</a>, portenta and ostenta are the two types of signs that appear in inanimate nature, as distinguished from the monstrum (a biological singularity), prodigia (the unique acts or movements of living beings), and a <a href="#miraculum">miraculum</a>, a non-technical term that emphasizes the viewer's reaction.<a href="#cite_note-403">[403]</a> The sense of portentum has also been distinguished from that of ostentum by relative duration of time, with the ostentum of briefer manifestation.<a href="#cite_note-404">[404]</a> Although the English word "portent" derives from portentum and may be used to translate it, other Latin terms such as ostentum and prodigium will also be found translated as "portent".<a href="#cite_note-405">[405]</a> Portentum offers an example of an ancient Roman religious term modified for Christian usage; in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a> of miracles, a portentum occurring by the will of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian God">Christian God</a> could not be regarded as contrary to nature (contra naturam), thus <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> specified that if such a sign appeared to be unnatural, it was only because it was contrary to nature as known (nota) by human beings.<a href="#cite_note-406">[406]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="precatio">precatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=125" title="Edit section: precatio">edit</a>]</div> The precatio was the formal addressing of the deity or deities in a ritual. The word is related by <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> to <a href="#prex">prex</a>, "prayer" (plural preces), and usually translated as if synonymous. <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> says that the slaughter of a <a href="#victima">sacrificial victim</a> is ineffectual without precatio, the recitation of the prayer formula.<a href="#cite_note-407">[407]</a> Priestly texts that were collections of prayers were sometimes called precationes.<a href="#cite_note-408">[408]</a> Two late examples of the precatio are the Precatio Terrae Matris ("The Prayer of Mother Earth") and the Precatio omnium herbarum ("Prayer of All the Herbs"), which are charms or <a href="#carmen">carmina</a> written metrically,<a href="#cite_note-409">[409]</a> the latter attached to the medical writings attributed to <a href="/wiki/Antonius_Musa" title="Antonius Musa">Antonius Musa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> Dirae precationes were "<a href="/wiki/Dirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirus">dire</a>" prayers, that is, imprecations or curses.<a href="#cite_note-411">[411]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augural</a> procedure, precatio is not a prayer proper, but a form of invocation (<a href="#invocatio">invocatio</a>) recited at the beginning of a ceremony or after accepting an <a href="#auspicia_oblativa">oblative sign</a>. The precatio maxima was recited for the augurium salutis, the ritual conducted by the augurs to obtain divine permission to pray for Rome's security (salus).<a href="#cite_note-412">[412]</a> In legal and rhetorical usage, precatio was a plea or request.<a href="#cite_note-413">[413]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="prex">prex</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=126" title="Edit section: prex">edit</a>]</div> Prex, "prayer", usually appears in the plural, preces. Within the tripartite structure that was often characteristic of formal ancient prayer, preces would be the final expression of what is sought from the deity, following the <a href="#invocatio">invocation</a> and a narrative middle.<a href="#cite_note-414">[414]</a> A legitimate request is an example of bonae preces, "good prayer."<a href="#cite_note-415">[415]</a> Tacitae preces are silent or <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sotto_voce" class="extiw" title="wikt:sotto voce">sotto voce</a> prayers as might be used in private ritual or magic; preces with a negative intent are described with adjectives such as Thyesteae ("<a href="/wiki/Thyestes" title="Thyestes">Thyestean</a>"), funestae ("deadly"), infelices (aimed at causing unhappiness), nefariae,<a href="#cite_note-416">[416]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Dirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dirus">dirae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> In general usage, preces could refer to any request or entreaty. The verbal form is precor, precari, "pray, entreat." The <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a> <a href="/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> is persklu, "supplication." The meaning may be "I try and obtain by uttering appropriate words what is my right to obtain." It is used often in association with quaeso in expressions such as te precor quaesoque, "I pray and beseech you", or prece quaesit, "he seeks by means of prayer."<a href="#cite_note-418">[418]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial era</a>, preces referred to a <a href="/wiki/Petition" title="Petition">petition</a> addressed to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_emperor" title="Roman emperor">emperor</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Privatus" title="Privatus">private person</a>.<a href="#cite_note-419">[419]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="prodigium">prodigium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=127" title="Edit section: prodigium">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Prodigium" redirects here. For the EP, see <a href="/wiki/Prodigium_(EP)" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium (EP)">Prodigium (EP)</a>.</div> Prodigia (plural) were unnatural deviations from the predictable order of the cosmos. A prodigium signaled divine displeasure at a <a href="/wiki/Religious_offense" title="Religious offense">religious offense</a> and must be expiated to avert more destructive expressions of divine wrath. Compare <a href="#ostentum">ostentum</a> and <a href="#portentum">portentum</a>, signs denoting an extraordinary inanimate phenomenon, and <a href="#monstrum">monstrum</a> and <a href="#miraculum">miraculum</a>, an unnatural feature in humans. Prodigies were a type of <a href="#auspicia_oblativa">auspicia oblativa</a>; that is, they were "thrust upon" observers, not deliberately sought.<a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a> Suspected prodigies were reported as a civic duty. A system of official referrals filtered out those that seemed patently insignificant or false before the rest were reported to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senate</a>, who held further inquiry; this procedure was the procuratio prodigiorum. Prodigies confirmed as genuine were referred to the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontiffs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> for ritual expiation.<a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a> For particularly serious or difficult cases, the <a href="/wiki/Decemviri_sacris_faciundis" class="mw-redirect" title="Decemviri sacris faciundis">decemviri sacris faciundis</a> could seek guidance and suggestions from the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a>.<a href="#cite_note-422">[422]</a> The number of confirmed prodigies rose in troubled times. In 207 BC, during one of the worst crises of the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, the senate dealt with an unprecedented number, the expiation of which would have involved "at least twenty days" of dedicated rites.<a href="#cite_note-423">[423]</a> Major prodigies that year included the spontaneous combustion of weapons, the apparent shrinking of the sun's disc, two moons in a daylit sky, a cosmic battle between sun and moon, a rain of red-hot stones, a bloody sweat on statues, and blood in fountains and on ears of corn. These were expiated by the sacrifice of "<a href="#victima">greater victims</a>". The minor prodigies were less warlike but equally unnatural; sheep became goats; a hen become a <a href="/wiki/Rooster" class="mw-redirect" title="Rooster">cock</a>, and vice versa. The minor prodigies were duly expiated with "lesser victims". The discovery of a <a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_ancient_Rome#Hermaphroditism_and_androgyny" title="Sexuality in ancient Rome">hermaphroditic</a> four-year-old child was expiated by drowning<a href="#cite_note-424">[424]</a> and a holy procession of 27 virgins to the temple of <a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)#Epithets" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno Regina</a>, singing a hymn to avert disaster; a lightning strike during the hymn rehearsals required further expiation.<a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> Religious restitution was proved only by Rome's victory.<a href="#cite_note-426">[426]</a> The expiatory <a href="/wiki/Sacrificium_Romanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrificium Romanam">burial of living human victims</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Forum_Boarium" title="Forum Boarium">Forum Boarium</a> followed Rome's <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cannae" title="Battle of Cannae">defeat at Cannae</a> in the same wars. In Livy's account, Rome's victory follows its discharge of religious duties to the gods.<a href="#cite_note-427">[427]</a> Livy remarked the scarcity of prodigies in his own day as a loss of communication between gods and men. In the later Republic and thereafter, the reporting of public prodigies was increasingly displaced by a "new interest in signs and omens associated with the charismatic individual."<a href="#cite_note-428">[428]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="profanum">profanum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=128" title="Edit section: profanum">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Profanum" class="mw-redirect" title="Profanum">Profanum</a> (literally, 'in front of the shrine'), therefore not within a sacred precinct; not belonging to the gods but to humankind. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="propitius">propitius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=129" title="Edit section: propitius">edit</a>]</div> An adjective of augural terminology meaning favourable. From pro-, "before", and petere, "seek" but originally "fly". It indicates a pattern in the flight of praepetes aves, birds that make the auspices favorable by flying before the person who is taking them or by pointing in the direction of that which is wished for. A synonym is secundus, "favorable" or "following".<a href="#cite_note-429">[429]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="pulvinar">pulvinar</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=130" title="Edit section: pulvinar">edit</a>]</div> The pulvinar (plural pulvinaria) was a special couch used for displaying images of the gods, that they might receive offerings at ceremonies such as the <a href="/wiki/Lectisternium" title="Lectisternium">lectisternium</a> or <a href="/wiki/Supplicatio" title="Supplicatio">supplicatio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-430">[430]</a> In the famous lectisternium of 217 BC, on orders of the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibylline books">Sibylline books</a>, six pulvinaria were arranged, each for a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities#Lectisternium_of_217_BC" title="List of Roman deities">divine male-female pair</a>.<a href="#cite_note-431">[431]</a> By extension, pulvinar can also mean the shrine or platform housing several of these couches and their images. At the <a href="/wiki/Circus_Maximus" title="Circus Maximus">Circus Maximus</a>, the couches and images of the gods were placed on an elevated pulvinar to "watch" the games. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Q">Q</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=131" title="Edit section: Q">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Empty_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section is empty. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. (July 2010)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="R">R</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=132" title="Edit section: R">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="regina_sacrorum">regina sacrorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=133" title="Edit section: regina sacrorum">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Regina_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Regina sacrorum">regina sacrorum</a> is the wife of the <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a>, who served as a high priestess with her own specific religious duties. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="religio">religio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=134" title="Edit section: religio">edit</a>]</div> The word <a href="/wiki/Religio" title="Religio">religio</a> originally meant an obligation to the gods, something expected by them from human beings or a matter of particular care or concern as related to the gods.<a href="#cite_note-432">[432]</a> In this sense, religio might be translated better as "religious scruple" than with the English word "religion".<a href="#cite_note-433">[433]</a> One definition of religio offered by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> is cultus deorum, "the proper performance of rites in veneration of the gods."<a href="#cite_note-434">[434]</a> Religio among the Romans was not based on "<a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a>", but on knowledge, including and especially <a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">correct practice</a>.<a href="#cite_note-435">[435]</a> Religio (plural religiones) was the <a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">pious practice</a> of Rome's traditional cults, and was a cornerstone of the <a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a>,<a href="#cite_note-436">[436]</a> the traditional social norms that regulated public, private, and military life. To the Romans, their success was self-evidently due to their practice of proper, respectful religio, which gave the gods <a href="#do_ut_des">what was owed them</a> and which was rewarded with social harmony, peace and prosperity. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CILVII,45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg/220px-CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="333" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg/330px-CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg/440px-CILVII%2C45%3DRIB152Bath.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3137" data-file-height="4752" /></a><figcaption>Dedication from <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> announcing that a local official has restored a locus religiosus<a href="#cite_note-437">[437]</a></figcaption></figure> Religious law maintained the proprieties of divine honours, sacrifice and ritual. Impure sacrifice and incorrect ritual were <a href="#vitium">vitia</a> (faults, hence "vice," the English derivative); excessive devotion, fearful grovelling to deities, and the improper use or seeking of divine knowledge were <a href="#superstitio">superstitio</a>; neglecting the religiones owed to the traditional gods was <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>, a charge leveled during the Empire at Jews,<a href="#cite_note-438">[438]</a> Christians, and Epicureans.<a href="#cite_note-439">[439]</a> Any of these moral deviations could cause divine anger (ira deorum) and therefore harm the State.<a href="#cite_note-440">[440]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="religiosus">religiosus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=135" title="Edit section: religiosus">edit</a>]</div> Religiosus was something pertaining to the gods or marked out by them as theirs, as distinct from <a href="#sacer">sacer</a>, which was something or someone given to them by humans. Hence, a graveyard was not primarily defined as <a href="#sacer">sacer</a> but a locus religiosus, because those who lay within its boundaries were considered belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Di_Manes" class="mw-redirect" title="Di Manes">di Manes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-441">[441]</a> Places struck by lightning were <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboo</a><a href="#cite_note-442">[442]</a> because they had been marked as religiosus by <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a> himself.<a href="#cite_note-443">[443]</a> See also <a href="#sacer">sacer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sanctitas" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctitas">sanctus</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="res_divinae">res divinae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=136" title="Edit section: res divinae">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Res_divina" title="Res divina">Res divinae</a> were "divine affairs," that is, the matters that pertained to the gods and the sphere of the divine in contrast to res humanae, "human affairs."<a href="#cite_note-444">[444]</a> Rem divinam facere, "to do a divine thing," simply meant to do something that pertained to the divine sphere, such as perform a ceremony or rite. The equivalent <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan</a> term is ais(u)na.<a href="#cite_note-445">[445]</a> The distinction between human and divine res was explored in the multivolume Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum, one of the chief works of <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> (1st century BC). It survives only in fragments but was a major source of traditional Roman theology for the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a>. Varro devoted 25 books of the Antiquitates to res humanae and 16 to res divinae. His proportional emphasis is deliberate, as he treats cult and ritual as human constructs.<a href="#cite_note-446">[446]</a> Varro divides res divinae into three kinds: <ul><li>the <a href="/wiki/Mythical_theology" title="Mythical theology">mythic theology</a> of the poets, or narrative elaboration;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Natural_theology" title="Natural theology">natural theology</a> of the philosophers, or theorizing on divinity among the intellectual elite;</li> <li>the <a href="/wiki/Political_theology" title="Political theology">civil theology</a> concerned with the relation of the state to the divine.</li></ul> The schema is <a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoic</a> in origin, though Varro has adapted it for his own purposes.<a href="#cite_note-447">[447]</a> Res divinae is an example of ancient Roman religious terminology that was appropriated for Christian usage; for <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a>, res divina is a "divine reality" as represented by a sacrum signum ("sacred sign") such as a <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-448">[448]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="responsum">responsum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=137" title="Edit section: responsum">edit</a>]</div> Responsa (plural) were the "responses," that is, the opinions and arguments, of the official priests on questions of religious practice and interpretation. These were preserved in written form and archived.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated218-137">[137]</a> Compare <a href="#decretum">decretum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="rex_sacrorum">rex sacrorum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=138" title="Edit section: rex sacrorum">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Rex_sacrorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Rex sacrorum">rex sacrorum</a> was a senatorial priesthood<a href="#cite_note-449">[449]</a> reserved for <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a>. Although in the historical era the <a href="/wiki/Pontifex_Maximus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifex Maximus">Pontifex Maximus</a> was the head of <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman state religion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> says<a href="#cite_note-450">[450]</a> that in the <a href="#ordo_sacerdotum">ranking of priests</a>, the rex sacrorum was of highest prestige, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamines maiores</a>.<a href="#cite_note-451">[451]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ritus">ritus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=139" title="Edit section: ritus">edit</a>]</div> Although ritus is the origin of the English word "rite" via <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">ecclesiastical Latin</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">classical usage</a> ritus meant the traditional and correct manner (of performance), that is, "way, custom". <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> defines it as a specific form of <a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos</a>: "Ritus is the proven way (mos) in the performance of sacrifices." The adverb rite means "in good form, correctly."<a href="#cite_note-452">[452]</a> This original meaning of ritus may be compared to the concept of <a href="/wiki/Rta" class="mw-redirect" title="Rta">ṛtá</a> ("visible order", in contrast to <a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">dhāman, dhārman</a>) in <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>, a conceptual pairing analogous to Latin <a href="#fas">fas</a> and <a href="#ius">ius</a>.<a href="#cite_note-453">[453]</a> For Latin words meaning "ritual" or "rite", see <a href="#sacra">sacra</a>, <a href="#caerimonia">caerimoniae</a>, and <a href="#religio">religiones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-454">[454]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ritus_graecus">ritus graecus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=140" title="Edit section: ritus graecus">edit</a>]</div> A small number of Roman religious practices and cult innovations were carried out according to "Greek rite" (ritus graecus), which the Romans characterized as Greek in origin or manner. A priest who conducted ritu graeco wore a Greek-style fringed tunic, with his head bare (capite aperto) or <a href="/wiki/Laurel_wreath" title="Laurel wreath">laurel-wreathed</a>. By contrast, in most rites of Roman public religion, an officiant wore the distinctively Roman <a href="/wiki/Toga" title="Toga">toga</a>, specially folded to cover his head (see <a href="/wiki/Capite_velato" class="mw-redirect" title="Capite velato">capite velato</a>). Otherwise, "Greek rite" seems to have been a somewhat indefinite category, used for prayers uttered in Greek, and Greek methods of sacrifice within otherwise conventionally Roman cult. Roman writers record elements of ritus graecus in the cult to <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a> at Rome's <a href="/wiki/Ara_Maxima" class="mw-redirect" title="Ara Maxima">Ara Maxima</a>, which according to tradition was established by the Greek king <a href="/wiki/Evander_of_Pallene" class="mw-redirect" title="Evander of Pallene">Evander</a> even before the city of Rome was founded at the site. It thus represented one of the most ancient Roman cults. "Greek" elements were also found in the <a href="/wiki/Saturnalia" title="Saturnalia">Saturnalia</a> held in honor of the Golden Age deity <a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a>, and in certain ceremonies of the <a href="/wiki/Ludi_saeculares" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludi saeculares">Ludi saeculares</a>. A Greek rite to <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a> (ritus graecus cereris) was imported from <a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a> and added to her <a href="/wiki/Aventine_Triad" title="Aventine Triad">existing Aventine cult</a> in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Sibylline_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Sibylline books">Sibylline books</a>, ancient oracles written in Greek. Official rites to Apollo are perhaps "the best illustration of the Graecus ritus in Rome." The Romans regarded ritus graecus as part of their own <a href="/wiki/Mos_maiorum" title="Mos maiorum">mos maiorum</a> (ancestral tradition), and not as novus aut externus ritus, novel or foreign rite. The thorough integration and reception of rite labeled "Greek" attests to the complex, multi-ethnic origins of Rome's people and religious life.<a href="#cite_note-455">[455]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="S">S</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=141" title="Edit section: S">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacellum">sacellum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=142" title="Edit section: sacellum">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Sacellum" title="Sacellum">Sacellum</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Diminutive" title="Diminutive">diminutive</a> from <a href="#sacer">sacer</a> ("belonging to a god"),<a href="#cite_note-456">[456]</a> is a shrine. <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verrius_Flaccus" title="Verrius Flaccus">Verrius Flaccus</a> give explanations that seem contradictory, the former defining a sacellum in its entirety as equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>,<a href="#cite_note-457">[457]</a> which is specifically an enclosed space, and the latter insisting that a sacellum had no roof.<a href="#cite_note-458">[458]</a> "The sacellum," notes <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, "was both less complex and less elaborately defined than a temple proper."<a href="#cite_note-459">[459]</a> Each <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">curia</a> had its own sacellum.<a href="#cite_note-460">[460]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacer">sacer</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=143" title="Edit section: sacer">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">homo sacer</a></div> Sacer describes a thing or person given to the gods, thus "sacred" to them. Human beings had no legal or moral claims on anything sacer. Sacer could be highly nuanced; Varro associates it with "perfection".<a href="#cite_note-461">[461]</a> Through association with ritual purity, sacer could also mean "sacred, untouchable, inviolable". Anything not sacer was <a href="#profanum">profanum</a>: literally, "in front of (or outside) the shrine", therefore not belonging to it or the gods. A thing or person could be made sacer (consecrated), or could revert from sacer to profanum (deconsecrated), only through lawful rites (resecratio) performed by a pontiff on behalf of the state.<a href="#cite_note-462">[462]</a> Part of the <a href="/wiki/Ver_sacrum" title="Ver sacrum">ver sacrum</a> sacrificial vow of 217 BC stipulated that animals dedicated as sacer would revert to the condition of profanum if they died through natural cause or were stolen before the due sacrificial date. Similar conditions attached to sacrifices in archaic Rome.<a href="#cite_note-463">[463]</a> A thing already owned by the gods or actively marked out by them as divine property was distinguished as <a href="#religiosus">religiosus</a>, and hence could not be given to them or made sacer.<a href="#cite_note-464">[464]</a><a href="#cite_note-465">[465]</a> Persons judged sacer under Roman law were placed beyond further civil judgment, sentence and protection; their lives, families and properties were forfeit to the gods. A person could be declared sacer who harmed a <a href="/wiki/Plebeian_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebeian Tribune">plebeian tribune</a>, failed to bear legal witness,<a href="#cite_note-466">[466]</a> failed to meet his obligations to <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">clients</a>, or illicitly moved the boundary markers of fields.<a href="#cite_note-467">[467]</a> It was not a religious duty (<a href="#fas">fas</a>) to execute a <a href="/wiki/Homo_sacer" title="Homo sacer">homo sacer</a>, but he could be killed with impunity.<a href="#cite_note-468">[468]</a><a href="#cite_note-469">[469]</a> Dies sacri ("sacred days") were <a href="#nefastus">nefasti</a>, meaning that the ordinary human affairs permitted on dies profani (or <a href="#fasti">fasti</a>) were forbidden. Sacer was a fundamental principle in Roman and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Italic_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Italic peoples">Italic</a> religions. In <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a>, related forms are sakoro, "sacred," and sakrim, "sacrificial victim". Oscan sakaraklum is cognate with Latin <a href="/wiki/Sacellum" title="Sacellum">sacellum</a>, a small shrine, as Oscan sakarater is with Latin sacratur, consecrare, "consecrated". The <a href="#sacerdos">sacerdos</a> is "one who performs a sacred action" or "renders a thing sacred", that is, a priest.<a href="#cite_note-470">[470]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/220px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="292" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/330px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg/440px-Bas_relief_from_Arch_of_Marcus_Aurelius_showing_sacrifice.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2181" data-file-height="2898" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Aurelius" title="Marcus Aurelius">Marcus Aurelius</a> <a href="/wiki/Capite_velato" class="mw-redirect" title="Capite velato">capite velato</a> carries out a sacrifice. By his left side is a <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamen</a> wearing an <a href="/wiki/Apex_(headdress)" title="Apex (headdress)">apex</a>. The <a href="#victima">victima</a> is the bull, who will be struck by the <a href="#popa">popa</a> to the right. The music of the <a href="/wiki/Aulos" title="Aulos">aulos</a> was to drive off inauspicious noise. The setting is the <a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Jupiter_Optimus_Maximus" title="Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus">Temple of Capitoline Jupiter</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacerdos">sacerdos</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=144" title="Edit section: sacerdos">edit</a>]</div> A sacerdos (plural sacerdotes, a word of either <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">masculine or feminine gender</a>) was any priest or priestess, from *<a href="#sacer">sakro</a>-dho-ts, "the one who does the sacred act."<a href="#cite_note-471">[471]</a> There was no priestly caste in ancient Rome, and in some sense every citizen was a priest in that he presided over the domestic cult of his household. <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">Senators</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Decurion_(administrative)" class="mw-redirect" title="Decurion (administrative)">decurions</a> of towns performed ritual acts, though they were not sacerdotes per se.<a href="#cite_note-472">[472]</a> The sacerdos was one who held the title usually in relation to a specific deity or temple.<a href="#cite_note-473">[473]</a> See also <a href="#collegium">collegium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamen</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacra">sacra</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=145" title="Edit section: sacra">edit</a>]</div> Sacra (<a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">neuter</a> plural of <a href="#sacer">sacer</a>) are the traditional cult practices of classical Roman religion, either publica or <a href="/wiki/Privatus" title="Privatus">privata</a>, both of which were overseen by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">College of Pontiffs</a>. The sacra publica were those performed on behalf of the whole Roman people or its major subdivisions, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_tribe" title="Roman tribe">tribes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">curiae</a>. They included the sacra pro populo, "rites on behalf of the Roman people," i.e., all the <a href="/wiki/Feria" title="Feria">feriae publicae</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_calendar" title="Roman calendar">Roman calendar</a> year and the other feasts that were regarded of public interest, including those pertaining to the <a href="/wiki/Hills_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Hills of Rome">hills of Rome</a>,<a href="#cite_note-474">[474]</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Pagus" title="Pagus">pagi</a> and curiae, and to the <a href="/wiki/Sacellum" title="Sacellum">sacella</a>, "shrines".<a href="#cite_note-475">[475]</a> The establishment of the sacra publica is ascribed to king <a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a>, but many are thought to be of earlier origin, even predating the <a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">founding of Rome</a>. Thus Numa may be seen as carrying out a reform and a reorganisation of the sacra in accord with his own views and his education.<a href="#cite_note-476">[476]</a> Sacra publica were performed at the expense of the state, according to the dispositions left by Numa, and were attended by all the senators and magistrates.<a href="#cite_note-477">[477]</a> Sacra privata were particular to a <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a>, to a family, or to an individual, and were carried out at the expense of those concerned. Individuals had sacra on dates peculiar to them, such as birthdays, the <a href="#dies_lustricus">dies lustricus</a>, and at other times of their life such as funerals and expiations, for instance of fulgurations.<a href="#cite_note-478">[478]</a> Families had their own sacra in the home or at the tombs of their ancestors, such as those pertaining to the <a href="/wiki/Lares" title="Lares">Lares</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manes" title="Manes">Manes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Penates" class="mw-redirect" title="Penates">Penates</a> of the family, and the <a href="/wiki/Parentalia" title="Parentalia">Parentalia</a>. These were regarded as necessary and imperishable, and the desire to perpetuate the family's sacra was among the reasons for <a href="/wiki/Adoption_in_ancient_Rome" title="Adoption in ancient Rome">adoption in adulthood</a>.<a href="#cite_note-479">[479]</a> In some cases, the state assumed the expenses even of sacra privata, if they were regarded as important to the maintenance of the Roman religious system as a whole; see <a href="#sacra_gentilicia">sacra gentilicia following</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacra_gentilicia">sacra gentilicia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=146" title="Edit section: sacra gentilicia">edit</a>]</div> Sacra gentilicia were the private rites (see <a href="#sacra">sacra</a> above) that were particular to a <a href="/wiki/Gens" title="Gens">gens</a> ("clan"). These rites are related to a belief in the shared ancestry of the members of a gens, since the Romans placed a high value on both family identity and <a href="/wiki/Roman_funerals_and_burial" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman funerals and burial">commemorating the dead</a>.<a href="#cite_note-480">[480]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Gallic siege of Rome</a>, a member of the <a href="/wiki/Fabia_gens" title="Fabia gens">gens Fabia</a> risked his life to carry out the sacra of his clan on the <a href="/wiki/Quirinal_Hill" title="Quirinal Hill">Quirinal Hill</a>; the Gauls were so impressed by his courageous piety that they allowed him to pass through their lines.<a href="#cite_note-481">[481]</a> The Fabian sacra were performed in <a href="/wiki/Gabii" title="Gabii">Gabine</a> dress by a member of the gens who was possibly named a <a href="/wiki/Flamen" title="Flamen">flamen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-482">[482]</a> There were sacra of <a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a> in the care of the <a href="/wiki/Nautia_gens" title="Nautia gens">Nautii</a>, and rites of <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a> that the <a href="/wiki/Iulii" class="mw-redirect" title="Iulii">Iulii</a> oversaw.<a href="#cite_note-483">[483]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Claudia_gens" title="Claudia gens">Claudii</a> had recourse to a distinctive "propudial pig" sacrifice (propudialis porcus, "pig of shame") by way of expiation when they neglected any of their religious obligations.<a href="#cite_note-484">[484]</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman adoption">Roman practices of adoption</a>, including so-called "<a href="/wiki/Testamentary_adoption" class="mw-redirect" title="Testamentary adoption">testamentary adoption</a>" when an adult heir was declared in a will, were aimed at perpetuating the sacra gentilicia as well as preserving the family name and property.<a href="#cite_note-485">[485]</a> A person adopted into another family usually renounced the sacra of his birth (see <a href="#detestatio_sacrorum">detestatio sacrorum</a>) in order to devote himself to those of his new family.<a href="#cite_note-486">[486]</a> Sacra gentilicia sometimes acquired public importance, and if the gens were in danger of dying out, the state might take over their maintenance. One of the myths attached to <a href="/wiki/Hercules" title="Hercules">Hercules</a>' time in Italy <a href="/wiki/Aition" class="mw-redirect" title="Aition">explained</a> why his cult at the <a href="/wiki/Ara_Maxima" class="mw-redirect" title="Ara Maxima">Ara Maxima</a> was in the care of the <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> <a href="/wiki/Potitia_gens" title="Potitia gens">gens Potitia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pinaria_gens" title="Pinaria gens">gens Pinaria</a>; the diminution of these families by 312 BC caused the sacra to be transferred to the keeping of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome#Public_and_imperial_slaves" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">public slaves</a> and supported with public funding.<a href="#cite_note-487">[487]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacra_municipalia">sacra municipalia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=147" title="Edit section: sacra municipalia">edit</a>]</div> The sacra of an Italian town or community (<a href="/wiki/Municipium" title="Municipium">municipium</a>) might be perpetuated under the supervision of the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">Roman pontiffs</a> when the locality was brought under Roman rule. <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> defined municipalia sacra as "those owned originally, before the granting of <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizenship" title="Roman citizenship">Roman citizenship</a>; the pontiffs desired that the people continue to observe them and to practice them in the way (mos) they had been accustomed to from ancient times."<a href="#cite_note-488">[488]</a> These sacra were regarded as preserving the core religious identity of a particular people.<a href="#cite_note-489">[489]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacramentum">sacramentum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=148" title="Edit section: sacramentum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sacramentum_(oath)" title="Sacramentum (oath)">Sacramentum (oath)</a></div> Sacramentum is an <a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">oath</a> or vow that rendered the swearer <a href="#sacer">sacer</a>, "given to the gods," in the negative sense if he violated it.<a href="#cite_note-490">[490]</a> Sacramentum also referred to a thing that was pledged as a sacred <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bond" class="extiw" title="wikt:bond">bond</a>, and consequently forfeit if the oath were violated.<a href="#cite_note-491">[491]</a> Both instances imply an underlying sacratio, act of consecration. In <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, a thing given as a pledge or bond was a sacramentum. The sacramentum legis actio was a sum of money deposited in a legal procedure<a href="#cite_note-492">[492]</a> to affirm that both parties to the litigation were acting in good faith.<a href="#cite_note-493">[493]</a> If correct law and procedures had been followed, it could be assumed that the outcome was iustum, right or valid. The losing side had thus in effect committed <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a>, and forfeited his sacramentum as a form of <a href="#piaculum">piaculum</a>; the winner got his deposit back. The forfeited sacramentum was normally allotted by the state to the funding of <a href="#sacra">sacra publica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-494">[494]</a> The sacramentum militare (also as militum or militiae) was the oath taken by soldiers in pledging their loyalty to the consul or emperor. The sacramentum that renders the soldier sacer helps explain why he was subjected to harsher penalties, such as execution and corporal punishment, that were considered inappropriate for civilian citizens, at least under the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-495">[495]</a> In effect, he had put his life on deposit, a condition also of the fearsome sacramentum sworn by <a href="/wiki/Gladiator" title="Gladiator">gladiators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-496">[496]</a> In the later empire, the oath of loyalty created conflict for Christians serving in the military, and produced a number of <a href="/wiki/Military_saints" class="mw-redirect" title="Military saints">soldier-martyrs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-497">[497]</a> Sacramentum is the origin of the English word "<a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacrament</a>", a transition in meaning pointed to by <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a>'s use of the word to refer to <a href="/wiki/Mystery_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystery religions">religious initiation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-498">[498]</a> The sacramentum as pertaining to both the military and the law indicates the religious basis for these institutions. The term differs from iusiurandum, which is more common in legal application, as for instance swearing an oath in court. A sacramentum establishes a direct relation between the person swearing (or the thing pledged in the swearing of the oath) and the gods; the iusiurandum is an oath of good faith within the human community that is in accordance with <a href="#ius">ius</a> as witnessed by the gods.<a href="#cite_note-499">[499]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacrarium">sacrarium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=149" title="Edit section: sacrarium">edit</a>]</div> A sacrarium was a place where sacred objects (<a href="#sacer">sacra</a>) were stored or deposited for safekeeping.<a href="#cite_note-500">[500]</a> The word can overlap in meaning with <a href="/wiki/Sacellum" title="Sacellum">sacellum</a>, a small enclosed shrine; the sacella of the <a href="/wiki/Argei" title="Argei">Argei</a> are also called sacraria.<a href="#cite_note-501">[501]</a> In Greek writers, the word is ἱεροφυλάκιον hierophylakion (hiero-, "sacred" and phylakion, something that safeguards).<a href="#cite_note-502">[502]</a> See <a href="/wiki/Sacellum" title="Sacellum">sacellum</a> for a list of sacraria. The sacrarium of a private home lent itself to Christian transformation, as a 4th-century poem by <a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a> demonstrates;<a href="#cite_note-503">[503]</a> in contemporary Christian usage, the sacrarium is a "special sink used for the reverent disposal of sacred substances" (see <a href="/wiki/Piscina" title="Piscina">piscina</a>).<a href="#cite_note-504">[504]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacrificium">sacrificium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=150" title="Edit section: sacrificium">edit</a>]</div> An event or thing dedicated to the gods for their disposal. The offer of sacrifice is fundamental to <a href="/wiki/Religio" title="Religio">religio</a>. See also <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#sacer" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocabulary of ancient Roman religion">Sacer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sacrificium_Romanam" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacrificium Romanam">Religion in ancient Rome: Sacrifice</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sacrosanctus">sacrosanctus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=151" title="Edit section: sacrosanctus">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Valerio-Horatian_laws" title="Valerio-Horatian laws">Valerio-Horatian laws</a> of 449 BC introduced the adjective sacrosanctus to define the inviolability of the power (potestas) of the <a href="/wiki/Tribunes_of_the_plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribunes of the plebs">tribunes of the plebs</a> and of other magistrates sanctioned by law (Livy 3.55.1). The sacrality of the tribune's function had been established in earlier times through a <a href="#religio">religio</a> and a <a href="#sacramentum">sacramentum</a> (Livy 2.33.1; 3.19.10), but it obliged only the contracting parties. To make it an obligation for everyone required a sanctio that was not only civil but religious: the trespasser was to be declared <a href="#sacer">sacer</a>, and his family and property sold, according to the Greek historian <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius</a> (6.89.3). Sacer thus defined the religious compact, and sanctus the law. According to other passages in Livy, the law was not approved of by some jurists of the time, who maintained that only those who infringed the commonly recognised divine laws could fall into the category of those to be declared sacri. Elsewhere Livy states (Livy 4.3.6, 44.5; 20.20.11) that only the potestas and not the person of the tribune was sacrosancta. The critics of the law objected, "These people postulate they themselves should be sacrosancti, they who do not hold even gods for sacred and saint?"<a href="#cite_note-505">[505]</a> H. Fugier gives the meaning of sacrosanctus as guaranteed by an oath, but M. Morani interprets the first part of the compound as a consequence of the second: sanxit tribunum sacrum, the tribune is sanctioned by the law as sacer. This kind of word composition based on an etymological figure has parallels in other IE languages in archaic constructions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salii">Salii</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=152" title="Edit section: Salii">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Salii" title="Salii">Salii</a> were the "leaping priests" of Mars. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sancio">sancio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=153" title="Edit section: sancio">edit</a>]</div> A verb meaning to ratify a compact and put it under the protection of a sanctio, a sanction or penalty. The formation and original meaning of the verb are debated. Some scholars think it is derived from the IE stem *sak (the same as sacer) through the insertion of a nasal n<a href="#cite_note-506">[506]</a> infix and the suffix -yo. Thence sancio would mean to render something sacer, i.e. belonging to the gods in the sense of having their guarantee and protection.<a href="#cite_note-507">[507]</a> Others think it is a derivation from the theonym <a href="/wiki/Sancus" title="Sancus">Sancus</a>, the god of the ratification of foedera (treaties) and the protection of good faith, from the root sancu- plus suffix -io.<a href="#cite_note-508">[508]</a> In that case, the verb would mean an act that reflects or conforms to the function of this god, i.e. the ratifying and guaranteeing of compacts. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sanctus">sanctus</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=154" title="Edit section: sanctus">edit</a>]</div> Sanctus, an adjective formed on the past participle of the verb sancio, describes that which has been "established as inviolable" or "sacred", most times in a sense different from that of <a href="#sacer">sacer</a> and <a href="#religiosus">religiosus</a>. Its original meaning would be "that which is protected by a sanction" (sanctio). The concept is connected to the name of the <a href="/wiki/Osco-Umbrian_languages" title="Osco-Umbrian languages">Umbrian or Sabine</a> founder-deity <a href="/wiki/Sancus" title="Sancus">Sancus</a>, in Umbrian Sancius, whose most noted function was the ratifying and protecting of treaties (foedera).<a href="#cite_note-509">[509]</a> The Roman jurist <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> distinguishes sanctus as "neither sacred (sacer) nor profane (<a href="#profanum">profanum</a>) ... nor [is it] <a href="#religiosus">religiosus</a>."<a href="#cite_note-510">[510]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a> writes that a building dedicated to a god is sacrum, but a town's wall and gate are res sanctae because they belong "in some way" to divine law, while a graveyard is religiosus because it is relinquished to the <a href="/wiki/Di_Manes" class="mw-redirect" title="Di Manes">di Manes</a>. Some scholars think that sanctus was originally a concept related to space as concerning inaugurated places, because they enjoyed the armed protection (sanctio) of the gods.<a href="#cite_note-511">[511]</a><a href="#cite_note-512">[512]</a> Various deities, objects, places and people – especially <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senators</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman magistrates">magistrates</a> – can be sanctus. <a href="/wiki/Claudia_Quinta" class="mw-redirect" title="Claudia Quinta">Claudia Quinta</a> is described as a sanctissima femina (most virtuous woman) and <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Younger" title="Cato the Younger">Cato the Younger</a> as a sanctus civis (a morally upright citizen).<a href="#cite_note-513">[513]</a><a href="#cite_note-514">[514]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Sanctuary" title="Sanctuary">sanctuary</a>. Later the epithet sanctus is given to many gods including <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo Pythius</a> by <a href="/wiki/Gnaeus_Naevius" title="Gnaeus Naevius">Naevius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tiberinus_(god)" title="Tiberinus (god)">Tiberinus</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ennius" title="Ennius">Ennius</a> and <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>. Ennius renders the <a href="/wiki/Homeric_epics" class="mw-redirect" title="Homeric epics">Homeric</a> dia theaoon as sancta dearum. In the early <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Imperial era</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> describes <a href="/wiki/Terminus_(god)" title="Terminus (god)">Terminus</a>, the god who sanctifies land boundaries, as sanctus<a href="#cite_note-515">[515]</a> and equates sancta with augusta (august).<a href="#cite_note-516">[516]</a> The use of sanctus as an epithet of the river Tiber and of the boundary god Terminus retains the original and ancient sense of delineating space: borders are sancti by definition, and rivers often mark borders. Sanctus as applied to people over time came to share some of the sense of Latin <a href="#castus,_castitas">castus</a> (morally pure or guiltless) and <a href="#pius">pius</a> (pious), with none of the ambiguity attached to sacer and religiosus. In <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Latin" title="Ecclesiastical Latin">ecclesiastical Latin</a>, sanctus is the word for <a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">saint</a>, but even in the Christian era it continues to appear in <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaphs</a> for people who had not converted to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-517">[517]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="servare_de_caelo">servare de caelo</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=155" title="Edit section: servare de caelo">edit</a>]</div> Literally, "to watch (for something) from the sky"; that is, to observe the <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a> of the sky for signs that might be interpreted as auspices. Bad omens resulted in a report of <a href="#obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</a>.<a href="#cite_note-518">[518]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="signum">signum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=156" title="Edit section: signum">edit</a>]</div> A signum is a "sign, token or indication".<a href="#cite_note-519">[519]</a> In religious use, signum provides a collective term for events or things (including signs and symbols) that designate divine identity, activity or communication, including <a href="/wiki/Prodigium" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigium">prodigia</a>, <a href="#auspicia">auspicia</a>, <a href="#omen">omina</a>, <a href="#portentum">portenta</a> and <a href="#ostentum">ostenta</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="silentium">silentium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=157" title="Edit section: silentium">edit</a>]</div> Silence was generally required in the performance of every religious ritual.<a href="#cite_note-520">[520]</a> The ritual injunction <a href="/wiki/Favete_linguis" class="mw-redirect" title="Favete linguis">favete linguis</a>, "be favourable with your tongues," meant "keep silent." In particular, silence assured the ritual correctness and the absence of <a href="#vitium">vitia</a>, "faults," in the taking of the auspices.<a href="#cite_note-521">[521]</a> It was also required in the nomination (dictio) of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_dictator" title="Roman dictator">dictator</a>.<a href="#cite_note-522">[522]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sinister">sinister</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=158" title="Edit section: sinister">edit</a>]</div> In ancient times, <a href="/wiki/Augur#Ritual" title="Augur">augurs</a> (augures ex caelo) faced south, so the happy orient, where the sun rose, lay at their left. Consequently, the word sinister (Latin for left) meant well-fated. When, under Greek influence, it became customary for augurs to face north, sinister came to indicate the ill-fated west, where light turned into darkness. It is this latter and later meaning that is attached to the English word sinister. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sodalitas">sodalitas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=159" title="Edit section: sodalitas">edit</a>]</div> A sodalitas was a form of voluntary association or society. Its meaning is not necessarily distinct from <a href="/wiki/Collegium_(ancient_Rome)" title="Collegium (ancient Rome)">collegium</a> in ancient sources, and is found also in sodalicium, "fraternity."<a href="#cite_note-523">[523]</a> The sodalis is a member of a sodalitas, which describes the relationship among sodales rather than an institution. Examples of priestly sodalitates are the <a href="#Luperci">Luperci</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fetiales" class="mw-redirect" title="Fetiales">fetiales</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arval_Brethren" title="Arval Brethren">Arval brothers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Titii" title="Titii">Titii</a>; these are also called collegia, but that they were a kind of <a href="/wiki/Confraternity" title="Confraternity">confraternity</a> is suggested by the distinctive <a href="/wiki/Symposium" title="Symposium">convivial</a> <a href="#carmen">song</a> associated with some.<a href="#cite_note-524">[524]</a> An association of sodales might also form a <a href="/wiki/Burial_society" title="Burial society">burial society</a>, or make religious dedications as a group; <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">inscriptions</a> record donations made by women for the benefit of sodales.<a href="#cite_note-525">[525]</a> Roman <a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Nigidius_Figulus" title="Nigidius Figulus">Nigidius Figulus</a> formed sodalicia,<a href="#cite_note-526">[526]</a> with which <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> compared the fellowship (sodalicia consortia) of the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallo-Roman">Gallo-Roman culture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-527">[527]</a> When the cult of <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a> was imported to Rome, the <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchism</a> of her priests the <a href="/wiki/Galli" title="Galli">galli</a> discouraged Roman men from forming an official priesthood; instead, they joined sodalitates to hold banquets and other forms of traditional Roman <a href="#cultus">cultus</a> in her honor.<a href="#cite_note-528">[528]</a> The sodalitates are thought to originate as aristocratic brotherhoods with cultic duties, and their existence is attested as early as the late 6th or early 5th century BC. The <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> regulated their potential influence by forbidding them to come in conflict with public law (<a href="/wiki/Ius_publicum" title="Ius publicum">ius publicum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-529">[529]</a> During the 60s BC, certain forms of <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_association" title="Freedom of association">associations were disbanded by law</a> as politically disruptive, and in Ciceronian usage sodalitates may refer either to these subversive organizations or in a religious context to the priestly fraternities.<a href="#cite_note-530">[530]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Sodales_Augustales" title="Sodales Augustales">Sodales Augustales</a>. For the <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholic</a> concept, see <a href="/wiki/Sodality_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sodality (Catholic Church)">sodality</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="spectio">spectio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=160" title="Edit section: spectio">edit</a>]</div> Spectio ("watching, sighting, observation") was the seeking of omens through observing the sky, the flight of birds, or the feeding of birds. Originally only <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patrician</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> were entitled to practice spectio, which carried with it the power to regulate assemblies and other aspects of public life, depending on whether the omens were good or bad.<a href="#cite_note-531">[531]</a> See also <a href="#obnuntiatio">obnuntiatio</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="sponsio">sponsio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=161" title="Edit section: sponsio">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Duenos_inscription.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Duenos_inscription.jpg/220px-Duenos_inscription.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Duenos_inscription.jpg/330px-Duenos_inscription.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Duenos_inscription.jpg/440px-Duenos_inscription.jpg 2x" data-file-width="448" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Duenos_inscription" title="Duenos inscription">Duenos inscription</a></figcaption></figure> Sponsio is a formal, religiously guaranteed obligation. It can mean both <a href="/wiki/Betrothal" class="mw-redirect" title="Betrothal">betrothal</a> as pledged by a woman's family, and a <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a>'s solemn promise in international treaties on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/SPQR" title="SPQR">Roman people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-532">[532]</a> The Latin word derives from a <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> root meaning a <a href="/wiki/Libation" title="Libation">libation</a> of wine offered to the gods, as does the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Greek</a> verb spendoo and the noun spondai, spondas, and <a href="/wiki/Hittite_language" title="Hittite language">Hittite</a> spant-.<a href="#cite_note-533">[533]</a> In Greek it also acquired the meaning "compact, convention, treaty" (compare Latin foedus), as these were sanctioned with a libation to the gods on an altar. In Latin, sponsio becomes a legal contract between two parties, or sometimes a foedus between two nations. In legal Latin the sponsio implied the existence of a person who acted as a sponsor, a guarantor for the obligation undertaken by somebody else. The verb is spondeo, sponsus. Related words are sponsalia, the ceremony of betrothal; sponsa, fiancée; and sponsus, both the <a href="/wiki/Latin_declension" title="Latin declension">second-declension</a> noun meaning a husband-to-be and the fourth declension abstract meaning <a href="/wiki/Suretyship" class="mw-redirect" title="Suretyship">suretyship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-534">[534]</a> The ceremonial character of sponsio suggests<a href="#cite_note-535">[535]</a> that Latin archaic <a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Marriage in ancient Rome">forms of marriage</a> were, like the <a href="/wiki/Confarreatio" title="Confarreatio">confarreatio</a> of <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Roman patricians</a>, religiously sanctioned. <a href="/wiki/Dum%C3%A9zil" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumézil">Dumézil</a> proposed that the oldest extant Latin document, the <a href="/wiki/Duenos_inscription" title="Duenos inscription">Duenos inscription</a>, could be interpreted in light of sponsio.<a href="#cite_note-536">[536]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="superstitio">superstitio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=162" title="Edit section: superstitio">edit</a>]</div> Superstitio was excessive devotion and enthusiasm in religious observance, in the sense of "doing or believing more than was necessary",<a href="#cite_note-537">[537]</a> or "irregular" religious practice that conflicted with Roman custom. "<a href="/wiki/Religiosity" title="Religiosity">Religiosity</a>" in its pejorative sense may be a better translation than "<a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstition</a>", the English word derived from the Latin.<a href="#cite_note-538">[538]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> defined superstitio as the "empty fear of the gods" (timor inanis deorum) in contrast to the properly pious cultivation of the gods that constituted lawful <a href="#religio">religio</a>,<a href="#cite_note-539">[539]</a> a view that <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a> expressed as "religio honours the gods, superstitio wrongs them."<a href="#cite_note-540">[540]</a> Seneca wrote an entire treatise on superstitio, known to <a href="/wiki/St._Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Augustine">St. Augustine</a> but no longer extant.<a href="#cite_note-541">[541]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>'s famous condemnation of what is often translated as "Superstition" in his <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicurean</a> didactic epic <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> is actually directed at Religio.<a href="#cite_note-542">[542]</a> Before the Christian era, superstitio was seen as a vice of individuals. Practices characterized as "<a href="/wiki/Magic_in_the_Greco-Roman_world" title="Magic in the Greco-Roman world">magic</a>" could be a form of superstitio as an excessive and dangerous quest for personal knowledge.<a href="#cite_note-543">[543]</a> By the early 2nd century AD, religions of other peoples that were perceived as resistant to <a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_romana" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretatio romana">religious assimilation</a> began to be labeled by some Latin authors as superstitio, including <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druidism</a>, Judaism, and Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-544">[544]</a> Under Christian hegemony, religio and superstitio were redefined as a dichotomy between Christianity, viewed as true religio, and the superstitiones or false religions of those who declined to convert.<a href="#cite_note-545">[545]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="supplicatio">supplicatio</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=163" title="Edit section: supplicatio">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Supplicatio" title="Supplicatio">Supplicationes</a> are days of public prayer when the men, women, and children of Rome traveled in procession to religious sites around the city praying for divine aid in times of crisis. A suplicatio can also be a thanksgiving after the receipt of aid.<a href="#cite_note-546">[546]</a> Supplications might also be ordered in response to prodigies; again, the population as a whole wore wreaths, carried laurel twigs, and attended sacrifices at temple precincts throughout the city.<a href="#cite_note-547">[547]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="T">T</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=164" title="Edit section: T">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="tabernaculum">tabernaculum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=165" title="Edit section: tabernaculum">edit</a>]</div> See <a href="#auguraculum">auguraculum</a>. The origin of the English word "tabernacle." <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="templum">templum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=166" title="Edit section: templum">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Roman temple</a></div> A templum was the sacred space defined by an <a href="#augur">augur</a> for ritual purposes, most importantly the taking of the auspices, a place "cut off" as <a href="#sacer">sacred</a>: compare Greek <a href="/wiki/Temenos" title="Temenos">temenos</a>, from temnein to cut.<a href="#cite_note-548">[548]</a> It could be created as temporary or permanent, depending on the lawful purpose of the <a href="#augurium">inauguration</a>. <a href="#auspicia">Auspices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senate</a> meetings were unlawful unless held in a templum; if the senate house (<a href="/wiki/Curia" title="Curia">Curia</a>) was unavailable, an augur could apply the appropriate religious formulae to provide a lawful alternative.<a href="#cite_note-549">[549]</a> To create a templum, the augur aligned his zone of observation (<a href="#auguraculum">auguraculum</a>, a square, portable surround) with the cardinal points of heaven and earth. The altar and entrance were sited on the east-west axis: the sacrificer faced east. The precinct was thus "defined and freed" (<a href="#effatio">effatum</a> et <a href="#liberatio">liberatum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-550">[550]</a> In most cases, signs to the augur's left (north) showed divine approval and signs to his right (south), disapproval.<a href="#cite_note-551">[551]</a> Temple buildings of stone followed this ground-plan and were sacred in perpetuity.<a href="#cite_note-552">[552]</a> Rome itself was a kind of templum, with the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a> as sacred boundary and the <a href="/wiki/Capitoline_Hill" title="Capitoline Hill">arx</a> (citadel), and <a href="/wiki/Quirinal" class="mw-redirect" title="Quirinal">Quirinal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Palatine" title="Palatine">Palatine</a> hills as reference points whenever a specially dedicated templum was created within. Augurs had authority to establish multiple templa beyond the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>, using the same augural principles. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="V">V</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=167" title="Edit section: V">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="verba_certa">verba certa</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=168" title="Edit section: verba certa">edit</a>]</div> Verba certa (also found nearly as often with the word order certa verba) are the "exact words" of a legal or religious formula, that is, the words as "set once and for ever, immutable and unchangeable." Compare <a href="#precatio">certae precationes</a>, fixed prayers of <a href="#invocatio">invocation</a>, and <a href="#verba_concepta">verba concepta</a>, which in both <a href="/wiki/Ius_civile" class="mw-redirect" title="Ius civile">Roman civil law</a> and augural law described a verbal formula that could be "conceived" flexibly to suit the circumstances.<a href="#cite_note-553">[553]</a> With their emphasis on exact adherence, the archaic verba certa<a href="#cite_note-554">[554]</a> are a magico-religious form of prayer.<a href="#cite_note-555">[555]</a> In a ritual context, prayer (<a href="#prex">prex</a>) was not a form of personal spontaneous expression, but a demonstration that the speaker knew the correct thing to say. Words were regarded as having power; in order to be efficacious, the formula had to be recited accurately, in full, and with the correct pronunciation. To reduce the risk of error (<a href="#vitium">vitium</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Roman_magistrate" title="Roman magistrate">magistrate</a> or priest who spoke was prompted from the text by an assistant.<a href="#cite_note-556">[556]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="verba_concepta">verba concepta</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=169" title="Edit section: verba concepta">edit</a>]</div> In both religious and legal usage, verba concepta ("preconceived words") were verbal formulas that could be adapted for particular circumstances. Compare <a href="#verba_certa">verba certa</a>, "fixed words." Collections of verba concepta would have been part of the <a href="#libri_augurales">augural archives</a>. <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> preserves an example, albeit <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textually vexed</a>, of a formula for founding a <a href="#templum">templum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-557">[557]</a> In the legal sense, concepta verba (the phrase is found with either word order) were the statements crafted by a presiding <a href="/wiki/Praetor" title="Praetor">praetor</a> for the particulars of a case.<a href="#cite_note-558">[558]</a> Earlier in the Roman legal system, the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a> had to state his claim within a narrowly defined set of fixed phrases (certa verba); in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic#Supremacy_of_the_New_Nobility_(287–133_BC)" title="Roman Republic">Mid Republic</a>, more flexible formulas allowed a more accurate description of the particulars of the issue under consideration. But the practice may have originated as a kind of "dodge," since a praetor was liable to religious penalties if he used certa verba for <a href="/wiki/Roman_litigation" title="Roman litigation">legal actions</a> on days marked <a href="#nefastus">nefastus</a> on the calendar.<a href="#cite_note-559">[559]</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">St. Augustine</a> removed the phrase verba concepta from its religious and legal context to describe the cognitive process of memory: "When a true narrative of the past is related, the memory produces not the actual events which have passed away but words conceived (verba concepta) from images of them, which they fixed in the mind like imprints as they passed through the senses."<a href="#cite_note-560">[560]</a> Augustine's conceptualizing of memory as verbal has been used to elucidate the Western tradition of poetry and its shared origins with sacred song and magical incantation (see also <a href="#carmen">carmen</a>), and is less a departure from Roman usage than a recognition of the original relation between formula and memory in a pre-literate world.<a href="#cite_note-561">[561]</a> Some scholars see the tradition of stylized, formulaic language as the verbal tradition from which <a href="/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin literature</a> develops, with concepta verba appearing in poems such as Carmen 34 of <a href="/wiki/Catullus" title="Catullus">Catullus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-562">[562]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ver_sacrum">ver sacrum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=170" title="Edit section: ver sacrum">edit</a>]</div> The "<a href="/wiki/Ver_sacrum" title="Ver sacrum">sacred spring</a>" was a ritual migration. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="victima">victima</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=171" title="Edit section: victima">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png/400px-D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png/600px-D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png/800px-D319-_rome_-_procession_religieuse._-_L1-Ch5.png 2x" data-file-width="2533" data-file-height="1384" /></a><figcaption>Victimae for a <a href="/wiki/Suovetaurilia" title="Suovetaurilia">suovetaurilia</a> led to the altar by <a href="#victimarius">victimarii</a></figcaption></figure> The victima was the <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal offering</a> in a sacrifice, or very rarely a human. The victim was subject to an examination (probatio victimae) by a lower-rank priest (pontifex minor) to determine whether it met the criteria for a particular offering.<a href="#cite_note-563">[563]</a> With some exceptions, male deities received castrated animals. Goddesses were usually offered female victims, though from around the 160s AD the goddess <a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a> was given a bull, along with its blood and testicles, in the <a href="/wiki/Taurobolium" title="Taurobolium">Taurobolium</a>. Color was also a criterion: white for the upper deities, dark for <a href="/wiki/Chthonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chthonic">chthonic</a>, red for <a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(god)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulcan (god)">Vulcan</a> and at the <a href="/wiki/Robigalia" title="Robigalia">Robigalia</a>. A sacred fiction of sacrifice was that the victim had to consent, usually by a nod of the head perhaps induced by the <a href="#victimarius">victimarius</a> holding the halter. Fear, panic, and agitation in the animal were bad <a href="#omen">omens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-564">[564]</a><a href="#cite_note-565">[565]</a> The word victima is used interchangeably with <a href="#hostia">hostia</a> by <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> and others, but some ancient authors attempt to distinguish between the two.<a href="#cite_note-566">[566]</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a> says<a href="#cite_note-567">[567]</a> that the hostia is sacrificed before battle, the victima afterward, which accords with Ovid's <a href="/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a> of "victim" as that which has been killed by the right hand of the "victor" (with hostia related to hostis, "enemy").<a href="#cite_note-568">[568]</a> The difference between the victima and hostia is elsewhere said to be a matter of size, with the victima larger (maior).<a href="#cite_note-Char403.38-261">[261]</a> See also <a href="/wiki/Piaculum" class="mw-redirect" title="Piaculum">piaculum</a> and <a href="#votum">votum</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="victimarius">victimarius</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=172" title="Edit section: victimarius">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Victimarius" title="Victimarius">victimarius</a></div> The victimarius was an attendant or assistant at a sacrifice who handled the animal.<a href="#cite_note-569">[569]</a> Using a rope, he led the pig, sheep, or bovine that was to serve as the victim to the altar. In depictions of sacrifice, a victimarius called the <a href="#popa">popa</a> carries a mallet or axe with which to strike the <a href="#victima">victima</a>. Multiple victimarii are sometimes in attendance; one may hold down the victim's head while the other lands the blow.<a href="#cite_note-570">[570]</a> The victimarius severed the animal's carotid with a ritual knife (culter), and according to depictions was offered a hand towel afterwards by another attendant. He is sometimes shown dressed in an apron (limus). Inscriptions show that most victimarii were freedmen, but literary sources in <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> say that the popa was a public slave.<a href="#cite_note-571">[571]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="vitium">vitium</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=173" title="Edit section: vitium">edit</a>]</div> A mistake made while performing a ritual, or a disruption of augural procedure, including disregarding the auspices, was a vitium ("defect, imperfection, impediment"). Vitia, plural, could taint the outcome of elections, the validity of laws, and the conducting of military operations. The <a href="/wiki/Augur" title="Augur">augurs</a> issued an opinion on a given vitium, but these were not necessarily binding. In 215 BC the newly elected <a href="/wiki/Plebs" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebs">plebeian</a> consul <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Marcellus" title="Marcus Claudius Marcellus">M. Claudius Marcellus</a> resigned when the augurs and the <a href="/wiki/Roman_senate" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman senate">senate</a> decided that a thunderclap expressed divine disapproval of his election.<a href="#cite_note-572">[572]</a> The original meaning of the semantic root in vitium may have been "hindrance", related to the verb vito, vitare, "to go out of the way"; the adjective form vitiosus can mean "hindering", that is, "vitiating, faulty."<a href="#cite_note-573">[573]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="vitulari">vitulari</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=174" title="Edit section: vitulari">edit</a>]</div> A verb meaning chanting or reciting a formula with a joyful intonation and rhythm.<a href="#cite_note-574">[574]</a> The related <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitulatio" title="Vitulatio">Vitulatio</a> was an annual thanksgiving offering carried out by the <a href="/wiki/College_of_Pontiffs" title="College of Pontiffs">pontiffs</a> on 8 July, the day after the <a href="/wiki/Caprotinia" title="Caprotinia">Nonae Caprotinae</a>. These were commemorations of Roman victory in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Allia" title="Battle of the Allia">Gallic invasion</a>. <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> says vitulari is the equivalent of Greek paianizein (παιανίζειν), "to sing a <a href="/wiki/Paean" title="Paean">paean</a>", a song expressing triumph or thanksgiving.<a href="#cite_note-575">[575]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="votum">votum</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=175" title="Edit section: votum">edit</a>]</div> In a religious context, <a href="/wiki/Votum" title="Votum">votum</a>, plural vota, is a vow or promise made to a deity. The word comes from the <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> of voveo, vovere; as the result of the verbal action "vow, promise", it may refer also to the fulfillment of this vow, that is, the thing promised. The votum is thus an aspect of the contractual nature of Roman religion, a bargaining expressed by <a href="/wiki/Do_ut_des" class="mw-redirect" title="Do ut des">do ut des</a>, "I give that you might give."<a href="#cite_note-576">[576]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=176" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Religion in ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult (ancient Rome)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Roman festivals</a>, on religious holidays</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_polytheistic_reconstructionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman polytheistic reconstructionism">Roman polytheistic reconstructionism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&action=edit&section=177" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1982, from the French edition of 1981), p. 110 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sHFpkZg6NMUC&pg=PA110">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1982), p. 2266, note 472. </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> J. Bayet Histoire politique et psychologique de la religion romaine Paris, 1969, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Synonyms for abominari include improbare, execrari, and refutare, with instances noted by <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_divinatione" class="mw-redirect" title="De divinatione">De divinatione</a> 1.46; <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, 1.7, 5.55, 9.14, and 29.29; and <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 5.530; Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1893), pp. 136–137. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Robert Schilling, "Roman Gods", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 72. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> John W. Stamper, The Architecture of Roman Temples: The Republic to the Middle Empire (Cambridge University Press, 2005), p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>, 1998. p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Morris H. Morgan, Notes on Vitruvius Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 17 (1903, pp. 12–14). </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_architectura" title="De architectura">De architectura</a> 1.2.5; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), p. 561. </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lintott" title="Andrew Lintott">Andrew Lintott</a>, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), pp. 129–130; Karl Loewenstein, The Governance of Rome (Martinus Nijhoff, 1973), p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), pp. 80–81 on Ceres, p. 151 on Flora; see also <a href="/wiki/Barbette_Stanley_Spaeth" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbette Stanley Spaeth">Barbette Stanley Spaeth</a>, The Roman Goddess Ceres (University of Texas Press, 1996), p. 86ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> J. Linderski Augural law in ANRW pp.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Varro, De lingua latina 5.33. See also Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (Chicago 2006), pp. 236-238. The treaty was preserved in the temple of <a href="/wiki/Semo_Sancus" class="mw-redirect" title="Semo Sancus">Semo Sancus</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> For usage of the term peregrinus, compare also the status of a person who was <a href="/wiki/Peregrinus_(Roman)" title="Peregrinus (Roman)">peregrinus</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Varro, De lingua latina 5.33. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 27.5.15 and 29.5; P. Catalano, Aspetti spaziali del sistema giuridico-religioso romano, Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.1 (1978), pp. 529 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Ulrike Egelhaaf-Gaiser, "Roman Cult Sites: A Pragmatic Approach," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> Karl Galinsky, Augustan Culture: An Interpretive Introduction (Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> III 20, 2, quoting Veranius in his lost work De verbis pontificalibus. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Macrobius III 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Quoted by Macrobius, Saturnalia 3.20. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> These are the modern English identifications of Robert A. Kaster in his translation of the Saturnalia for the <a href="/wiki/Loeb_Classical_Library" title="Loeb Classical Library">Loeb Classical Library</a>; in Latin, alternum sanguinem filicem, ficum atram, quaeque bacam nigram nigrosque fructus ferunt, itemque acrifolium, pirum silvaticum, pruscum rubum sentesque. On the <a href="/wiki/Textual_criticism" title="Textual criticism">textual issues</a> raised by the passage, see Kaster, Studies on the Text of Macrobius' Saturnalia (Oxford University Press, 2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aNr2UAvIZCsC&dq=%22eas+infelices+nominant%22&pg=PA48">p. 48.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Vergil Aeneid II 717-720; Macrobius III 1, 1; E. Paratore Virgilio, Eneide I, Milano, 1978, p. 360 and n. 52; Livy V 22, 5; R. G. Austin P. Vergili Maronis Aeneidos liber secundus Oxford 1964, p. 264 </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 209. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2164–2288, especially p. 2174 on the military auguraculum. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Robert Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> In the view of <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wissowa" title="Georg Wissowa">Wissowa</a>, as cited by Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2150. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2241 et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2237. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_31-1">b</a> Schilling, "Augurs and Augury," Roman and European Mythologies, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 299. </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> Schilling, p. 115. </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2196, especially note 177, citing Servius, note to Aeneid 3.89. </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, Book VI 41, for the words of <a href="/wiki/Appius_Claudius_Crassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Appius Claudius Crassus">Appius Claudius Crassus</a> on why election to the <a href="/wiki/Roman_consul" title="Roman consul">consulate</a> should be restricted to <a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">patricians</a> on these grounds. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2294–2295; U. Coli, Regnum Rome 1959. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, Natural History 18.14. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Liv. VI 41; X 81; IV 6 </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> With the passing of the <a href="/wiki/Lex_Ogulnia" title="Lex Ogulnia">Lex Ogulnia</a>. The first plebeian consul was elected in 367 BC in consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Leges_Liciniae_Sextiae" class="mw-redirect" title="Leges Liciniae Sextiae">leges Liciniae Sextiae</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> L. Schmitz, entry on "Augur," in A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (London 1875). </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 226–227; Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Schmitz, "Augur." </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/173354759">A companion to Greek religion</a>. Daniel Ogden. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub. 2007. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8216-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8216-4"><bdi>978-1-4051-8216-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173354759">173354759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+companion+to+Greek+religion&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Blackwell+Pub&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173354759&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8216-4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F173354759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Augustan_literature_(ancient_Rome)" title="Augustan literature (ancient Rome)">Augustan</a> <a href="/wiki/Roman_historiography" title="Roman historiography">historian</a> <a href="/wiki/Pompeius_Trogus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pompeius Trogus">Pompeius Trogus</a>, who was himself a Celt of the <a href="/wiki/Vocontii" title="Vocontii">Vocontii</a> <a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitas</a>, the Celts had acquired expertise in the practice of augury beyond other peoples (nam augurandi studio Galli praeter ceteros callent, as epitomized by <a href="/wiki/Justin_(historian)" title="Justin (historian)">Justin</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030902204737/http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/justin/english/trans24.html#4">42.4</a><a href="/wiki/Template:Usurped/doc" title="Template:Usurped/doc">[usurped]</a>). Discussion of Celtic augury by J.A. MacCulloch, The Religion of the Ancient Celts (Edinburgh, 1911), p. 247. </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_45-1">b</a> Robert Schilling, "Augurs and Augury", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 116. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated127-46"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated127_46-0">^</a> W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lintott" title="Andrew Lintott">Andrew Lintott</a>, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaFPohP2lB8C&dq=%22auspicia+impetrativa%22&pg=PA103">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), pp. 113–114. </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), p. 324 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DswUAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22auspicia+maiora%22&pg=PA324">online</a> et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="/wiki/T._Corey_Brennan" title="T. Corey Brennan">T. Corey Brennan</a>, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 19 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jd8N4LTUv8YC&dq=%22auspicia+maiora%22&pg=PA19">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Veit Rosenberger, "Republican nobiles: Controlling the res publica", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 293. </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Cicero, De divinatione I 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Cicero, de Divinatione I 28; Cato the Elder, as quoted by Festus p. 342 L 2nd. </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Festus sv. Silentio surgere, p. 438 L 2nd. </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 4; It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 526 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny the Elder</a>, Natural History 2, 13; <a href="/wiki/Plautus" title="Plautus">Plautus</a>, Curculio 438-484. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> Festus, sv. regalia exta p. 382 L 2nd (p. 367 in the 1997 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ugb6woUJLoC&dq=%22regalia+exta%22&pg=PA367">Teubner edition</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Livy I 20, 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Rawson" title="Elizabeth Rawson">Elizabeth Rawson</a>, "Religion and Politics in the Late Second Century B.C. at Rome," Phoenix 28.2 (1974), p. 196, citing De divinatione 1.28. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Macrobius, Saturnalia III 20 3, citing <a href="/wiki/Tarquitius_Priscus" title="Tarquitius Priscus">Tarquitius Priscus</a>: "It is necessary to order evil portents and prodigies to be burnt by means of trees which are in the tutelage of infernal or averting gods," with an enumeration of such trees (Arbores quae inferum deorum avertentiumque in tutela sunt ... quibus portenta prodigiaque mala comburi iubere oportet). </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Varro, De Lingua Latina VII 102: "Ab avertendo averruncare, ut deus qui in eis rebus praeest Averruncus." </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 1.32; 31.8.3; 36.3.9 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London 1925), pp. 33ff.; M. Kaser, Das altroemische Ius (Goettingen 1949), pp. 22ff; P. Catalano, Linee del sistema sovrannazionale romano (Torino 1965), pp. 14ff.; W. V. Harris, War and imperialism in Republican Rome, 327-70 B.C. (Oxford 1979), pp. 161 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Livy 9.1.10; <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/Divinatio_in_Caecilium" title="Divinatio in Caecilium">Divinatio in Caecilium</a> 63; De provinciis consularibus 4; Ad Atticum VII 14, 3; IX 19, 1; Pro rege Deiotauro 13; <a href="/wiki/De_officiis" class="mw-redirect" title="De officiis">De officiis</a> I 36; Philippicae XI 37; XIII 35; De re publica II 31; III 35; <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>, Origines XVIII 1, 2; <a href="/wiki/Modestinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Modestinus">Modestinus</a>, Libro I regolarum = <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Digesta</a> I 3, 40; <a href="/wiki/E._Badian" class="mw-redirect" title="E. Badian">E. Badian</a>, Roman Imperialism in the Late Republic (Ithaca 1968, 2nd ed.), p.11. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Valerius_Maximus" title="Valerius Maximus">Valerius Maximus</a> 1.1.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hendrik_Wagenvort&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hendrik Wagenvort (page does not exist)">Hendrik Wagenvort</a>, "Caerimonia", in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 84–101. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Hans-Friedrich Mueller, Roman Religion in Valerius Maximus (Routledge, 2002), pp. 64–65 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1RUpQqic3e4C&dq=caerimoniae&pg=PA64">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> See Davide Del Bello, Forgotten Paths: Etymology and the Allegorical Mindset (Catholic University of America Press, 2007), pp. 34–46, on etymology as a form of interpretation or construction of meaning among Roman authors. </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Wagenvoort, "Caerimonia", p. 100 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=U9UUAAAAIAAJ&dq=caerimoniae&pg=PA100">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Etymologiae" title="Etymologiae">Etymologiae</a> 6.19.36 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=igxC93_A-fIC&dq=caeremonia+OR+caeremoniae&pg=PT234">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, p. 354 L2 = <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eDU_AAAAcAAJ&q=calatores+dicebantur+servi">p. 58 M</a>; <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 227 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fcsynr0fQIoC&dq=calator+OR+calatores&pg=PA227">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_E.A._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E.A. Palmer">Robert E.A. Palmer</a>, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 83. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> Capite aperto, "bareheaded"; Martin Söderlind, Late Etruscan Votive Heads from Tessennano («L'Erma» di Bretschneider, 2002), p. 370 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=c4S4T06alPMC&dq=%22capite+velato%22&pg=PA370">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 78. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Classical Sculpture: Catalogue of the Cypriot, Greek, and Roman Stone Sculpture in the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology (University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, 2006), p. 169. </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:4&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 11:4</a>; see Neil Elliott, Liberating Paul: The Justice of God and the Politics of the Apostle (Fortress Press, 1994, 2006), p. 210 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mG0bQjqvUOgC&dq=%22capite+velato%22&pg=PA210">online</a>; Bruce W. Winter, After Paul Left Corinth: The Influence of Secular Ethics and Social Change (Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2001), pp. 121–123 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sclZnr2SUIgC&dq=%22I.+Men+of+Status+Covering+Their+Heads%22&pg=PA121">online</a>, citing as the standard source D.W.J. Gill, "The Importance of Roman Portraiture for Head-Coverings in 1 Corinthians 11:2–16", <a href="/wiki/Tyndale_Bulletin" title="Tyndale Bulletin">Tyndale Bulletin</a> 41 (1990) 245–260; <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fantham" title="Elaine Fantham">Elaine Fantham</a>, "Covering the Head at Rome" Ritual and Gender," in Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 159, citing Richard Oster, "When Men Wore Veils to Worship: The Historical Context of 1 Corinthians 11:4." New Testament Studies 34 (1988): 481-505. The passage has been explained with reference to Jewish and other practices as well. </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236, citing also Michael C.J. Putnam, Horace's Carmen Saeculare (London, 2001), p. 133. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Sarah Iles Johnston, Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide (Harvard University Press, 2004), p. 367. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> J.B. Rives, "Magic in the XII Tables Revisited," Classical Quarterly 52:1 (2002) 288–289. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi, p. 510. </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> s'ista. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> M. Morani"Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38. Another etymology connects it to Vedic s'asti, 'he gives the instruction', and to Avestic saas-tu, 'that he educate': in G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Remarques preliminaires IX </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Vergil, Aeneid, 6.661: "Sacerdotes casti dum vita manebat", in H. Fugier, Recherches... cit. p.18 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> See, for instance, <a href="/wiki/Mola_salsa" title="Mola salsa">mola salsa</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Andrew C. Johnston and Marcello Mogetta, "Debating Early Republican Urbanism in Latium Vetus: The Town Planning of Gabii, between Archaeology and History," Journal of Roman Studies 110 (2020), p. 103 et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods," Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 97 (1995), p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Servius, note to Aeneid 7.612; <a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Larissa Bonfante</a>, "Ritual Dress," p. 185, and Fay Glinister, "Veiled and Unveiled: Uncovering Roman Influence in Hellenistic Italy," p. 197, both in Votives, Places, and Rituals in Etruscan Religion: Studies in Honor of <a href="/wiki/Jean_MacIntosh_Turfa" title="Jean MacIntosh Turfa">Jean MacIntosh Turfa</a> (Brill, 2009). </li> <li id="cite_note-Roman_World_1935,_p._409-89">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_World_1935,_p._409_89-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Roman_World_1935,_p._409_89-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/H.H._Scullard" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Scullard">H.H. Scullard</a>, A History of the Roman World: 753 to 146 BC (Routledge, 1935, 2013), p. 409. </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-catty-91">^ <a href="#cite_ref-catty_91-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-catty_91-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Cato_the_Elder" title="Cato the Elder">Cato</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, commentary on <a href="/wiki/Vergil" class="mw-redirect" title="Vergil">Vergil</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://topostext.org/work/548#5.755">Book 5, §755</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, In Verrem 5.21.53. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>, Carmen 1.35, 17, 18; 3.24, 6, 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Praetor maximus, the chief magistrate with <a href="/wiki/Imperium" title="Imperium">imperium</a>; <a href="/wiki/T._Corey_Brennan" title="T. Corey Brennan">T. Corey Brennan</a>, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, 49 in the edition of <a href="/wiki/Wallace_Lindsay" title="Wallace Lindsay">Wallace Lindsay</a>, says that "the year-nail was so called because it was fixed into the walls of the sacred <a href="#aedes">aedes</a> every year, so that the number of years could be reckoned by means of them". <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=njp.32101077773990&seq=105">[1]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Livy, 7.3; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> Livy, 7.3. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Fasti_Capitolini" title="Fasti Capitolini">Fasti Capitolini</a> record dictatores clavi figendi causa for 363, 331, and 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> H.S. Versnel, Triumphus: An Inquiry into the Origin, Development and Meaning of the Roman Triumph (Brill, 1970), pp. 271–272. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cassius_Dio" title="Cassius Dio">Cassius Dio</a> 55.10.4, as cited by Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 108; Brennan, Praetorship, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> David S. Potter, "Roman Religion: Ideas and Action", in Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire (University of Michigan, 1999), pp. 139–140. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Gellius/15*.html#27">XV 27, 1-3</a>, citing Laelius Felix in reference to M. Antistius Labeo. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 155–165. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 153. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> Botsford, Roman Assemblies, p. 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Botsford, Roman Assemblies, pp. 104, 154. </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> In the Fasti Viae Lanza. </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> As summarized by Jörg Rüpke, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti (Wiley-Blackwell, 2011), pp. 26–27. </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2245, note 387. </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 228–229. </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> Cicero de Div. II 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Festus, book 17, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mverriiflacciqu01flacgoog/page/n327">p. 819.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> Serv. Dan. Aen. I 398 </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Livy, IV 31, 4; VIII 15, 6; XXIII 31, 13; XLI 18, 8. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Moses_Hadas" title="Moses Hadas">Moses Hadas</a>, A History of Latin Literature (Columbia University Press, 1952), p. 15 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QnvOnY6ydngC&dq=%22commentarii+pontificum%22&pg=PA15">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry. Epistles Book II: The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 64 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=loI8AAAAIAAJ&dq=%22commentarii+pontificum%22&pg=PA64">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Cicero, De domo sua 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Wilfried Stroh, "De domo sua: Legal Problem and Structure", in Cicero the Advocate (Oxford University Press, 2004), p. 341. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel" title="Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel">W.S. Teuffel</a>, History of Roman Literature, translated by George C.W. Warr (London, 1900), vol. 1, p. 104 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WgrgAAAAMAAJ&dq=%22commentarii+pontificum%22+inauthor%3Ateuffel&pg=PA104">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985) 207–234, especially p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, Natural History 18.14, in reference to the augurium canarium, a dog sacrifice. Other references include Cicero, Brutus 55 and De domo sua 186; <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 4.3 and 6.1; <a href="/wiki/Quintilian" title="Quintilian">Quintilian</a> 8.2.12, as cited by Teuffel. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Linderski, "The libri reconditi", pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Brink, Horace on Poetry, p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 399 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=oR0LAAAAIAAJ&dq=%22commentarii+pontificum%22&pg=PA399">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), 2231–2233, 2238. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Greek stochasmos (στοχασμός); Tobias Reinhardt, "Rhetoric in the Fourth Academy", Classical Quarterly 50 (2000), p. 534. The Greek equivalent of conicere is symballein, from which English "symbol" derives; François Guillaumont, "Divination et prévision rationelle dans la correspondance de Cicéron," in Epistulae Antiquae: Actes du Ier Colloque "Le genre épistolaire antique et ses prolongements (Université François-Rabelais, Tours, 18-19 septembre 1998) (Peeters, 2002). </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2249 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOe3Fv1UUKoC&dq=ara&pg=RA1-PA2373">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> Cicero, De domo sua 139; F. Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica (Sassari, 1983), p.152 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Cicero. De domo sua 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> J. Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaltung III (Leipzig, 1885), pp. 269 ff.; G. Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer, p.385. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> Cicero, <a href="/wiki/De_Natura_Deorum" title="De Natura Deorum">De Natura Deorum</a> 2.8 and 1.117. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, The Matter of the Gods (University of California Press, 2009), p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Ando, The Matter of the Gods, pp. 5–7; Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 6; James B. Rives, Religion in the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 13, 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Augustine, De Civitate Dei 10.1; Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated218-137">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated218_137-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated218_137-1">b</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The libri reconditi" Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), pp. 218–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> Sabine MacCormack, The Shadows of Poetry: Vergil in the Mind of Augustine (University of California Press, 1998), p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 110. </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> apud Nonius p. 792 L. </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> As recorded by Servius, ad Aen. II 225. </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Festus De verborum significatu s.v. delubrum p. 64 L; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. T. De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a>, Etymologiae 15.4.9; Stephen A. Barney, The Etymologies of Isidore of Seville (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 310 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3ep502syZv8C&dq=delubrum&pg=PA310">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to Aeneid 2.156; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2000), p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> George Willis Botsford, The Roman Assemblies from Their Origin to the End of the Republic (Macmillan, 1909), pp. 161–162. </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> Servius, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 12.139. </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Servius Aen. II 141: "pontifices dicunt singulis actibus proprios deos praeesse, hos Varro certos deos appellat", the pontiffs say that every single action is presided upon by its own deity, these Varro calls certain gods"; A. von Domaszewski, "Dii certi und incerti" in Abhandlungen fuer roemische Religion 1909 pp. 154-170. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion in Republican Rome: Rationalization and Ritual Change (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), p. 183. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> As preserved by Augustine, De Civitate Dei VI 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Livy 8.9; for a brief introduction and English translation of the passage, see <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 157 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xQd82l39KX4C&dq=devotio&pg=PA157">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> Carlos F. Noreña, Imperial Ideals in the Roman West: Representation, Circulation, Power (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 142. </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> C.E.V. Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors: The Panegyrici Latini (University of California Press, 1994), pp. 179–185; Albino Garzetti, From Tiberius To The Antonines (Methuen, 1974), originally published 1960 in Italian), p. 618. Paganism and Christianity, 100-425 C.E.: A Sourcebook edited by <a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacMullen" title="Ramsay MacMullen">Ramsay MacMullen</a> and Eugene N. Lane (Augsburg Fortress, 1992), p. 154; Roger S. Bagnall and <a href="/wiki/Raffaella_Cribiore" title="Raffaella Cribiore">Raffaella Cribiore</a>, Women's Letters from Ancient Egypt 300 BC–AD 800 (University of Michigan Press, 2006), pp. 346–347. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Nixon, In Praise of Later Roman Emperors, p. 182. </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, Saturnalia 1.16.36; <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 28, 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> Vernaclus was buried by his father, Lucius Cassius Tacitus, in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Colonia_Ubii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Colonia Ubii (page does not exist)">Colonia Ubii</a>. Maureen Carroll, Spirits of the Dead: Roman Funerary Commemoration in Western Europe (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 172. </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> M. Golden, "Did the Ancients Care When Their Children Died?" Greece & Rome 35 (1988) 152–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> Christian Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within (Cambridge University Press, 2011), p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> Jens-Uwe Krause, "Children in the Roman Family and Beyond," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 627. </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> Denis Feeney, Caesar's Calendar: Ancient Time and the Beginnings of History, University of California Press (2008) p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, pp. 148–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-Feeney,_p._149-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Feeney,_p._149_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Feeney,_p._149_162-1">b</a> Feeney, Caesar's Calendar, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> Regina Gee, "From Corpse to Ancestor: The Role of Tombside Dining in the Transformation of the Body in Ancient Rome," in The Materiality of Death: Bodies, Burials, Beliefs, Bar International Series 1768 (Oxford, 2008), p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005, 2006), p. 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p. 47. </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> Patricia Cox Miller, "'The Little Blue Flower Is Red': Relics and the Poeticizing of the Body," Journal of Early Christian Studies 8.2 (2000), p. 228. </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <a href="/wiki/H.H._Scullard" class="mw-redirect" title="H.H. Scullard">H.H. Scullard</a>, Festivals and Ceremonies of the Roman Republic (Cornell University Press, 1981), p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, Ad Atticum 4.9.1; <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> 268 in the edition of Lindsay; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2187–2188. </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, The Roman Calendar from Numa to Constantine: Time, History, and the Fasti, translated by David M.B. Richardson (Blackwell, 2011, originally published 1995 in German), pp. 151–152. The Fasti Maffeiani (= <a href="/wiki/Attilio_Degrassi" title="Attilio Degrassi">Degrassi</a>, Inscriptiones Italiae 13.2.72) reads Dies vitios[us] ex s[enatus] c[onsulto], as noted by Rüpke, Kalender und Öffentlichkeit: Die Geschichte der Repräsentation und religiösen Qualifikation von Zeit in Rom (De Gruyter, 1995), p. 436, note 36. The designation is also found in the Fasti Praenestini. </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law," p. 2188. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> Cassius Dio <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#19.3">51.19.3</a>; Linderski, "The Augural Law," pp. 2187–2188. </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, Divus Claudius <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#11.3">11.3</a>, with commentary by Donna W. Hurley, Suetonius: Divus Claudius (Cambridge University Press, 2001), p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 4.453; <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> 69 (edition of Lindsay). </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 178, 182; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2203. </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 59; <a href="/wiki/Georg_Luck" title="Georg Luck">Georg Luck</a>, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ROcBMDUXCMoC&q=dirae">passim</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> The phrase is Druidarum religionem ... dirae immanitatis ("the malevolent inhumanity of the religion of the druids"), where immanitas seems to be the opposite of <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Valerius_Troucillus#Humanitas,_virtus_and_becoming_Roman" title="Gaius Valerius Troucillus">humanitas as also evidenced among the Celts</a>: <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, Claudius 25, in the same passage containing one of the earliest mentions of Christianity as a threat. </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <a href="/wiki/P.A._Brunt" class="mw-redirect" title="P.A. Brunt">P.A. Brunt</a>, Roman Imperial Themes (Oxford University Press, 1990, 2001), p. 485 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=szcwAJG84EsC&dq=dirae&pg=RA1-PA485">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> The phrase is used for instance by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 4.166. </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Rawson" title="Elizabeth Rawson">Elizabeth Rawson</a>, "Caesar, Etruria, and the Disciplina Etrusca", Journal of Roman Studies 68 (1978), p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> Servius, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 5.45, also 12.139. </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> Servius is unclear as to whether <a href="/wiki/Lucius_Ateius_Praetextatus" title="Lucius Ateius Praetextatus">Lucius Ateius Praetextatus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gaius_Ateius_Capito_(jurist)" title="Gaius Ateius Capito (jurist)">Gaius Ateius Capito</a> is meant. </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> David Wardle, "Deus or Divus: The Genesis of Roman Terminology for Deified Emperors and a Philosopher's Contribution", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 181–183. </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 149 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aDlNfUeeuIYC&dq=%22do+ut+des%22&pg=PA149">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Georg_Luck" title="Georg Luck">Georg Luck</a>, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 479 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g7EKsAdHdL4C&dq=%22do+ut+des%22&pg=PA479">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 1953, 2002), p. 414. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> James R. Harrison, Paul's Language of Grace in Its Graeco-Roman Context (C.B. Mohr, 2003), p. 284. See <a href="/wiki/Charites" title="Charites">Charites</a> for the ancient Greek goddesses known as the Graces. </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a>, The Sociology of Religion (Beacon Press, 1963, 1991, originally published in German 1922), p. 82 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=abS61el-VEMC&dq=%22do+ut+des%22&pg=PA82">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim" title="Émile Durkheim">Émile Durkheim</a>, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life (Oxford University Press, 2001 translation), p. 257 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3j5tyWkEZSYC&dq=%22there+is+an+exchange+of+mutually+invigorating+good+deeds%22&pg=PA257">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-190"><a href="#cite_ref-190">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> 146 (edition of Lindsay). </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157. </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> Linderski, "Augural Law," p. 2274. </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> Nicholas Purcell, "On the Sacking of Corinth and Carthage", in Ethics and Rhetoric: Classical Essays for Donald Russell on His Seventy (Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 140–142. </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, pp. 41–42, with the passage from <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a>, 5.21.1–7; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1996, 2001, originally published in French 1992), p. 12; Robert Schilling, "Juno", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p 131. </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremonies in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 30. <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Rawson" title="Elizabeth Rawson">Elizabeth Rawson</a> expresses doubts as to whether the evocatio of 146 BC occurred as such; see "Scipio, Laelius, Furius and the Ancestral Religion", Journal of Roman Studies 63 (1973) 161–174. </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> Evidenced by an inscription dedicated by an <a href="/wiki/Imperator" title="Imperator">imperator</a> Gaius Servilius, probably at the vowed temple; Beard et al., Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook, p. 248. </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> As implied but not explicitly stated by Propertius, Elegy 4.2; Daniel P. Harmon, "Religion in the Latin Elegists", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.3 (1986), pp. 1960–1961. </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Eric Orlin, Foreign Cults in Rome: Creating a Roman Empire (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 37–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 254. </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Momigliano" title="Arnaldo Momigliano">Arnaldo Momigliano</a>, On Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Wesleyan University Press, 1987), p. 178; Greg Woolf, Becoming Roman: The Origins of Provincial Civilization in Gaul (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 214. </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> George Mousourakis, The Historical and Institutional Context of Roman Law (Ashgate, 2003), p. 339 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2MqfUsMiDbYC&dq=evocatio&pg=PA308">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Daniel J. Gargola, Lands, Laws, and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 27; Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2273. </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 184, citing <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 2.351: "Pontifical law advises that unless Roman deities are called by their proper names, they cannot be exaugurated" (et iure pontificum cautum est, ne suis nominibus dii Romani appellarentur, ne exaugurari possint). </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 5.54.7; <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> 3.69.5; <a href="/wiki/J._Rufus_Fears" title="J. Rufus Fears">J. Rufus Fears</a>, "The Cult of Virtues and Roman Imperial Ideology," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.17.2 (1981), p. 848. </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> Clifford Ando, "Exporting Roman Religion," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 442. </li> <li id="cite_note-208"><a href="#cite_ref-208">^</a> Fay Glinister, "Sacred Rubbish," in Religion in Archaic and Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (Edinburgh University Press, 2000), p. 66. </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Fasti sacerdotum: A Prosopography of Pagan, Jewish, and Christian Religious Officials in the City of Rome, 300 BC to AD 499 (Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 530, 753. </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, Saturnalia III 5, 6, quoting a passage from Veranius, De pontificalibus quaestionibus: eximias dictas hostias quae ad sacrificium destinatae eximantur e grege, vel quod eximia specie quasi offerendae numinibus eligantur. </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> F. SiniSua cuique civitati religio Torino 2001 p. 197 </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> Cicero, De divinatione 2.12.29. According to <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a> (Natural History 11.186), before 274 BC the heart was not included among the exta. </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> Robert Schilling, "The Roman Religion", in Historia Religionum: Religions of the Past (Brill, 1969), vol. 1, pp. 471–472, and "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 79; <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003, originally published in French 1998), p. 84. </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 511. </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Juvenal" title="Juvenal">Juvenal</a>, Satire 2.110–114; <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 37.9 and 38.18; Richard M. Crill, "Roman Paganism under the Antonines and Severans," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16.2 (1976), p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> Juvenal, Satire 4.123; Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), pp. 228, 328; John E. Stambaugh, "The Functions of Roman Temples," ANRW II.16.2 (1976), p. 593; Robert Turcan, The Cults of the Roman Empire (Blackwell, 1992, 2001 printing), p. 41. </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> Anonymous author of the <a href="/wiki/Historia_Augusta" title="Historia Augusta">Historia Augusta</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Claudius_Tacitus" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcus Claudius Tacitus">Tacitus</a> 17.1: Fanaticus quidam in Templo Silvani tensis membris exclamavit, as cited by Peter F. Dorcey, The Cult of Silvanus: A Study in Roman Folk Religion (Brill, 1992), p. 90, with some due skepticism toward the source. </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL</a> VI.490, 2232, and 2234, as cited by Stambaugh, "The Function of Roman Temples," p. 593, note 275. </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> Fanaticum agmen, <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a>, Annales 14.30. </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> See for instance <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, De domo sua 105, De divinatione 2.118; and <a href="/wiki/Horace" title="Horace">Horace</a>'s comparison of supposedly inspired poetic frenzy to the fanaticus error of religious mania (Ars Poetica 454); C.O. Brink, Horace on Poetry: Epistles Book II, The Letters to Augustus and Florus (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 357; Marten Stol, Epilepsy in Babylonia (Brill, 1993), p. 121 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Tu-MYstDdvoC&q=%22fanaticus+error%22">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a> Fanatica dicitur arbor fulmine icta, apud Paulus, p. 92M. </li> <li id="cite_note-222"><a href="#cite_ref-222">^</a> Festus s.v. delubrum p. 64 M; G. Colonna "Sacred Architecture and the Religion of the Etruscans" in N. Thomas De Grummond The Religion of the Etruscans 2006 p. 165 n. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> S. 53.1, <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Christianorum" title="Corpus Christianorum">CCSL</a> 103:233–234, as cited by Bernadotte Filotas, Pagan Survivals, Superstitions and Popular Cultures in Early Medieval Pastoral Literature (Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 2005), p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a> "What a thing is that, that when those trees to which people make vows fall, no one carries wood from them home to use on the hearth! Behold the wretchedness and stupidity of mankind: they show honour to a dead tree and despite the commands of the living God; they do not dare to put the branches of a tree into the fire and by an act of sacrilege throw themselves headlong into hell": <a href="/wiki/Caesarius_of_Arles" title="Caesarius of Arles">Caesarius of Arles</a>, S. 54.5, CCSL 103:239, as quoted and discussed by Filotas, Pagan Survivals, p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> As for instance in <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 10.37.15, where he says that the temple of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter_Stator" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter Stator">Jupiter Stator</a>, established by the wartime <a href="#votum">votum</a> of the consul and general <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Atilius_Regulus_(consul_294_BC)" title="Marcus Atilius Regulus (consul 294 BC)">M. Atilius Regulus</a> in the 290s BC, had already been vowed by <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, but had remained only a fanum, a site (locus) delineated by means of verbalized ritual (<a href="#effatio">effatus</a>) for a <a href="/wiki/Templum" class="mw-redirect" title="Templum">templum</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-226"><a href="#cite_ref-226">^</a> Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 150 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&dq=fanum&pg=PA150">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a> Fíísnú is the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> form. </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a> The form fesnaf-e is an <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a> plural with an <a href="/wiki/Enclitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> <a href="/wiki/Postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Postposition">postposition</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space, p. 150. </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> S.P. Oakley, A Commentary on Livy, Books 6–10 (Oxford University Press, 2005), p. 378; Michel P.J. van den Hout, A Commentary on the Letters of M. Cornelius Fronto (Brill, 1999), p. 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> Lawrence Richardson, A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Patrice Méniel, "Fanum and sanctuary," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), pp. 229, 733–734 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&dq=fanum&pg=PA733">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-233"><a href="#cite_ref-233">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.org/places/bourton_grounds.htm">Romano-Celtic Temple Bourton Grounds in Great-Britain</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130216021402/http://www.roman-britain.org/places/bourton_grounds.htm">Archived</a> 2013-02-16 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-temples.htm">Romano-British Temples</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120907120812/http://www.roman-britain.org/romano-british-temples.htm">Archived</a> 2012-09-07 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-234"><a href="#cite_ref-234">^</a> T.F. Hoad, English Etymology, Oxford University Press 1993. p. 372a. </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> Servius, note to Aeneid 2.54; Nicholas Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2: A Commentary (Brill, 2008), p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a> Horsfall, Virgil, Aeneid 2, p. 91. </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> Elisabeth Henry, The Vigour of Prophecy: A Study of Virgil's Aeneid (Southern Illinois University Press, 1989) passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "Founding the City," in Ten Years of the Agnes Kirsopp Lake Michels Lectures at Bryn Mawr College (Bryn Mawr Commentaries, 2006), p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> R.L. Rike, Apex Omnium: Religion in the Res Gestae of Ammianus (University of California Press, 1987), p. 123. </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> Cynthia White, "The Vision of Augustus," <a href="/wiki/Classica_et_Mediaevalia" title="Classica et Mediaevalia">Classica et Mediaevalia</a> 55 (2004), p. 276. </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Rike, Apex Omnium, pp. 122–123. </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, Res gestae 23.1.7, as cited by Rike, Apex Omnium, p. 122, note 57; Sarolta A. Takács, Vestal Virgins, Sibyls, and Matrons: Women in Roman Religion (University of Texas Press, 2008), p. 68. </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> See <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a> et al., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 370 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2rtaTFYuM3QC&dq=fas&pg=PA370">online</a>, in a Christianized context with reference to <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Constantine I</a>'s AD 314 address of the <a href="/wiki/Donatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Donatist">Donatist</a> dispute. </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Robert Schilling, "Roman Festivals," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 92. So too R. Orestano, "Dal ius al fas," Bullettino dell'Istituto di diritto romano 46 (1939), p. 244 ff., and I fatti di normazione nell 'esperienza romana arcaica (Turin 1967), p.106 ff.; A. Guarino, L'ordinamento giuridico romano (Naples 1980), p. 93; J. Paoli, Le monde juridique du paganisme romain p. 5; P. Catalano, Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale (Turin 1960), pp. 23 ff., 326 n. 10; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Rome 1955), p. 25; B. Albanese, Premesse allo studio del diritto privat romano (Palermo 1978), p.127. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Valerie M. Warrior, Roman Religion, Cambridge University Press, 2006, p.160 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=15eoNRxOrN8C&dq=fas&pg=PA160-IA4">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Michael Lipka, Roman Gods: A Conceptual Approach (Brill, 2009), p.113 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1zGZQnqWH2MC&dq=%22The+basic+parameter+for+the+decision+whether+a+ritual+focus%22&pg=PA113">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Vergil, Georgics 1.269, with <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>'s note: "divina humanaque iura permittunt: nam ad religionem fas, ad hominem iura pertinunt". See also Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome: Religion in Everyday Life from Archaic to Imperial Times (Routledge, 2000), p.5 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6IAsHrDuSAwC&q=%20fas&pg=PR5">online.</a> and discussion of the relationship between fas and ius from multiple scholarly perspectives by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2203–04 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOe3Fv1UUKoC&dq=fas&pg=PA2203">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-249"><a href="#cite_ref-249">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Latin_Dictionary" title="Oxford Latin Dictionary">Oxford Latin Dictionary</a> (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), entry on fas p. 676, considers the etymology dubious but leans toward for, fari. The Indo-Europeanist <a href="/wiki/Emile_Benveniste" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Benveniste">Emile Benveniste</a> derives fas, as a form of divine speech, from the IE root *bhā (as cited by Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 93, note 4). </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Varro, De Lingua Latina, 6.29, because on dies fasti the courts are in session and political speech may be practiced freely. <a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> pursues the connection between the dies fasti and permissible speech (fas est) in his calendrical poem the <a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a>; see discussion by Carole E. Newlands, Playing with Time: Ovid and the Fasti (Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, 1995), p. 175 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/playingwithtimeo00newl">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dum%C3%A9zil" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumézil">Dumézil</a> holds that fas derives from the IE root *dhē (as noted by Schilling, Roman and European Mythologies, p. 93, note 4). One ancient tradition associated the etymology of fas with that of <a href="/wiki/Themis" title="Themis">Themis</a> as the "establisher". See Paulus, epitome of Festus, p. 505 (edition of Lindsay); <a href="/wiki/Ausonius" title="Ausonius">Ausonius</a>, Technopaegnion 8, and de diis 1. For the scholarship, see U. Coli, "Regnum" in Studia et documenta historiae et iuris 17 1951; C. Ferrini "Fas" in Nuovo Digesto Italiano p. 918; C. Gioffredi, Diritto e processo nelle antiche forme giuridiche romane (Roma 1955) p. 25 n.1; H. Fugier, Recherches sur l' expression du sacre' dans la langue latine (Paris 1963), pp. 142 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974), p. 144. </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris, 1963 </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv felicity, feminine </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06043a.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia: Feria"</a>. Newadvent.org. 1909-09-01. Retrieved 2022-08-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia%3A+Feria&rft.pub=Newadvent.org&rft.date=1909-09-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F06043a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris 1974 part IV chapt. 2; Camillus: a study of Indo-European religion as Roman history (University of California Press, 1980), p. 214 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GLVpSyzhto0C&q=profesti">online</a>, citing <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, Saturnalia <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/1*.html#16">1.16.2.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Livy I.18.9; Varro, De lingua latina V.143, VI.153, VII.8-9; Aulus Gellius <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/13*.html#14">XIII.14.1</a> (on the <a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">pomerium</a>); Festus p. 488 L, tesca. </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> Joseph Rykwert, The Idea of a Town: The Anthropology of Urban Form in Rome, Italy and the Ancient World (MIT Press, 1988, originally published 1976), pp. 106–107, 126–127; Wissowa, Religion und Kultus der Römer (Munich 1912) 2nd pp. 136 ff.; G. Dumezil, La religion romaine archaique (Paris 1974) 2nd, pp. 210 ff.; Varro, De lingua latina V.21; Isidore, Origines XV.14.3; Paulus, Fest. epit. p. 505 L; Ovid, Fasti II 639 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-google159-258"><a href="#cite_ref-google159_258-0">^</a> Discussion and citation of ancient sources by Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp. 159–160 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yPUDE65WEMoC&dq=victima+hostis+OR+hostia&pg=PA159">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Servius, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 1.334. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> Hostibus a domitis hostia nomen habet ("the hostia gets its name from the 'hostiles' that have been defeated"), Ovid, <a href="/wiki/Fasti_(Ovid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasti (Ovid)">Fasti</a> 1.336; victima quae dextra cecidit victrice vocatur ("the victim which is killed by the victor's right hand is named [from that act]"), 1.335. </li> <li id="cite_note-Char403.38-261">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Char403.38_261-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Char403.38_261-1">b</a> Char. 403.38. </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 5-7; Varro Ling. Lat. V </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> Macrobius Sat. VI 9, 7; Festus s.v. bidentes p.33 M </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> Macrobius, Saturnalia III 5, 1 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> Nathan Rosenstein, Imperatores Victi: Military Defeat and Aristocratic Competition in the Middle and Late Republic (University of California Press, 1990), p. 64. </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a> Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 9. </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a> Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> Veranius, Iur. 7: praesentanaea porca dicitur ... quae familiae purgandae causa Cereris immolatur, quod pars quaedam eius sacrificii fit in conspectu mortui eius, cuius funus instituitur. </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> Aulus Gellius Noctes Atticae IV 6, 3-10 for hostia succidanea and praecidanea; also Festus p. 250 L. s. v. praecidanea hostia; Festus p. 298 L. s.v. praesentanea hostia. Gellius's passage implies a conceptual connexion between the hostia praecidanea and the feriae succidaneae, though this is not explicated. Scholarly interpretations thus differ on what the feriae praecidaneae were: cf. A. Bouché-Leclercq Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines III Paris 1898 s. v Inauguratio p. 440 and n. 1; G. Wissowa Religion und Kultus der Römer München 1912 p.438 f.; L. Schmitz in W. Smith A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities London 1875 s. v. feriae; P. Catalano Contributi allo studio del diritto augurale Torino 1960 p. 352. </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, De legibus ii 8,20; <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Halicarnassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysius Halicarnassus">Dionysius Halicarnassus</a> II 22,3. </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> XXVII 36, 5; XL 42, 8-10; <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> XV 17, 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a> Gaius I 130; III 114; Livy XXVII 8,4; XLI 28, 7; XXXVII 47, 8; XXIX 38, 6;XLV 15,19; <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a> II 13, 11; </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Cicero, Brutus 1; Livy XXVII 36, 5; XXX 26, 10; Dionysius Halicarnassus II 73, 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a> William Warde Fowler, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 89. </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> In particular, Book 14 of the non-extant Antiquitates <a href="/wiki/Res_divina" title="Res divina">rerum divinarum</a>; see Lipka, Roman Gods, pp. 69–70. </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> W.R. Johnson, "The Return of <a href="/wiki/Mutunus_Tutunus" title="Mutunus Tutunus">Tutunus</a>", Arethusa (1992) 173–179; Fowler, Religious Experience, p. 163. Wissowa, however, asserted that Varro's lists were not indigitamenta, but di certi, gods whose function could still be identified with certainty; Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics (unknown ed.), vol. 13, p. 218. See also <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Latte" title="Kurt Latte">Kurt Latte</a>, Roemische Religionsgeschichte (Munich, 1960), pp. 44-45. </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>, Div. inst. 1.6.7; <a href="/wiki/Censorinus" title="Censorinus">Censorinus</a> 3.2; <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Momigliano" title="Arnaldo Momigliano">Arnaldo Momigliano</a>, "The Theological Efforts of the Roman Upper Classes in the First Century B.C.", Classical Philology 79 (1984), p. 210. </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi: Magic and the Occult in the Greek and Roman Worlds (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006, 2nd ed.), p. 513. </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), pp. 44–45; Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 240; Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Shared Beliefs", in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 279. </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> The vocative is the grammatical case used only for "calling" or invoking, that is, hailing or addressing someone <a href="/wiki/Parataxis_(grammar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parataxis (grammar)">paratactically</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> Gábor Betegh, The Derveni Papyrus: Cosmology, Theology and Interpretation (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2253 </li> <li id="cite_note-283"><a href="#cite_ref-283">^</a> Luck, Arcana Mundi, pp. 497, 498. </li> <li id="cite_note-284"><a href="#cite_ref-284">^</a> Pausanias gave specific examples in regard to <a href="/wiki/Poseidon" title="Poseidon">Poseidon</a> (7.21.7); Claude Calame, "The Homeric Hymns as Poetic Offerings: Musical and Ritual Relationships with the Gods," in The Homeric Hymns: Interpretive Essays (Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 338. </li> <li id="cite_note-285"><a href="#cite_ref-285">^</a> A. Berger Encyclopedical Dictionary of Roman Law Philadelphia 1968 sv. ius </li> <li id="cite_note-286"><a href="#cite_ref-286">^</a> Inst. 2, 2 ap. Dig. 1, 8, 1: Summa itaque rerum divisio in duos articulos diducitur: nam aliae sunt divini iuris, aliae humani, 'thus the highest division of things is reduced into two articles：some belong to divine right, some to human right'. </li> <li id="cite_note-287"><a href="#cite_ref-287">^</a> F.Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 110 </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> In Festus: ...iudex atque arbiter habetur rerum divinarum humanarumque: 'he is considered to be the judge and arbiter of things divine and human'... his authority stems from his regal (originally king Numa's) investiture. F. Sini Bellum nefandum Sassari 1991 p. 108 ff. R. Orestano Dal ius al fas p.201. </li> <li id="cite_note-289"><a href="#cite_ref-289">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a> Libr. I regularum ap. <a href="/wiki/Digest_(Roman_law)" title="Digest (Roman law)">Digesta</a> 1, 1, 10, 2: Iuris prudentia est divinarum atque humanrum rerum notitia, iusti atque iniusti scientia </li> <li id="cite_note-290"><a href="#cite_ref-290">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 130, citing <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a>, Institutes 2.1–9. </li> <li id="cite_note-292"><a href="#cite_ref-292">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 122ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> A. J. B. Sirks, "Sacra, Succession and the lex Voconia," Latomus 53:2 (1994), p. 273, </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), p. 214, citing De domo sua 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> The book was less likely by the more famous historian <a href="/wiki/Fabius_Pictor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fabius Pictor">Fabius Pictor</a> (3rd century BC) who wrote in Greek; Meghan J. DiLuzio, A Place at the Altar: Priestess in Republica Rome (Princeton University Press, 2016), p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> Kirk Summers, "Lucretius' Roman Cybele," in Cybele, Attis and Related Cults: Essays in Memory of M.J. Vermaseren (1996), pp. 342–345. </li> <li id="cite_note-297"><a href="#cite_ref-297">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Fantham" title="Elaine Fantham">Elaine Fantham</a>, Ovid: Fasti Book IV. (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 117. </li> <li id="cite_note-298"><a href="#cite_ref-298">^</a> W.W. Skeat, Etymological dictionary of the English Language entries on legal, legion, diligent, negligent, religion. </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> For example in Livy, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab Urbe Condita</a>, 1.24.7, Jupiter is called on to hear the oath. </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> Serv. in Aen. III, 89: legum here is understood as the uttering of a set of fixed, binding conditions. </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> M. Morani "Lat. 'sacer'..." Aevum LV 1981 p. 38 n.22 </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> For example, those dated to 58 BC, relating to the temple of Jupiter Liber at Furfo: CIL IX 3513 </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> G. Dumezil la religion romaine archaic Paris, 1974. </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> P. Noailles RH 19/20 (1940/41) 1, 27 ff; A. Magdelain De la royauté et du droit des Romaines (Rome, 1995) chap. II, III </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> Paul Veyne, The Roman Empire (Harvard University Press, 1987), p. 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-306"><a href="#cite_ref-306">^</a> H.S. Versnel, Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), pp. 62–63. </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2156–2157, 2248. </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica Sassari, 1983; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973; E. Peruzzi Origini di Roma II </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> Francesco Sini, Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica. I. Libri e documenti Sassari, 1983, IV, 10, p. 175 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> Cicero, De Legibus ("On Laws"), 2, 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> M. Van Den Bruwaene, "Precison sur la loi religieuse du de leg. II, 19-22 de Ciceron" in Helikon 1 (1961) p.89. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> F. Sini Documenti sacerdotali di Roma antica I. Libri e commentari Sassari 1983 p. 22; S. Tondo Leges regiae e paricidas Firenze, 1973, p.20-21; R. Besnier "Le archives privees publiques et religieuses a' Rome au temps des rois" in Studi Albertario II Milano 1953 pp.1 ff.; L. Bickel "Lehrbuch der Geschichte der roemischen Literatur" p. 303; G. J. Szemler The priests of the Roman Republic Bruxelles 1972. </li> <li id="cite_note-313"><a href="#cite_ref-313">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 149–150. </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> Livy 41.14–15. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-315">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_315-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_315-1">b</a> Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 79 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Uf2_kHAs22sC&dq=porricere&pg=PA79">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Paulus Festi epitome p. 57 L s.v. capitalis lucus </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerger1953" class="citation book cs1">Berger, Adolf (1953). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iklePELtR6QC&dq=Leges+sacratae&pg=PA546">Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law</a>. Transactions of The American Philosophical Society. Vol. 43. <a href="/wiki/Philadelphia" title="Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a>: The American Philosophical Society. p. 546. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1584771429" title="Special:BookSources/1584771429"><bdi>1584771429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedic+Dictionary+of+Roman+Law&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.series=Transactions+of+The+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.pages=546&rft.pub=The+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.date=1953&rft.isbn=1584771429&rft.aulast=Berger&rft.aufirst=Adolf&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiklePELtR6QC%26dq%3DLeges%2Bsacratae%26pg%3DPA546&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGlossary+of+ancient+Roman+religion" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL</a> I 2nd 366; XI 4766; CIL I2 401, IX 782; R. Del Ponte, "Santità delle mura e sanzione divina" in Diritto e Storia 3 2004. </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> W.W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1973 s.v. lustration </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Stefan Weinstock, "Libri fulgurales," Papers of the British School at Rome 19 (1951), p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> Weinstock, p. 125. </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Seneca_the_Younger" title="Seneca the Younger">Seneca</a>, Naturales Questiones 2.41.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, "The Doctrine and Sacred Books of the Disciplina Etrusca," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> According to Seneca, NQ 2.41.1. See also <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a> p. 219M = 114 edition of Lindsay; entry on peremptalia fulgura, p. 236 in the 1997 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_Ugb6woUJLoC&dq=manubia+OR+manubiae&pg=PA236">Teubner edition</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, Natural History 2.138; and <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 1.42, as cited and discussed by Weinstock, p. 125ff. Noted also by Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint, originally published 1883), p. 845, note 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books," p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-326"><a href="#cite_ref-326">^</a> Weinstock, p. 127. See also The Religion of the Etruscans, pp. 40–41, where an identification of the dii involuti with the Favores Opertaneii ("Secret Gods of Favor") referred to by <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a> is proposed. </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Georges_Dum%C3%A9zil" title="Georges Dumézil">Georges Dumézil</a>, La religion romaine archaïque (Paris 1974), pp. 630 and 633 (note 3), drawing on Seneca, NQ 2.41.1–2 and 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-328"><a href="#cite_ref-328">^</a> Pallottino, "Doctrine and Sacred Books", pp. 43–44. </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité: Divination hellénique et divination italique (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint), p. 873; <a href="/wiki/T.P._Wiseman" class="mw-redirect" title="T.P. Wiseman">T.P. Wiseman</a>, "History, Poetry, and Annales", in Clio and the Poets: Augustan Poetry and the Traditions of Ancient Historiography (Brill, 2002), p. 359 "awe and amazement are the result, not the cause, of the miraculum. </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> Livy 1.39. </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> George Williamson, "Mucianus and a Touch of the Miraculous: Pilgrimage and Tourism in Roman Asia Minor", in Seeing the Gods: Pilgrimage in Graeco-Roman and Early Christian Antiquity (Oxford University Press, 2005, 2007), p. 245 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FPy2voYIeZ8C&q=miracula&pg=PA245">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> Ariadne Staples, From Good Goddess to Vestal Virgins: Sex and Category in Roman Religion (Routledge, 1998), pp. 154–155. </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> Servius, note to Eclogue 8.82: </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> Fernando Navarro Antolín, Lygdamus. Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6: Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), pp. 272–272 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZKGO1swPh84C&dq=%22mola+salsa%22&pg=PA273">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 102. </li> <li id="cite_note-336"><a href="#cite_ref-336">^</a> Varro as recorded by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 3.336, cited by Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TSpRlugE_7oC&dq=monstrum&pg=PA330">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-337"><a href="#cite_ref-337">^</a> Philip R. Hardie, Virgil: Aeneid, Book IX (Cambridge University Press, 1994, reprinted 2000), p. 97. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> Mary Beagon, "Beyond Comparison: M. Sergius, Fortunae victor", in Philosophy and Power in the Graeco-Roman World: Essays in Honour of Miriam Griffin (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated330-339">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated330_339-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated330_339-1">b</a> As cited by Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330. </li> <li id="cite_note-340"><a href="#cite_ref-340">^</a> Beagon, "Beyond Comparison", in Philosophy and Power, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-341"><a href="#cite_ref-341">^</a> Michèle Lowrie, Horace's Narrative Odes (Oxford University Press, 1997), pp. 151–154. </li> <li id="cite_note-342"><a href="#cite_ref-342">^</a> Cicero, In Catilinam 2.1. </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> Gregory A. Staley, Seneca and the Idea of Tragedy (Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 80, 96, 109, 113 et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> L. Banti; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaïque Paris 1974, It. tr. p. 482-3. </li> <li id="cite_note-345"><a href="#cite_ref-345">^</a> M. Humm, "Le mundus et le Comitium : représentations symboliques de l'espace de la cité," Histoire urbaine, 2, 10, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cairn.info/revue-histoire-urbaine-2004-2-page-43.htm">French language, full preview.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-346"><a href="#cite_ref-346">^</a> Dies religiosi were marked by the gods as inauspicious, so in theory, no official work should have been done, but it was not a legally binding religious the rule. G. Dumézil above. </li> <li id="cite_note-347"><a href="#cite_ref-347">^</a> Festus p. 261 L2, citing <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Porcius_Cato_Licinianus" title="Marcus Porcius Cato Licinianus">Cato</a>'s commentaries on civil law. An inscription at <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a> names a sacerdos Cerialis mundalis (CIL X 3926). For the connection between deities of agriculture and the underworld, see W. Warde Fowler, "Mundus Patet" in Journal of Roman Studies, 2, (1912), pp. 25–33 </li> <li id="cite_note-348"><a href="#cite_ref-348">^</a> A. Guarino L'ordinamento giuridico romano Napoli, 1980, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-349"><a href="#cite_ref-349">^</a> Olga Tellegen-Couperus, A Short History of Roman Law, Routledge, 1993. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07250-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-07250-2">978-0-415-07250-2</a> pp17-18. </li> <li id="cite_note-350"><a href="#cite_ref-350">^</a> Festus p. 424 L: At homo sacer is est, quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum immolari, sed qui occidit, parricidi non damnatur. </li> <li id="cite_note-351"><a href="#cite_ref-351">^</a> Livy, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab Urbe Condita</a>, 4.3.9. </li> <li id="cite_note-352"><a href="#cite_ref-352">^</a> Paul Roche, Lucan: De Bello Civili, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-353"><a href="#cite_ref-353">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 1.310, arborum multitudo cum <a href="#religio">religione</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-354"><a href="#cite_ref-354">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007), p. 275, noting that he finds Servius's distinction "artificial." </li> <li id="cite_note-355"><a href="#cite_ref-355">^</a> Fernando Navarro Antolin, Lygdamus: Corpus Tibullianum III.1–6, Lygdami Elegiarum Liber (Brill, 1996), p. 127–128. </li> <li id="cite_note-356"><a href="#cite_ref-356">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a>, 4.64.17, as cited by Robert Schilling, "Anna Perenna," Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 112. </li> <li id="cite_note-357"><a href="#cite_ref-357">^</a> Stephen L. Dyson, Rome: A Living Portrait of an Ancient City (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2010), p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-358"><a href="#cite_ref-358">^</a> Jerzy Linderski, "The Augural Law," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2159–2160, 2168, et passim. </li> <li id="cite_note-359">'<a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> S.W. Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VLzRD9tnaaAC&dq=nuntiatio&pg=PA163">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-360"><a href="#cite_ref-360">^</a> W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune: Publius Clodius Pulcher (University of North Carolina Press, 1999) p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-361"><a href="#cite_ref-361">^</a> Beard, M., Price, S., North, J., Religions of Rome: Volume 1, a History, illustrated, Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp 109-10. </li> <li id="cite_note-362"><a href="#cite_ref-362">^</a> J.P.V.D. Balsdon, "Roman History, 58–56 B.C.: Three Ciceronian Problems", Journal of Roman Studies 47 (1957) 16–16. </li> <li id="cite_note-363"><a href="#cite_ref-363">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232–2234, 2237–2241. </li> <li id="cite_note-364"><a href="#cite_ref-364">^</a> The etymology is debated. The older Latin form is osmen", which may have meant "an utterance"; see W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language sv omen New York 1963. It has also been connected to an ancient Hittite exclamation ha ("it's true"); see R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite' - Rome Paris 1968; It. tr. Rome 1978 p. 74, and E. Benveniste "Hittite et Indo-Europeen. Etudes comparatives" in Bibl. arch. et hist. de l'Institut francais a, Arch. de Stambul V, 1962, p.10. </li> <li id="cite_note-365"><a href="#cite_ref-365">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The libri reconditi", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 89 (1985), p. 231–232. </li> <li id="cite_note-366"><a href="#cite_ref-366">^</a> Both are mentioned by <a href="/wiki/Macrobius" title="Macrobius">Macrobius</a>, Saturnalia <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/3*.html#20">3.20.3</a> and 3.7.2; Nancy Thomson de Grummond, "Introduction: The History of the Study of Etruscan Religion", in The Religion of the Etruscans (University of Texas Press, 2006), p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-367"><a href="#cite_ref-367">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder" title="Pliny the Elder">Pliny</a>, Natural History 10.6–42. </li> <li id="cite_note-368"><a href="#cite_ref-368">^</a> Ex Tarquitianis libris in titulo "de rebus divinis": <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> XXV 27. </li> <li id="cite_note-369"><a href="#cite_ref-369">^</a> Robert Schilling, "The Disciplina Etrusca", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-370"><a href="#cite_ref-370">^</a> Varro quoted by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 3.336, as cited by David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 330 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TSpRlugE_7oC&dq=monstrum&pg=PA330">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-371"><a href="#cite_ref-371">^</a> Wardle, Cicero on Divination, p. 330; Auguste Bouché-Leclerq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité (Jérôme Millon, 2003, originally published 1882), pp. 873–874 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=L8gUAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22C%27est+une+entreprise+vaine+que+de+chercher%22&pg=PA77">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-372"><a href="#cite_ref-372">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2150 and 2230–2232; see Cicero, De Divinatione, 1.72 and 2.49. </li> <li id="cite_note-373"><a href="#cite_ref-373">^</a> Festus rationalises the order: the rex is "the most powerful" of priests, the Flamen Dialis is "sacerdos of the entire universe", the Flamen Martialis represents Mars as the parent of Rome's founder <a href="/wiki/Romulus" title="Romulus">Romulus</a>, and the Flamen Quirinalis represents the Roman principle of shared sovereignty. The Pontifex Maximus "is considered the judge and arbiter of things both divine and human": Festus, p. 198-200 L </li> <li id="cite_note-374"><a href="#cite_ref-374">^</a> H.S. Versnel, Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Religion: Transition and Reversal in Myth and Ritual (Brill, 1993, 1994), p. 158, especially note 104. </li> <li id="cite_note-375"><a href="#cite_ref-375">^</a> De lingua latina 7.37. </li> <li id="cite_note-376"><a href="#cite_ref-376">^</a> Festus, p. 291 L, citing Veranius (1826 edition of Dacier, p. 1084 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dypMAAAAYAAJ&q=paludamenta">online</a>); R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco," Diritto e Storia 4 (2005).<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.dirittoestoria.it/4/Tradizione-Romana/Del-Ponte-Documenti-sacerdotali-Veranio-Granio-Flacco.htm">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-377"><a href="#cite_ref-377">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "Q. Scipio Imperator," in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 168; Jonathan Edmondson and Alison Keith, Roman Dress and the Fabrics of Roman Culture (University of Toronto Press, 2008), p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-378"><a href="#cite_ref-378">^</a> Fred K. Drogula, "Imperium, potestas and the pomerium in the Roman Republic," Historia 56.4 (2007), pp. 436–437. </li> <li id="cite_note-379"><a href="#cite_ref-379">^</a> Christoph F. Konrad, "Vellere signa," in Augusto augurio: rerum humanarum et divinarum commentationes in honorem Jerzy Linderski (Franz Steiner, 2004), p. 181; see Cicero, Second Verrine 5.34; Livy 21.63.9 and 41.39.11. </li> <li id="cite_note-380"><a href="#cite_ref-380">^</a> Festus 439L, as cited by Versnel, Inconsistencies, p. 158 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kWU33X4gPmUC&dq=%22the+so-called+Saliae+virgines%22&pg=PA158">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order (Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005), p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-382"><a href="#cite_ref-382">^</a> The noun derives from the past participle of pacisci to agree, to come to an agreement, allied to pactus, past participle of verb pangere to fasten or tie. Compare Sanskrit pac to bind, and Greek peegnumi, I fasten: W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language s.v. peace, pact </li> <li id="cite_note-383"><a href="#cite_ref-383">^</a> As in Plautus, Mercator 678; Lucretius, De rerum natura V, 1227; Livy III 5, 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-384"><a href="#cite_ref-384">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 81 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fcsynr0fQIoC&dq=piaculum&pg=PA81">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-385"><a href="#cite_ref-385">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 191. </li> <li id="cite_note-386"><a href="#cite_ref-386">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_E.A._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E.A. Palmer">Robert E.A. Palmer</a>, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464 L, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), p. 99, note 129 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wEtE8c1jGY4C&dq=piaculum&pg=PA99">online</a>; Roger D. Woodard, Indo-European Sacred Space: Vedic and Roman Cult (University of Illinois Press, 2006), p. 122 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EB4fB0inNYEC&dq=piaculum&pg=PA122">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-387"><a href="#cite_ref-387">^</a> Livy 8.9.1–11. </li> <li id="cite_note-388"><a href="#cite_ref-388">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Volscian_language" title="Volscian language">Volscian</a>, pihom estu; <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a>, pihaz (a <a href="/wiki/Past_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Past participle">past participle</a> equivalent to Latin piatum); and <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a>, pehed; from the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> root *q(u)ei-. Compare <a href="/wiki/Sanskrit" title="Sanskrit">Sanskrit</a> cayati. See M. Morani "Latino sacer..." in Aevum LV 1981 pp. 30-46. Pius may derive from <a href="/wiki/Umbrian_language" title="Umbrian language">Umbrian</a> and thus appear with a p instead of a q; some Indo-European languages resolved the original <a href="/wiki/Velar" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">velar</a> k(h) into the <a href="/wiki/Voiceless" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> <a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">labial</a> p, as did <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Greek</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a>. Umbrian is one of such languages although it preserved the velar before a u. In <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italic">Proto-Italic</a> it has given ii with a long first i as in pii-: cfr. G. L. Bakkum The Latin Dialect of the Ager Faliscus: 150 Years of Scholarship p. 57 n. 34 quoting Meiser 1986 pp.37-38. </li> <li id="cite_note-389"><a href="#cite_ref-389">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 462. </li> <li id="cite_note-390"><a href="#cite_ref-390">^</a> Gerard Mussies, "Cascelia's Prayer," in La Soteriologia dei culti orientali nell' impero romano (Brill, 1982), p. 160. </li> <li id="cite_note-391"><a href="#cite_ref-391">^</a> Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Horace and Vergil," in Studies in Roman Literature, Culture and Religion (Brill, 1956), pp. 82–83. </li> <li id="cite_note-392"><a href="#cite_ref-392">^</a> M. Morani "Latino Sacer..." In Aevum 1981 LV. </li> <li id="cite_note-393"><a href="#cite_ref-393">^</a> Varro Lingua Latina V 15, 83; G. Bonfante "Tracce di terminologia palafitticola nel vocabolario latino?" Atti dell' Istituto Veneto di Scienze, Lettere e Arti 97 (1937: 53-70) </li> <li id="cite_note-394"><a href="#cite_ref-394">^</a> K. Latte Römische Religionsgeschichte, Munich 1960 p. 400-1; H. Fugier Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine Paris 1963 pp.161-172. </li> <li id="cite_note-395"><a href="#cite_ref-395">^</a> First proposed by F. Ribezzo in "Pontifices 'quinionalis sacrificii effectores', Rivista indo-greco-italica di Filologia-Lingua-Antichità 15 1931 p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-396"><a href="#cite_ref-396">^</a> For a review of the proposed hypotheses cfr. J. P. Hallet "Over Troubled Waters: The Meaning of the Title Pontifex" in Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 101 1970 p. 219 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated332-397"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated332_397-0">^</a> Marietta Horster, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 332–334. </li> <li id="cite_note-398"><a href="#cite_ref-398">^</a> Macrobius, Saturnalia III 2, 3- 4: R. Del Ponte, "Documenti sacerdotali in Veranio e Granio Flacco" in Diritto estoria, 4, 2005. </li> <li id="cite_note-399"><a href="#cite_ref-399">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2232, 2247. </li> <li id="cite_note-400"><a href="#cite_ref-400">^</a> Claude Moussy, "Signa et portenta", in Donum grammaticum: Studies in Latin and Celtic Linguistics in Honour of Hannah Rosén (Peeters, 2002), p. 269 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LJZ-SYBvQekC&dq=portentum&pg=PA269">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-401"><a href="#cite_ref-401">^</a> Pliny, Natural History 11.272, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/11*.html#272">Latin text</a> at <a href="/wiki/LacusCurtius" title="LacusCurtius">LacusCurtius</a>; Mary Beagon, Roman Nature: The Thought of Pliny the Elder (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 146. </li> <li id="cite_note-402"><a href="#cite_ref-402">^</a> Varro's passage is preserved by <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> 3.336, as cited by David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 330 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TSpRlugE_7oC&dq=monstrum&pg=PA330">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-403"><a href="#cite_ref-403">^</a> Auguste Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l'antiquité: Divination hellénique et divination italique (Jérôme Millon, 2003 reprint), pp. 873–874. </li> <li id="cite_note-404"><a href="#cite_ref-404">^</a> Blandine Cuny-Le Callet, Rome et ses monstres: Naissance d'un concept philosophique et rhétorique (Jérôme Millon, 2005), p. 48, with reference to Fronto. </li> <li id="cite_note-405"><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a> For instance, Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981), pp. 43 and 98. Despite its title, S.W. Rasmussen's Public Portents in Republican Rome (L'Erma, Bretschneider, 2003) does not distinguish among prodigium, <a href="#omen">omen</a>, portentum and ostentum (p. 15, note 9). </li> <li id="cite_note-406"><a href="#cite_ref-406">^</a> Augustine, De civitate Dei 21.8: Portentum ergo fit non contra naturam, sed contra quam est nota natura ("therefore a portent does not occur contrary to nature, but contrary to what is known of nature"). See Michael W. Herren and Shirley Ann Brown, Christ in Celtic Christianity (Boydell Press, 2002), p. 163. </li> <li id="cite_note-407"><a href="#cite_ref-407">^</a> Pliny, Natural History 28.11, as cited by Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999), p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-408"><a href="#cite_ref-408">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2246. </li> <li id="cite_note-409"><a href="#cite_ref-409">^</a> A.A. Barb, "Animula Vagula Blandula ... Notes on Jingles, Nursery-Rhymes and Charms with an Excursus on Noththe's Sisters", Folklore 61 (1950), p. 23; Maarten J. Vermaseren and Carel C. van Essen, The Excavations in the Mithraeum of the Church of Santa Prisca on the Aventine (Brill, 1965), pp. 188–191. </li> <li id="cite_note-410"><a href="#cite_ref-410">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Siegmund_Teuffel" title="Wilhelm Siegmund Teuffel">W.S. Teuffel</a>, History of Roman Literature (London, 1900, translation of the 5th German edition), vol. 1, p. 547. </li> <li id="cite_note-411"><a href="#cite_ref-411">^</a> Pliny, Natural History 28.19, as cited by Nicole Belayche, "Religious Actors in Daily Life", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 287. </li> <li id="cite_note-412"><a href="#cite_ref-412">^</a> Linderski, "The Augural Law", pp. 2252–2256. </li> <li id="cite_note-413"><a href="#cite_ref-413">^</a> Steven M. Cerutti, Cicero's Accretive Style: Rhetorical Strategies in the Exordia of the Judicial Speeches (University Press of America, 1996), passim; Jill Harries, Law and Empire in Late Antiquity (Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-414"><a href="#cite_ref-414">^</a> Fritz Graf, "Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual", in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 189. </li> <li id="cite_note-415"><a href="#cite_ref-415">^</a> Robert Schilling, "Roman Sacrifice", Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 77. </li> <li id="cite_note-416"><a href="#cite_ref-416">^</a> Georg Luck, Arcana Mundi (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1985, 2006), p. 515. </li> <li id="cite_note-417"><a href="#cite_ref-417">^</a> Dirae is used by <a href="/wiki/Tacitus" title="Tacitus">Tacitus</a> (Annales 14.30) to describe the preces uttered by the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druids</a> against the Romans at Anglesey. </li> <li id="cite_note-418"><a href="#cite_ref-418">^</a> As in <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>, De rerum natura 5.1229. According to <a href="/wiki/Emile_Benveniste" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Benveniste">Emile Benveniste</a> (Le vocabulaire, p. 404) quaeso would mean "I use the appropriate means to obtain"; in the interpretation of Morani,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] quaeso means "I wish to obtain, try and obtain", while precor designates the utterance of the adequate words to achieve one's aim. </li> <li id="cite_note-419"><a href="#cite_ref-419">^</a> Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 648; Detlef Liebs, "Roman Law", in The Cambridge Ancient History. Late Antiquity: Empire and Successors, A.D. 425-600 (Cambridge University Press, 2000), vol. 15, p. 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-420"><a href="#cite_ref-420">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Lintott" title="Andrew Lintott">Andrew Lintott</a>, The Constitution of the Roman Republic (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999, reprinted 2002), p. 103 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yaFPohP2lB8C&dq=%22auspicia+oblativa%22+inauthor%3Alintott&pg=PA103">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-421"><a href="#cite_ref-421">^</a> Orlin, in Rüpke (ed), 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-422"><a href="#cite_ref-422">^</a> R. Bloch ibidem p. 96 </li> <li id="cite_note-423"><a href="#cite_ref-423">^</a> Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-424"><a href="#cite_ref-424">^</a> Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8: the task fell to the <a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">haruspex</a>, who set the child to drown in the sea. The survival of such a child for four years after birth would have been regarded as extreme dereliction of religious duty. </li> <li id="cite_note-425"><a href="#cite_ref-425">^</a> Livy, 27.37.5–15; the hymn was composed by the poet <a href="/wiki/Livius_Andronicus" title="Livius Andronicus">Livius Andronicus</a>. Cited by Halm, in Rüpke (ed) 244. For remainder, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 297. </li> <li id="cite_note-426"><a href="#cite_ref-426">^</a> See Livy, 22.1 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-427"><a href="#cite_ref-427">^</a> For Livy's use of prodigies and portents as markers of Roman impiety and military failure, see Feeney, in Rüpke (ed), 138 - 9. For prodigies in the context of political decision-making, see Rosenberger, in Rüpke (ed), 295 - 8. See also R. Bloch Les prodiges dans l'antiquite'-Les prodiges a Rome It. transl. 1981, chap. 1, 2 </li> <li id="cite_note-428"><a href="#cite_ref-428">^</a> Dennis Feeney, in Jörg Rüpke, (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007. p.140. </li> <li id="cite_note-429"><a href="#cite_ref-429">^</a> Festus s. v. praepetes aves p. 286 L "aves quae se ante auspicantem ferunt" "who go before the a.", 224 L "quia secundum auspicium faciant praetervolantes...aut ea quae praepetamus indicent..." "since they make the auspice favourable by flying nearby...or point to what we wish for...". W. W. Skeat An Etymological Dictionary of the English language s. v. propitious New York 1963 (reprint). </li> <li id="cite_note-430"><a href="#cite_ref-430">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 265–266; <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 40. </li> <li id="cite_note-431"><a href="#cite_ref-431">^</a> Charlotte Long, The Twelve Gods of Greece and Rome (Brill, 1987), pp. 235–236. </li> <li id="cite_note-432"><a href="#cite_ref-432">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), p. 2180, and in the same volume, G.J. Szemler, "Priesthoods and Priestly Careers in Ancient Rome," p. 2322. </li> <li id="cite_note-433"><a href="#cite_ref-433">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2008), p. 126. </li> <li id="cite_note-434"><a href="#cite_ref-434">^</a> Cicero, De natura deorum 2.8. </li> <li id="cite_note-435"><a href="#cite_ref-435">^</a> Ando, The Matter of the Gods, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-436"><a href="#cite_ref-436">^</a> Nicole Belayche, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p. 279: "Care for the gods, the very meaning of religio, had [therefore] to go through life, and one might thus understand why Cicero wrote that religion was "necessary". Religious behavior – pietas in Latin, eusebeia in Greek – belonged to action and not to contemplation. Consequently religious acts took place wherever the faithful were: in houses, boroughs, associations, cities, military camps, cemeteries, in the country, on boats." </li> <li id="cite_note-437"><a href="#cite_ref-437">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Latinarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum">CIL</a> VII.45 = <a href="/wiki/Inscriptiones_Latinae_Selectae" title="Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae">ILS</a> 4920. </li> <li id="cite_note-438"><a href="#cite_ref-438">^</a> Jack N. Lightstone, "Roman Diaspora Judaism," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 360, 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-439"><a href="#cite_ref-439">^</a> Adelaide D. Simpson, "Epicureans, Christians, Atheists in the Second Century," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association 72 (1941) 372–381. </li> <li id="cite_note-440"><a href="#cite_ref-440">^</a> Beard et al., Vol. 1, 217. </li> <li id="cite_note-441"><a href="#cite_ref-441">^</a> F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresso internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951 </li> <li id="cite_note-442"><a href="#cite_ref-442">^</a> Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in taboos applied to holy or accursed things or places, without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63 </li> <li id="cite_note-443"><a href="#cite_ref-443">^</a> Varro. LL V, 150. See also Festus, 253 L: "A place was once considered to become religiosus which looked to have been dedicated to himself by a god": "locus statim fieri putabatur religiosus, quod eum deus dicasse videbatur". </li> <li id="cite_note-444"><a href="#cite_ref-444">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_natura_deorum" class="mw-redirect" title="De natura deorum">De natura deorum</a> 2.3.82 and 2.28.72; Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 4-6. </li> <li id="cite_note-445"><a href="#cite_ref-445">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, "Sacrificial Cults and Rites in Pre-Roman Italy," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992), p.33. </li> <li id="cite_note-446"><a href="#cite_ref-446">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, "Religion and ius publicum," in Religion and Law in Classical and Christian Rome (Franz Steiner, 2006), pp. 140–142. </li> <li id="cite_note-447"><a href="#cite_ref-447">^</a> Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), p. 213. </li> <li id="cite_note-448"><a href="#cite_ref-448">^</a> Herbert Vorgrimler, Sacramental Theology (Patmos, 1987, 1992), p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-449"><a href="#cite_ref-449">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 223 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fcsynr0fQIoC&dq=%22rex+sacrorum%22&pg=PA194">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-450"><a href="#cite_ref-450">^</a> Festus on the ordo sacerdotum, 198 in the edition of Lindsay. </li> <li id="cite_note-451"><a href="#cite_ref-451">^</a> Gary Forsythe, A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War (University of California Press, 2005), p. 136 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aEfvR1Qcd0gC&dq=%22rex+sacrorum%22&pg=PA136">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-452"><a href="#cite_ref-452">^</a> Festus, entry on ritus, p. 364 (edition of Lindsay): ritus est est mos comprobatus in administrandis sacrificis. See also the entry on ritus from <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Deacon" title="Paul the Deacon">Paulus</a>, Festi Epitome, p. 337 (Lindsay), where he defines ritus as mos or consuetudo, "customary use", adding that rite autem significat bene ac recte. See also Varro De Lingua Latina II 88; Cicero De Legibus II 20 and 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-453"><a href="#cite_ref-453">^</a> G. Dumézil ARR It. tr. Milan 1977 p. 127 citing A. Bergaigne La religion védique III 1883 p. 220. </li> <li id="cite_note-454"><a href="#cite_ref-454">^</a> Jean-Louis Durand, <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a> Rites et religion. Remarques sur certains préjugés des historiens de la religions des Grecs et des Romains" in Archives de sciences sociales des religions 85 1994 pp. 23-43 part. pp. 24-25. </li> <li id="cite_note-455"><a href="#cite_ref-455">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Graeco Ritu: A Typically Roman Way of Honoring the Gods", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, Vol. 97, Greece in Rome: Influence, Integration, 1995, pp. 15–31. </li> <li id="cite_note-456"><a href="#cite_ref-456">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a>, Attic Nights <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Gellius/7*.html#12.5">7.12.5</a>, discounting the etymology proffered by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gaius_Trebatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gaius Trebatius (page does not exist)">Gaius Trebatius</a> in his lost work On Religions (as sacer and <a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">cella</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-457"><a href="#cite_ref-457">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a>, Res Divinae frg. 62 in the edition of Cardauns. </li> <li id="cite_note-458"><a href="#cite_ref-458">^</a> Verrius Flaccus as cited by <a href="/wiki/Sextus_Pompeius_Festus" title="Sextus Pompeius Festus">Festus</a>, p. 422.15–17 L. </li> <li id="cite_note-459"><a href="#cite_ref-459">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), pp. 183–185. </li> <li id="cite_note-460"><a href="#cite_ref-460">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_Halicarnassus" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysius Halicarnassus">Dionysius Halicarnassus</a> II 64, 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-461"><a href="#cite_ref-461">^</a> Varro, De res rustica, 2.1., describes porci sacres (pigs considered sacer and thus reserved for sacrifice) as necessarily "pure" (or perfect); "porci puri ad sacrificium". </li> <li id="cite_note-462"><a href="#cite_ref-462">^</a> M. Morani "Lat. sacer...cit. p. 41. See also Festus. p. 414 L2 & p.253 L: Gallus Aelius ait sacrum esse quodcumque modo atque instituto civitatis consecratum est, sive aedis sive ara sive signum, locum sive pecunia, sive aliud quod dis dedicatum atque consecratum sit; quod autem privati suae religionis causa aliquid earum rerum deo dedicent, id pontifices Romanos non existimare sacrum: "Gallus Aelius says that sacer is anything made sacred (consecratum) in any way or by any institution of the community, be it a building or an altar or a sign, a place or money, or anything that else can be dedicated to the gods; the Roman pontiffs do not consider sacer any things dedicated to a god in private religious cult." </li> <li id="cite_note-463"><a href="#cite_ref-463">^</a> ...si id moritur...profanum esto "if the animal dies...it shall be profane": Livy, <a href="/wiki/Ab_Urbe_Condita_Libri_(Livy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ab Urbe Condita Libri (Livy)">Ab Urbe Condita</a>, 22.10. For the archaic variant, see G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974, Considerations preliminaires </li> <li id="cite_note-464"><a href="#cite_ref-464">^</a> F. De Visscher "Locus religiosus" Atti del Congresoo internazionale di Diritto Romano, 3, 1951 </li> <li id="cite_note-465"><a href="#cite_ref-465">^</a> Warde Fowler considers a possible origin for sacer in the <a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">taboos</a> applied to things or places holy or accursed without direct reference to deities and their property. W. Warde Fowler "The Original Meaning of the Word Sacer" Journal of Roman Studies, I, 1911, p.57-63 </li> <li id="cite_note-466"><a href="#cite_ref-466">^</a> As in Horace, Sermones II 3, 181, </li> <li id="cite_note-467"><a href="#cite_ref-467">^</a> As in Servius, Aeneid VI, 609: Dionysius of Halicarnassus, II 10, 3; Festus 505 L. </li> <li id="cite_note-468"><a href="#cite_ref-468">^</a> Festus, p422 L: "homo sacer is est quem populus iudicavit ob maleficium; neque fas est eum imolari, sed qui occidit, parricidii non damnatur". For further discussion on the homo sacer in relation to the plebeian tribunes, see Ogilvie, R M, A Commentary on Livy 1-5, Oxford, 1965. </li> <li id="cite_note-469"><a href="#cite_ref-469">^</a> H. Bennet Sacer esto.. thinks that the person declared sacred was originally sacrificed to the gods. This hypothesis seems to be supported by Plut. Rom. 22, 3 and Macr. Sat.III, 7, 5, who compare the homo sacer to the victim in a sacrifice. The prerogative of declaring somebody sacer supposedly belonged to the king during the regal era; during the Republic, this right passed to the pontiff and courts. </li> <li id="cite_note-470"><a href="#cite_ref-470">^</a> G. Devoto Origini Indoeuropee (Firenze, 1962), p. 468 </li> <li id="cite_note-471"><a href="#cite_ref-471">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, An Introduction to Roman Religion (Indiana University Press, 2003), p. 129. </li> <li id="cite_note-472"><a href="#cite_ref-472">^</a> Scheid, Introduction to Roman Religion, pp. 129–130. </li> <li id="cite_note-473"><a href="#cite_ref-473">^</a> Lesley E. Lundeen, "In Search of the Etruscan Priestess: A Re-Examination of the hatrencu," in Religion in Republican Italy (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 46; Celia E. Schultz, Women's Religious Activity in the Roman Republic (University of North Carolina Press, 2006), pp. 70–71. </li> <li id="cite_note-474"><a href="#cite_ref-474">^</a> Varro. De Lingua Latina VI 24; Festus sv Septimontium p. 348, 340, 341L; Plut. Quest. Rom. 69 </li> <li id="cite_note-475"><a href="#cite_ref-475">^</a> Festus sv Publica sacra; Dionys. Hal. II 21, 23; Appian. Hist. Rom. VIII 138; de Bello Civ. II 106; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 89; Christopher John Smith, The Roman Clan: The gens from Ancient Ideology to Modern Anthropology (Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-476"><a href="#cite_ref-476">^</a> Plutarch Numa 14, 6-7 gives a list of Numa's ritual prescriptions: obligation of sacrificing an uneven number of victims to the heavenly gods and an even one to the <a href="/wiki/Di_inferi" title="Di inferi">inferi</a> (cf. Serv. Ecl. 5, 66; Serv. Dan. Ecl. 8, 75; Macrobius I 13,5); the prohibition to make libations to the gods with wine; of sacrificing without flour; the obligation to pray and worship divinities while making a turn on oneselves (Livy V 21,16; Suetonius Vit. 2); the composition of the indigitamenta (Arnobius Adversus nationes II 73, 17-18). </li> <li id="cite_note-477"><a href="#cite_ref-477">^</a> Livy I, 20; Dion. Hal. II </li> <li id="cite_note-478"><a href="#cite_ref-478">^</a> Macrobius I 12. Macrobius mentions in former times the inadvertent nomination of <a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semonia" title="Semonia">Semonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seia" title="Seia">Seia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Segetia" class="mw-redirect" title="Segetia">Segetia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tutilina" title="Tutilina">Tutilina</a> required the observance of a dies feriatus of the person involved. </li> <li id="cite_note-479"><a href="#cite_ref-479">^</a> Cic. de Leg. II 1, 9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-480"><a href="#cite_ref-480">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), p. 86. </li> <li id="cite_note-481"><a href="#cite_ref-481">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> 5.46.2–3; <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Ando" title="Clifford Ando">Clifford Ando</a>, The Matter of the Gods: Religion and the Roman Empire (University of California Press, 2009), pp. 142–143; Emmanuele Curti, "From Concordia to the Quirinal: Notes on Religion and Politics in Mid-Republican/Hellenistic Rome," in Religion in Archaic and Republican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience (Routledge, 2000), p. 85; <a href="/wiki/Robert_E.A._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E.A. Palmer">Robert E.A. Palmer</a>, "The Deconstruction of Mommsen on Festus 462/464, or the Hazards of Interpretation", in Imperium sine fine: T. Robert S. Broughton and the Roman Republic (Franz Steiner, 1996), </li> <li id="cite_note-482"><a href="#cite_ref-482">^</a> Liv. V 46; XXII 18; Dionys. Hal. Ant. Rom. IX 19; Cic. Har. Resp. XV 32; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 43ff.; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 46. </li> <li id="cite_note-483"><a href="#cite_ref-483">^</a> Mommsen thought, perhaps wrongly, that the Julian sacra for Apollo was in fact a sacrum publicum entrusted to a particular gens. Mommsen Staatsrecht III 19; G. Dumézil La religion romaine archaique It. tr. Milano 1977 p. 475 </li> <li id="cite_note-484"><a href="#cite_ref-484">^</a> Festus, p. 274 (edition of Lindsay); Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001; originally published in French 1998), p. 44; Smith, The Roman Clan, p. 45. </li> <li id="cite_note-485"><a href="#cite_ref-485">^</a> Legal questions might arise about the extent to which the inheritance of property was or ought to be attached to the sacra; Andrew R. Dyck, A Commentary on Cicero, De Legibus (University of Michigan Press, 2004), pp. 381–382, note on an issue raised at De legibus 2.48a. </li> <li id="cite_note-486"><a href="#cite_ref-486">^</a> Cicero, De legibus 2.1.9-21; Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome, p. 44. </li> <li id="cite_note-487"><a href="#cite_ref-487">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-488"><a href="#cite_ref-488">^</a> Festus 146 in the edition of Lindsay. </li> <li id="cite_note-489"><a href="#cite_ref-489">^</a> Olivier de Cazanove, "Pre-Roman Italy, Before and Under the Romans," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-490"><a href="#cite_ref-490">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, Domi Militiae: Die religiöse Konstruktion des Krieges in Rom (Franz Steiner, 1990), pp. 76–80. </li> <li id="cite_note-491"><a href="#cite_ref-491">^</a> D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu ombrien Fisus Sancius" in Revue de l' histoire des religions[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] i p. 150-151; J. A. C. Thomas A Textbook of Roman law Amsterdam 1976 p. 74 and 105. </li> <li id="cite_note-492"><a href="#cite_ref-492">^</a> Varro De Lingua latina V 180; Festus s.v. sacramentum p. 466 L; 511 L; Paulus Festi Epitome p.467 L. </li> <li id="cite_note-493"><a href="#cite_ref-493">^</a> George Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome (Routledge, 2007), p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-494"><a href="#cite_ref-494">^</a> Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome, pp. 33, 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-495"><a href="#cite_ref-495">^</a> See further discussion at <a href="/wiki/Fustuarium" title="Fustuarium">fustuarium</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-496"><a href="#cite_ref-496">^</a> Gladiators swore to commit their bodies to the possibility of being "burned, bound, beaten, and slain by the sword"; <a href="/wiki/Petronius" title="Petronius">Petronius</a>, Satyricon 117; Seneca, Epistulae 71.32. </li> <li id="cite_note-497"><a href="#cite_ref-497">^</a> Carlin A. Barton, The Sorrows of the Ancient Romans: The Gladiator and the Monster (Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 14–16, 35 (note 88), 42, 45–47. </li> <li id="cite_note-498"><a href="#cite_ref-498">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">Metamorphoses</a> 11.15.5; Robert Schilling, "The Decline and Survival of Roman Religion," in Roman and European Mythologies (University of Chicago Press, 1992, from the French edition of 1981) </li> <li id="cite_note-499"><a href="#cite_ref-499">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Arnaldo_Momigliano" title="Arnaldo Momigliano">Arnaldo Momigliano</a>, Quinto contributo alla storia degli studi classici e del mondo antico (Storia e letteratura, 1975), vol. 2, pp. 975–977; Luca Grillo, The Art of Caesar's Bellum Civile: Literature, Ideology, and Community (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 60. </li> <li id="cite_note-500"><a href="#cite_ref-500">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulpian" title="Ulpian">Ulpian</a>, Digest I.8.9.2: sacrarium est locus in quo sacra reponuntur. </li> <li id="cite_note-501"><a href="#cite_ref-501">^</a> Ittai Gradel, Emperor Worship and Roman Religion (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-502"><a href="#cite_ref-502">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_E._A._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E. A. Palmer">Robert E. A. Palmer</a>, The Archaic Community of the Romans, p. 171, note 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-503"><a href="#cite_ref-503">^</a> R.P.H. Green, "The Christianity of Ausonius," Studia Patristica: Papers Presented at the Eleventh International Conference on Patristic Studies Held in Oxford 1991 (Peeters, 1993), vol. 28, pp. 39 and 46; Kim Bowes, "'Christianization' and the Rural Home," Journal of Early Christian Studies 15.2 (2007), pp. 143–144, 162. </li> <li id="cite_note-504"><a href="#cite_ref-504">^</a> Built of Living Stones: Art, Architecture, and Worship: Guidelines (United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, 2005), p. 73. See also Wolfred Nelson Cote, The Archaeology of Baptism (Lond, 1876), p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-505"><a href="#cite_ref-505">^</a> M. Morani, Latino sacer... Aevum LV 1981 p. 40, citing Livy 3.19.10. </li> <li id="cite_note-506"><a href="#cite_ref-506">^</a> Compare <a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a> iung-iu from IE stem *yug. </li> <li id="cite_note-507"><a href="#cite_ref-507">^</a> H. Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacre' dans la langue latine Paris 1963; E. Benveniste Le vocubulaire des institutions indoeuropeenees Paris 1939, p. 427 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-508"><a href="#cite_ref-508">^</a> As inquio>incio: P.Krestchmer in Glotta 1919, X, p. 155 </li> <li id="cite_note-509"><a href="#cite_ref-509">^</a> H. Fugier, Recherches, pp. 125 ff; E. Benveniste, Le vocabulaire, pp. 427 ff.; K. Latte Roemische Religionsgeshichte Muenchen 1960 p.127 ff.; D. Briquel "Sur les aspects militaires du dieu Ombrien Fisius Sancius" Paris 1978 </li> <li id="cite_note-510"><a href="#cite_ref-510">^</a> Ulpian Digest 1.8.9: dicimus sancta, quae neque sacra neque profana sunt. </li> <li id="cite_note-511"><a href="#cite_ref-511">^</a> G. DumezilLa religion Romaine archaique It. transl. Milano 1977 p. 127; F. Sini "Sanctitas: cose, uomini, dei" in Sanctitas. Persone e cose da Roma a Costantinopoli a Mosca Roma 2001; Cic. de Nat. Deor. III 94; Festus sv tesca p. 488L </li> <li id="cite_note-512"><a href="#cite_ref-512">^</a> Gaius, following Aelius Gallus: inter sacrum autem et sanctum et religiosum differentias bellissime refert [Gallus]: sacrum aedificium, consecrato deo; sanctum murum, qui sit circa oppidum. See also Marcian, Digest 1.8.8: "sanctum" est quod ab iniuria hominum defensum atque munitum est ("it is sanctum that which is defended and protected from the attack of men"). </li> <li id="cite_note-513"><a href="#cite_ref-513">^</a> Huguette Fugier, Recherches sur l'expression du sacré dans la langue latine, Archives de sciences sociales des religions, 1964, Volume 17, Issue 17, p.180 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/assr_0003-9659_1964_num_17_1_1762_t1_0179_0000_3?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-514"><a href="#cite_ref-514">^</a> Servius glosses Amsancti valles (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Serv.+A.+7.565&fromdoc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0053">Aeneid 7.565</a>) as loci amsancti, id est omni parte sancti ("amsancti valleys: amsancti places, that is, sanctus here in the sense of secluded, protected by a fence, on every side"). The <a href="/wiki/Oxford_Latin_Dictionary" title="Oxford Latin Dictionary">Oxford Latin Dictionary</a>, however, identifies Ampsanctus in this instance and in Cicero, De divinatione <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cicero/de_Divinatione/1*.html#79">1.79</a> as a proper noun referring to a valley and lake in <a href="/wiki/Samnium" title="Samnium">Samnium</a> regarded as an entrance to the Underworld because of its <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mephitic_air" class="extiw" title="wikt:mephitic air">mephitic air</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-515"><a href="#cite_ref-515">^</a> Ovid, Fasti 2.658. </li> <li id="cite_note-516"><a href="#cite_ref-516">^</a> Ovid Fasti 1.608-9. </li> <li id="cite_note-517"><a href="#cite_ref-517">^</a> Nancy Edwards, "Celtic Saints and Early Medieval Archaeology", in Local Saints and Local Churches in the Early Medieval West (Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 229 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8awpnzSjLC8C&dq=%22though+the+epithet+sanctus%22&pg=PA229">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-518"><a href="#cite_ref-518">^</a> Robert A. Castus, CIcero: Speech on Behalf of Publius Sestius (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 416; Susanne William Rasmussen, Public Portents in Republican Rome (Rome, 2003), p. 163 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OTaqSseM_oIC&dq=%22servare+de+caelo%22&pg=PA163">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-519"><a href="#cite_ref-519">^</a> C.T. Lewis & C. Short, A Latin Dictionary, Oxford. Clarendon Press, 1879. Online at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3Dsignumperseus.tufts.edu">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-520"><a href="#cite_ref-520">^</a> Pliny Naturalis Historia XXVIII 11; Seneca De Vita Beata XXVI 7; Cicero De Divinatione I 102; Servius Danielis In Aeneidem V 71. </li> <li id="cite_note-521"><a href="#cite_ref-521">^</a> Cicero De Divinatione II 71 and 72; Festus v. Silentio surgere p. 474 L; v. Sinistrum; Livy VII 6, 3-4; T. I. VI a 5-7. </li> <li id="cite_note-522"><a href="#cite_ref-522">^</a> Livy VIII 23, 15; IX 38, 14; IV 57, 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-523"><a href="#cite_ref-523">^</a> Jörg Rüpke, Religion of the Romans (Polity Press, 2007, originally published in German 2001), p. 206. </li> <li id="cite_note-524"><a href="#cite_ref-524">^</a> Thomas N. Habinek, The World of Roman Song: From Ritualized Speech to Social Order pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-525"><a href="#cite_ref-525">^</a> For instance, a woman and her associates (socii) donated a lot with a "clubhouse" (<a href="/wiki/Scholae" title="Scholae">schola</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Colonnade" title="Colonnade">colonnade</a> to <a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a> and his sodalicium, who were to use it for sacrifice, banquets, and dinners; <a href="/wiki/Robert_E.A._Palmer" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert E.A. Palmer">Robert E.A. Palmer</a>, "Silvanus, Sylvester, and the Chair of St. Peter", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 122 (1978), pp. 237, 243. </li> <li id="cite_note-526"><a href="#cite_ref-526">^</a> Attilio Mastrocinque, "Creating One's Own Religion: Intellectual Choices", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 382. </li> <li id="cite_note-527"><a href="#cite_ref-527">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a>, 15.9.8; Georges Dottin, Manuel pour servir à l'étude de l'Antiquité Celtique (Paris, 1906), pp. 279–289: the sodalicia consortia of the druids "ne signifie pas autre chose qu'associations corporatives, collèges, plus ou moins analogues aux collèges sacerdotaux des Romains" (sodalicia consortia can "mean nothing other than corporate associations, colleges, more or less analogous to the priestly colleges of the Romans"). </li> <li id="cite_note-528"><a href="#cite_ref-528">^</a> Eric Orlin, "Urban Religion in the Middle and Late Republic", in A Companion to Roman Religion, pp. 63–64; <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", p. 268. </li> <li id="cite_note-529"><a href="#cite_ref-529">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">Gaius</a>, Digest xlvii.22.4 = <a href="/wiki/Twelve_Tables" title="Twelve Tables">Twelve Tables</a> viii.27; A. Drummond, "Rome in the Fifth Century", Cambridge Ancient History: The Rise of Rome to 220 B.C. (Cambridge University Press, 1989, 2002 reprint), vol. 7, part 2, p. 158 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3qXuay2SEtIC&dq=sodalitas&pg=PA158">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-530"><a href="#cite_ref-530">^</a> J.-M. David, S. Demougin, E. Deniaux, D. Ferey, J.-M. Flambard, C. Nicolet, "Le <a href="/wiki/Commentariolum_petitionis" class="mw-redirect" title="Commentariolum petitionis">Commentariolum petitionis</a> de <a href="/wiki/Quintus_Tullius_Cicero" title="Quintus Tullius Cicero">Quintus Cicéron</a>", Aufstieg under Niedergang der römischen Welt I (1973) pp. 252, 276–277. </li> <li id="cite_note-531"><a href="#cite_ref-531">^</a> W. Jeffrey Tatum, The Patrician Tribune (University of North Carolina Press, 1999), p.127. </li> <li id="cite_note-532"><a href="#cite_ref-532">^</a> W. H. Buckler The origin and history of contract in Roman law 1895 pp. 13-15 </li> <li id="cite_note-533"><a href="#cite_ref-533">^</a> The Hittite is also written as sipant or ispant-. </li> <li id="cite_note-534"><a href="#cite_ref-534">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Servius</a>, note to <a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a> X 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-535"><a href="#cite_ref-535">^</a> In conjunction with archaeological evidence from <a href="/wiki/Lavinium" title="Lavinium">Lavinium</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-536"><a href="#cite_ref-536">^</a> G. Dumezil "La deuxieme ligne de l'inscription de Duenos" in Latomus 102 1969 pp. 244-255; Idees romaines Paris 1969 pp. 12 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-537"><a href="#cite_ref-537">^</a> <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6rg_R%C3%BCpke" title="Jörg Rüpke">Jörg Rüpke</a>, "Roman Religion — Religions of Rome," in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-538"><a href="#cite_ref-538">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, pp. 215–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-539"><a href="#cite_ref-539">^</a> Maijastina Kahlos, Debate and Dialogue: Christian and Pagan Cultures c. 360-430 (Ashgate, 2007), p. 95. </li> <li id="cite_note-540"><a href="#cite_ref-540">^</a> Seneca, De clementia 2.5.1; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-541"><a href="#cite_ref-541">^</a> Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-542"><a href="#cite_ref-542">^</a> Yasmin Haskell, "Religion and Enlightenment in the Neo-Latin Reception of Lucretius," in The Cambridge Companion to Lucretius (Cambridge University Press, 2007), p. 198 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HwblQVvCav8C&dq=lucretius+superstition+religio&pg=PA198">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-543"><a href="#cite_ref-543">^</a> Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, pp. 217–219. </li> <li id="cite_note-544"><a href="#cite_ref-544">^</a> Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-545"><a href="#cite_ref-545">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>, Divine Institutes 4.28.11; Beard et al, Religions of Rome: A History, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-546"><a href="#cite_ref-546">^</a> Frances Hickson Hahn, "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns," pp. 238, 247, and <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors," p. 270, both in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007). </li> <li id="cite_note-547"><a href="#cite_ref-547">^</a> Veit Rosenberger, in "Religious Actors in Daily Life: Practices and Related Beliefs," in A Companion to Roman Religion, p. 296. </li> <li id="cite_note-548"><a href="#cite_ref-548">^</a> W. W. Skeat Etymological Dictionary of the English Language New York 1963 sv temple </li> <li id="cite_note-549"><a href="#cite_ref-549">^</a> Mary Beard, Simon Price, John North, Religions of Rome: A History (Cambridge University Press, 1998), vol. 1, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-550"><a href="#cite_ref-550">^</a> Beard et al., "Religions of Rome," vol. 1, p. 23. </li> <li id="cite_note-551"><a href="#cite_ref-551">^</a> Servius Ad Aeneid 4.200; Festus. s.v. calls the auguraculum minora templa. </li> <li id="cite_note-552"><a href="#cite_ref-552">^</a> G. Dumezil La religion romaine archaique Paris, 1974 p.510: J. Marquardt "Le cult chez les romaines" Manuel des antiquités romaines XII 1. French Transl. 1889 pp. 187-188: See also Cicero, De Legibus, 2.2, & Servius,Aeneid, 4.200. </li> <li id="cite_note-553"><a href="#cite_ref-553">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2266–2267 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOe3Fv1UUKoC&dq=%22The+formula+described+as+certa+verba%22&pg=PA2266">online</a>, and 2292–2293. On legal usage, see also Elizabeth A. Meyer, Legitimacy and Law in the Roman World (Cambridge University Press, 2004), p. 80ff.; Daniel J. Gargola, Land, Laws and Gods: Magistrates and Ceremony in the Regulation of Public Lands in Republican Rome (University of North Carolina Press, 1995), p. 202, note 55 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kTXkGnbHLHYC&dq=%22The+distinction+between+certa+verba+and+concepta+verba%22&pg=PA202">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-554"><a href="#cite_ref-554">^</a> Meyer, Legitimacy and Law, p. 62 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Va7nqinPZE0C&dq=%22oldest%2C+most+fixed+form%22&pg=PA62">online.</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-555"><a href="#cite_ref-555">^</a> Hendrik Wagenvoort, "Augustus and Vesta", in Pietas: Selected Studies in Roman Religion (Brill, 1980), p. 211 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xWaOxU28Nn4C&dq=%22verba+certa%22&pg=PA211">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-556"><a href="#cite_ref-556">^</a> Matthias Klinghardt, "Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion", Numen 46 (1999) 1–52. </li> <li id="cite_note-557"><a href="#cite_ref-557">^</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Linderski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jerzy Linderski (page does not exist)">Jerzy Linderski</a>, "The Augural Law", Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II.16 (1986), pp. 2246, 2267ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-558"><a href="#cite_ref-558">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gaius_(jurist)" title="Gaius (jurist)">jurist Gaius</a> (4.30) says that concepta verba is synonymous with formulae, as cited by Adolf Berger, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1991 reprint), p. 401, and Shane Butler, The Hand of Cicero (Routledge, 2002), p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-559"><a href="#cite_ref-559">^</a> <a href="/wiki/T._Corey_Brennan" title="T. Corey Brennan">T. Corey Brennan</a>, The Praetorship in the Roman Republic (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 131–132. </li> <li id="cite_note-560"><a href="#cite_ref-560">^</a> Augustine, Confessions 11.xviii, as cited by Paolo Bartoloni, On the Cultures of Exile, Translation, and Writing (Purdue University Press, 2008), p. 69 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G48l_ZyEBm4C&dq=%22verba+concepta%22&pg=PA69">online.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-561"><a href="#cite_ref-561">^</a> For instance, Karla Taylor, Chaucer Reads "The Divine Comedy" (Stanford University Press, 1989), p. 27 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chaucerreadsthed00tayl/page/27">online.</a> For an overview of the Indo-European background regarding the relation of memory to poetry, charm, and formulaic utterance, see <a href="/wiki/Calvert_Watkins" title="Calvert Watkins">Calvert Watkins</a>, <a href="/wiki/How_to_Kill_a_Dragon:_Aspects_of_Indo-European_Poetics" class="mw-redirect" title="How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics">How to Kill a Dragon: Aspects of Indo-European Poetics</a> (Oxford University Press, 1995), passim, especially pp. 68–70 on memory and the poet-priest (Latin <a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">vates</a>) as "the preserver and the professional of the spoken word". "For the Romans", notes Frances Hickson Hahn, "there was no distinction between prayer and spell and poetry and song; all were intimately linked to one another"; see "Performing the Sacred: Prayers and Hymns", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 236 </li> <li id="cite_note-562"><a href="#cite_ref-562">^</a> Gian Biagio Conte, Latin Literature: A History (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994, originally published 1987 in Italian), pp. 15–23; George A. Sheets, "Elements of Style in Catullus," in A Companion to Catullus (Blackwell, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2buHe449NoAC&dq=%22concepta+verba%22&pg=PT190">n.p.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-563"><a href="#cite_ref-563">^</a> Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 173. </li> <li id="cite_note-564"><a href="#cite_ref-564">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), pp. 264, 266. </li> <li id="cite_note-565"><a href="#cite_ref-565">^</a> For the Taurobolium, see Duthoy, Robert, The Taurobolium: Its Evolution and Terminology, Volume 10, Brill, 1969, p. 1 ff, and Cameron, Alan, The Last Pagans of Rome, Oxford University press, 2011, p. 163. The earliest known Taurobolium was dedicated to the goddess <a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus Caelestis</a> in 134 AD. </li> <li id="cite_note-566"><a href="#cite_ref-566">^</a> Steven J. Green, Ovid, Fasti 1: A Commentary (Brill, 2004), pp.159–160. </li> <li id="cite_note-567"><a href="#cite_ref-567">^</a> Servius, note to Aeneid 1. 334. </li> <li id="cite_note-568"><a href="#cite_ref-568">^</a> Victima quae dextra cecidit victrice vocatur, Ovid, <a href="/wiki/Fasti_(Ovid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fasti (Ovid)">Fasti</a> 1.335:; hostibus a domitis hostia nomen habet ("the hostia gets its name from the 'hostiles' that have been defeated"), 1.336. </li> <li id="cite_note-569"><a href="#cite_ref-569">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Mary_Beard_(classicist)" title="Mary Beard (classicist)">Mary Beard</a>, J.A. North, and S.R.F. Price, Religions of Rome: A Sourcebook (Cambridge University Press, 1998), p. 368. </li> <li id="cite_note-570"><a href="#cite_ref-570">^</a> Katja Moede, "Reliefs, Public and Private", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 168. </li> <li id="cite_note-571"><a href="#cite_ref-571">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Marietta_Horster" title="Marietta Horster">Marietta Horster</a>, "Living on Religion: Professionals and Personnel", in A Companion to Roman Religion (ed. Rüpke), pp. 332–334. </li> <li id="cite_note-572"><a href="#cite_ref-572">^</a> Therefore the election must have been vitiated in some way known only to Jupiter: see Veit Rosenberger, in Rüpke, Jörg (Editor), A Companion to Roman Religion, Wiley-Blackwell, 2007, p.298; citing Cicero, De Divinatione, 2.77. </li> <li id="cite_note-573"><a href="#cite_ref-573">^</a> David Wardle, Cicero on Divination, Book 1 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 178. </li> <li id="cite_note-574"><a href="#cite_ref-574">^</a> Macrobius, Saturnalia <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Macrobius/Saturnalia/3*.html#2.10">III 2,12.</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-575"><a href="#cite_ref-575">^</a> <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (London, 1908), p. 179'; Robert Turcan, The Gods of Ancient Rome (Routledge, 2001), p. 75. </li> <li id="cite_note-576"><a href="#cite_ref-576">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Scheid" title="John Scheid">John Scheid</a>, "Sacrifices for Gods and Ancestors", in A Companion to Roman Religion (Blackwell, 2007), p. 270; <a href="/wiki/William_Warde_Fowler" title="William Warde Fowler">William Warde Fowler</a>, The Religious Experience of the Roman People (London, 1922), pp. 200–202. </li> </ol></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #F0ACAC;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Roman_religion" title="Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Roman_religion" title="Template talk:Roman religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roman_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Roman religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Roman_religion_and_mythology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Ancient Roman religion</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_mythology" title="Roman mythology">mythology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Roman_deities" title="List of Roman deities">Deities</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dii_Consentes" title="Dii Consentes">Dii Consentes</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agenoria_(mythology)" title="Agenoria (mythology)">Agenoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angerona" title="Angerona">Angerona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Perenna" title="Anna Perenna">Anna Perenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aurora_(mythology)" title="Aurora (mythology)">Aurora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bellona_(goddess)" title="Bellona (goddess)">Bellona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bona_Dea" title="Bona Dea">Bona Dea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carmenta" title="Carmenta">Carmenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castor_and_Pollux" title="Castor and Pollux">Castor and Pollux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceres_(mythology)" title="Ceres (mythology)">Ceres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloacina" title="Cloacina">Cloacina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cupid" title="Cupid">Cupid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dea_Dia" title="Dea Dia">Dea Dia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_(mythology)" title="Diana (mythology)">Diana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dies_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dies (deity)">Dies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C4%ABs_Pater" class="mw-redirect" title="Dīs Pater">Dīs Pater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egeria_(mythology)" title="Egeria (mythology)">Egeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_(deity)" title="Fauna (deity)">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faunus" title="Faunus">Faunus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_(deity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Flora (deity)">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genius_(mythology)" title="Genius (mythology)">Genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_in_ancient_Rome" title="Hercules in ancient Rome">Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janus" title="Janus">Janus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juno_(mythology)" title="Juno (mythology)">Juno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jupiter_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jupiter (mythology)">Jupiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lares" title="Lares">Lares</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lares_Familiares" title="Lares Familiares">Lares Familiares</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber" title="Liber">Liber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertas" title="Libertas">Libertas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luna_(goddess)" title="Luna (goddess)">Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_(mythology)" title="Mars (mythology)">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(mythology)" title="Mercury (mythology)">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minerva" title="Minerva">Minerva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neptune_(mythology)" title="Neptune (mythology)">Neptune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nox_(goddess)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nox (goddess)">Nox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ops" title="Ops">Ops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orcus" title="Orcus">Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Di_Penates" title="Di Penates">Penates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluto_(mythology)" title="Pluto (mythology)">Pluto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomona_(mythology)" title="Pomona (mythology)">Pomona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priapus" title="Priapus">Priapus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proserpina" title="Proserpina">Proserpina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quirinus" title="Quirinus">Quirinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salacia" title="Salacia">Salacia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturn_(mythology)" title="Saturn (mythology)">Saturn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silvanus_(mythology)" title="Silvanus (mythology)">Silvanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sol_(Roman_mythology)" title="Sol (Roman mythology)">Sol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summanus" title="Summanus">Summanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venus_(mythology)" title="Venus (mythology)">Venus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veritas" title="Veritas">Veritas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesta_(mythology)" title="Vesta (mythology)">Vesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertumnus" title="Vertumnus">Vertumnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulcan_(mythology)" title="Vulcan (mythology)">Vulcan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background: #F0ACAC;">Abstract deities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abundantia" title="Abundantia">Abundantia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aequitas" title="Aequitas">Aequitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeternitas" title="Aeternitas">Aeternitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africa_(goddess)" title="Africa (goddess)">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annona_(mythology)" title="Annona (mythology)">Annona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averruncus" title="Averruncus">Averruncus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelus" title="Caelus">Caelus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordia_(mythology)" title="Concordia (mythology)">Concordia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feronia_(mythology)" title="Feronia (mythology)">Feronia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fides_(deity)" title="Fides (deity)">Fides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fortuna" title="Fortuna">Fortuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fontus" title="Fontus">Fontus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laverna" title="Laverna">Laverna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pax_(goddess)" title="Pax (goddess)">Pax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietas" title="Pietas">Pietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roma_(mythology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roma (mythology)">Roma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salus" title="Salus">Salus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Securitas" title="Securitas">Securitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spes" title="Spes">Spes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tranquillitas" title="Tranquillitas">Tranquillitas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_(mythology)" title="Terra (mythology)">Terra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_(mythology)" title="Victoria (mythology)">Victoria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Lupa_Capitolina,_Rome.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/100px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/150px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg/200px-Lupa_Capitolina%2C_Rome.jpg 2x" data-file-width="7489" data-file-height="4876" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary figures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneas" title="Aeneas">Aeneas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhea_Silvia" title="Rhea Silvia">Rhea Silvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romulus_and_Remus" title="Romulus and Remus">Romulus and Remus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numa_Pompilius" title="Numa Pompilius">Numa Pompilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tullus_Hostilius" title="Tullus Hostilius">Tullus Hostilius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancus_Marcius" title="Ancus Marcius">Ancus Marcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Alba_Longa" title="Kings of Alba Longa">Kings of Alba Longa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hersilia" title="Hersilia">Hersilia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Legendary beings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/She-wolf_(Roman_mythology)" title="She-wolf (Roman mythology)">She-wolf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barnacle_goose_myth" title="Barnacle goose myth">Barnacle goose</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aeneid" title="Aeneid">Aeneid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovid" title="Ovid">Ovid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fasti_(poem)" title="Fasti (poem)">Fasti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metamorphoses" title="Metamorphoses">Metamorphoses</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propertius" title="Propertius">Propertius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Varro</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiquitates_rerum_humanarum_et_divinarum" title="Antiquitates rerum humanarum et divinarum">Res divinae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sibylline_Books" title="Sibylline Books">Sibylline Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apuleius" title="Apuleius">Apuleius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Golden_Ass" title="The Golden Ass">The Golden Ass</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Concepts and practices</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_festivals" title="Roman festivals">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretatio_graeca" title="Interpretatio graeca">Interpretatio graeca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Charity" title="Roman Charity">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palladium_(classical_antiquity)" title="Palladium (classical antiquity)">Palladium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_theology_of_victory" title="Roman theology of victory">Theology of victory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomerium" title="Pomerium">Pomerium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_temple" title="Roman temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capitolium" title="Capitolium">Capitolium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cella" title="Cella">Cella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Celtic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Philosophy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripateticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Bough_(mythology)" title="Golden Bough (mythology)">Golden Bough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rape_of_the_Sabine_Women" class="mw-redirect" title="Rape of the Sabine Women">Rape of the Sabine Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lacus_Curtius" title="Battle of Lacus Curtius">Battle of Lacus Curtius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Objects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gubernaculum_(classical)" title="Gubernaculum (classical)">Gubernaculum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parabiago_Plate" title="Parabiago Plate">Parabiago Plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pignora_imperii" title="Pignora imperii">Pignora imperii</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">Variations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cybele</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Isis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #F0ACAC;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_mythology" title="Classical mythology">Classical mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Decline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_pagans_in_the_late_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_mythology" title="Greek mythology">Greek mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&oldid=1250454159#capite_velato">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&oldid=1250454159#capite_velato</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Roman_religion" title="Category:Ancient Roman religion">Ancient Roman religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Glossaries_of_religion" title="Category:Glossaries of religion">Glossaries of religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ancient_Rome-related_lists" title="Category:Ancient Rome-related lists">Ancient Rome-related lists</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_September_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from September 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">CS1 maint: others</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_incomplete_citations" title="Category:All articles with incomplete citations">All articles with incomplete citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_November_2012" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from November 2012">Articles with incomplete citations from November 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from May 2024">Articles with dead external links from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2010" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_specifically_marked_weasel-worded_phrases_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024">Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from July 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_February_2013" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2013">Articles lacking reliable references from February 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_clarification_from_April_2012" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012">Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_to_be_expanded_from_July_2010" title="Category:Articles to be expanded from July 2010">Articles to be expanded from July 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_to_be_expanded" title="Category:All articles to be expanded">All articles to be expanded</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_empty_sections_from_July_2010" title="Category:Articles with empty sections from July 2010">Articles with empty sections from July 2010</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_empty_sections" title="Category:All articles with empty sections">All articles with empty sections</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_glossaries_using_subheadings" title="Category:Wikipedia glossaries using subheadings">Wikipedia glossaries using subheadings</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 October 2024, at 14:21 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile#capite_velato" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-78f4c97c5d-qbvvm","wgBackendResponseTime":212,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.472","walltime":"1.688","ppvisitednodes":{"value":12490,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":85578,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6992,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":17,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":25,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":322041,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1125.459 1 -total"," 29.51% 332.137 1 Template:Reflist"," 19.01% 213.943 1 Template:Ancient_Roman_religion"," 18.69% 210.342 1 Template:Sidebar"," 12.48% 140.451 32 Template:Lang"," 11.03% 124.183 2 Template:Cite_book"," 7.14% 80.373 9 Template:Fix"," 6.81% 76.682 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.69% 64.051 5 Template:Citation_needed"," 4.20% 47.284 2 Template:Pagetype"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.462","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":14743317,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-qrqh9","timestamp":"20241128195426","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Glossary of ancient Roman religion","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Glossary_of_ancient_Roman_religion#capite_velato","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3373229","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q3373229","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2010-02-09T05:41:53Z","dateModified":"2024-10-10T14:21:42Z","headline":"Wikimedia disambiguation page"}</script> </body> </html>